Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - C ppt

... isnotthoughtmanageabletohavetowalkmorethan12kilometersorsotoone'sfields,sothatavillage'sterritoryextendsnotmuchabove10kilometersfromthesettlementperiphery.Anaveragehouseholdcanandmustcultivateafield of 2hectaresorso.Traditionally,whenthepopulation of avillageoutgrewitseffectiveabilitytogetaccesstofarmtractsitwouldmoveasawhole,orsomesmallergroupswouldbreakoffandmoveawayfromtheparentsettlement.Villagesmightalsomovebecause of vulnerabilitytoraidsfrompowerfulneighbors,be-cause of suchinauspiciouseventsasepidemics,orsimplybecauseabettersitewasfoundelsewhere.Sincetheimperialperiodvillageshavebeenforcedtoremainstationary,andtheincreasingpressure of populationonthelandhasresultedindeforestation,erosion,anddepletedfertility,asfieldshavehadtobeusedmoreyearsinarowandthefallowperiodshavebeenreducedsubstantially.Fertilityalsodependsupontheashresultingfromthefellingandburning of forestonanewhillslope.Thus,thelengthening of theperiods of useandtheshortening of thefallowperiodshavecombinedtolessentheability of foresttoregenerate.Overuseandreducedforestrecoveryalsohaveledtoheavygrowth of toughgrassesreplacingforestgrowthduringfallowperiods,andthistoohassetaseverelimitonthesystem of shiftingcultivationasthepopulationhasgrown.EconomySubsistenceandCommnerciaActivities.TheChinarenonpioneershiftingcultivators.Wheresoilandclimateper-mit,theygrowdryhillriceastheirchiefstaple,andelsewhere,chieflyatthehigherelevationsinChinState,thegrainstapleisoneoranotherkind of millet,maize,orevengrainsorghum,thoughthelattergrainismainlyusedonlyforthebrewing of thecoarservariety of countrybeer(zu).Cultivationisentirelybyhand,andthetoolsinvolvedaremainlytheall-purposebushknife,theaxe,thehoe(anessentiallyadze-haftedimple-mentabout45centimeterslong),and,inplaceswherericeisgrown,asmallharvestingknife.Grownamidstthestapleareavariety of vegetablecrops,mainlymelons,pumpkins,and,mostimportant,variouskinds of peasandbeans,onwhosenitrogen-fixingpropertiesthelonger-termshifting-cultiva-tioncycles of centralChinStatedependcrucially.Cottonisalsowidelygrown,thoughnowadayslesssobecausecommer-cialclothhasrapidlydisplacedthetraditionalblanketsandclotheslocallywovenontheback-straptensionloom.Thetraditionalnativedyeswerewildvegetabledyessuchasin-digo.Inthesouthernareasakind of flaxwasalsogrownforweavingcloth(chieflyforwomen'sskirts).Variousvegetablecondimentsarealsocommonlygrown,suchaschilipeppers,ginger,turmeric(alsousedtomakedye)androzelle(Hibiscussabdariffa);theMizoinparticulargrowandeatagreatdeal of mustardgreens,andnowadaysallsorts of Europeanvegeta-blesaregrown,especiallycabbagesandpotatoes.Fruits,suchasshaddocks,citrons,andguavas,andsuchsweetcropsassugarcaneweretraditionallyunimportant.Todaythereissomecommercialgrowing of apples,oranges,tea,andcoffee;othercommercialcropsarealsogrownexperimentally,butthechiefhindrancetosuchdevelopmentsisthefactthattheplainsmarketsinwhichtheymightbesoldarestilldifficult of access.Tobaccohaslongbeengrowninallvillages:itwastra-ditionallysmokedgreen(curedbybeingburiedinhotsand),inclaypipes(laterinhand-madecigarettes)bymen,andinsmallbamboowaterpipeswithclaybowlsbywomen.Thenicotine-chargedwaterproducedbythelatterisdecantedintosmallgourdcontainersorothervesselskept,aboutthepersonandiswidelyusedasastimulant,beingheldinthemouthandthenspatout.Livestocksuchaspigsandfowl(lesscommonlygoats,cows,andtheoccasionalwaterbuffaloandhorses)maybepennedwithinorbeneaththehouse;mostnotableisthegayal(Bosfrontalis),asemidomesticatedboyidforestbrowser ... herandprobablyfaithfultoher.Also,marriagealli-ancesareusuallyavoidedbecausetheensuingobligationsoftencausementobedominatedbytheirwivesorbythebrothers of theirwives.KinshipTerminology.Theterminologyisbifurcate-merging,withanOmahacousinterminology,consistentwithasymmetricalliancemarriage.Themen of allgenerationsinwife-takinglineagesareclassedwithgrandfathers,butinthewife-takinglineagesonlythoseagnaticallydescendedfromtheoriginalunionlinkingthelineagesareclassedwithgrand-children.Members of lineagesotherthanone'sown,whoarenoteitherwifegiversorwifetakers,areclassedwithone'sownlineageagnatesaccordingtosexandgeneration.Thereareseparatetermsforyoungersiblings of thesamesexasthespeakerandforyoungersiblings of theoppositesex.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Withtheexceptionmainly of theMizo(Lushai),theChinpeoplespracticeasymmetricalalliancemarriage.Thereisnoobligationtomarryintoalineagetowhichoneisalreadyallied;indeed,saveinthedemographi-callyrelictKukigroups of Manipur,diversification of mar-riageconnectionsisaleadingstrategicprinciple.Butitispro-scribedunderseverepenalties-occasionallyamountingtotemporaryexilefromthecommunity-toreversethedirec-tion of marriagealliance(e.g.,tomarryawomanfromawife-takinglineage).WiththeMizotherapidity of segmentationmeansthataffinalallianceslapsealmostassoonastheyareformed,andsotherecanbenoquestion of theirreversal.Also,inasmuchaswifegiversareatleastrituallydominantoverwifetakers,itisoftennecessarytocementandrenewanalliancebyfurthermarriages,bothbecauseaparticularwife-givinglineagemayprovideausefulumbrella ... kinds of goods)insurroundingvillages.Thereweresmithswhomadethetraditionalsilver-amalgam(lateralumi-num)jewelry-suchasthebracelets,belts,earrings,rings,andnecklaceshungwithimportedbeadsandsilverrupeecoins-aswellasbrasshairpinsandotheritems,butthosear-tisanswereevenfewerinnumberthantheonesmentionedabove.indeed,thetradeinthelatteritemswasakintothelong-distancetradeinheirloomgoods,suchasthegreatgongsfromMyanmar(Burma),brassvesselsfromIndia,andothersorts of itemsthatsignifiedatleastanominalclaimuponthegoods of thevaaiplainscountry.Trade.All of thesemoreexpensiveitemsconstitutedthebasis of theprestigeeconomy of thesehillsandpassednotonlybysalebutbycirculation of myriadceremonialpaymentsandfines(especiallymarriage-prices,blood-moneypayments,andcompensationpaymentsfordefamation of status).Pres-tigegoodsandgayals-especiallyimportantfortheiruseinsacrificesassociatedwiththe"meritfeasts"bywhichsocialrankwasattainedorvalidated-werethetraditionalwealth of thesepeople.Furthermore,thedisplayorannouncement of theentirearray of whatonecurrentlyownedorhadownedinlife-symbolicallyindicatedoncarvedmemorialpostserectedforprestigiousdead-wasthedefinitivesign of one'ssocialandceremonialrank.Morespecifically,thepossession of asupposedlyuniqueobjectfromtheoutside world, likelytopossessaunique"personal"name of itsown,wasespeciallyimportant.Theideabehindtheprestigeeconomyisthatprosperityinthis world dependsuponthesacrificialexchange of goodswithinhabitants of theLand of theDead,andonlyifonehadconductedfeasts of meritwouldoneandone'sdescendantshavewealthandwell-being.Thus,too,thecon-tinuity of lineagebetweenthedeadandtbelivingwasimpor-tant;itwasespeciallyimportantforanyonetobememorial-izedafterhisorherdeath.Memorialservicewasdonenotonlybythedisplay of wealthandbyitsfigurationonmemor-ialpostsandstonesbutalsointhecomposition of songs(vahia)commemoratingaman'sgreatnessontheoccasion of one of hisfeasts.Sogreatlywerewealthandpossessionstiedupwithaperson'ssocialpositionthatamongthemosthei-noustraditionaloffencesinthissocietyweretheft,bastardy,andthesupposedpossession of "evileye"(hnam,theuncon-sciousandheritableabilitytocauseharmbylookingenvi-ouslyuponanother'sprosperity,orevensomeone'sconsump-tion of agoodmeal).Allthesesituationsmeantthatpropertyhadfailedtopassbymeans of expectedformalexchanges:ithadpassedinsteadbyarbitraryexpropriation,orthroughachildbornout of wedlockwithoutbenefit of marriage-price,orbymisfortunecausedbymurderousenvy of possessionstowhichonehadnolegitimateclaim.Division of Labor.Thefewclasses of part-timecraftspe-cialistarementionedabove.Womendomore of thedomestictasksandallthetraditionalweaving.Theyarealsoalmostex-clusivelythespiritmediumsbecausemalespiritfamiliarschoosethem.Menalonecutdowntheforestsandworkassmiths.Thereappeartobenofemalehuntersorwarriorsex-ceptinlegends,probablybecausenowomancanholdinherownnameafeast of celebrationforthekilling of amajorani-mal,orafeast of celebration of ahumantrophyheadorthat of atiger.(Inall of thesecasesthepointistotametheangryspirit of thedeceasedanimalorpersonandsendittoserveoneandone'sforebearsintheLand of theDead.)Awomancan,however,holdadomesticfeast of meritinthename of herdeceasedhusband,inwhichdomesticanimalsaresimi-larlysacrificedonbehalf of theLand of theDead.Neverthe-less,onlymencanbevillagepriests,whoaremostlyap-pointedbychiefsandheadmenbecausetheyhavememorizedtherequiredchantsandformulasandknowtheritualse-quences.Priestsserveasmasters of ceremonyatthefeasts of meritandcelebrationandatthevariouskinds of rite of placation-bothcyclicalandsporadic-addressedtothevar-iousspiritowners of theface of theland,greatandsmall.Al-mostallothertasksandactivitiescanbeundertakenbyeithersex;therehaveevenbeenhistoricalinstances of importantfemalechiefs,whoattainedofficethroughbeingwidowed.Therearefewifanyexploitablenaturalresourcesinthesehillsandvirtuallynomodernindustry,atleastnothingmadeforexport.Asidefromthesalaries of teachersandgovern-mentservants of allsortsandtheincomes of merchantsandshopkeepers,themainsource of moneyisthewages of Chinwhoworkontheoutside-preeminentlyinMyanmar,inthearmedforces.LandTenure.Thisaspect of Chincultureishighlyvaria-ble.Avillagehascompleteownership of itstract,andeventherighttohuntinitmustberequestedfromthevillage;however,itispossibletorentlandsinanothervillage'stractonanindividualoracommunalbasis.Villagetractbound-ariesarepreciselyindicatedbylandmarks.Frequentlyagivenhillsidetract,oreventhewholevillagetract,willbeownedbyachieforotherhereditaryaristocrat.Theright of achieftotheduesandservices of hisvillagersinfactderivesfromhisownership of theland,whiletheultimateownershipbyavil-lage of itslandasawholederivesfromtheheritablepactmadebytheancestralfounders of thevillagewiththespiritowners of theland.Theparamountrightisownership,sinceCoorg73tegratedintoKeralasociety,theywereinfluencedbymanyHindupracticesandbeliefs(e.g.,theemphasisuponpurity of descent,theweddingcustomsandcanopy,andthe"asceti-cism"associatedwithPassoverpreparations).Reportedly,theCochinJewshaveneversufferedfromanti-Semitismatthehands of theirHinduneighbors.ReligiousPractitioners.TheCochinJewsneverhadanyrabbis,butseveralmenservedasshochetim(ritualslaugh-terers)andhazanim(cantors)bothfortheirowncommuni-tiesandforanothercommunity of IndianJews,theBeneIs-raelinBombay.Ceremonies.Boththe'White"andthe"Black"Jewsper-formtheirceremoniesseparatelyintheirownsynagoguesandhomes.However,theceremoniesaresimilaranddistinctlyCochini,reflectingbothlocalHinduandChristianinflu-ences.Bothgroupsbuildamanara,oraperion,forthewed-ding,usuallyatthegroom'shouse.Afteraritualbaththebridereceivesatali,anIndianpendant,inimitation of localNayarpractice.Thegroomandbridedressintraditionalwed-dingdress.Thegroomentersthesynagogueonawhitecarpet-acustomapparentlyobservedby'Black"andnot'White"Jews-andsitsnearthepodiumuntilthebride'spro-cessionarrives.Thegroomhimself-andnotarabbi,asinotherJewishcommunities-actuallyannounceshisbetrothalandmarriagetohisbride.Arts.Dailyprayerswerechantedaccordingtotheshinglicustom,auniqueversion of thestandardJewishprayers.Inaddition,theCochinJewshavealargenumber of folksongsthattheysingregularly.Somearesungatweddings,somearelullabies,andsomespecificallyrecallthereturntoZion.In1984theCochinJewsinIsraelstagedahugepageantrelatinginsonganddancethestory of theiremigrationfromIndiaandtheirintegrationintoIsraelisociety.DeathandAfterlife.TheCochinJewsbelieveinanafter-life,influencedbothbyJewishandHindubeliefs.TheirdeadareburiedinJewishcemeteries.SeealsoBeneIsraelBibliographyKatz,Nathan,andEllenGoldberg(1989).'AsceticismandCasteinthePassoverObservances of theCochinJews."Jour-nal of theAmericanAcademy of Religion62:5 3-8 2.Mandelbaum,DavidG.(1975).'SocialStratificationamongtheJews of CochininIndiaandinIsrael."JewishJournal of Sociology17:16 5-2 10.Velayudhan,P.A.,etal.(1971).Commemorative Volume: CochinSynagogue,QuatercentenaryCelebration.Cochin:KeralaHistoricalAssociation.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1982).'SymmetrybetweenChristianandJewsinIndia:theCnaniteChristianandtheCochinJews of Kerala."ContributionstoIndianSociology16:17 5-1 96.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1984).FromCochintoEretzIsrael(inHe-brew).Jerusalem:KumuBerina.SHALVAJ.WEILCoorgETHNONYMS:Coorgi,KodaraCoorgisatiny,isolated,mountainousdistrictin south- westIndia,boundedontheeastbythehighMysorePlateau,averaginganelevation of 1,000meters,andonthewestbyamountainousfrontier3 0-5 0kilometersfromthewesterncoast.Itsgreatestlength,northto south, isabout100kilome-ters,anditsgreatestbreadth,easttowest,is65kilometers.TheWesternGhatmountainrangerunsfromnorthto south anditsmanyspursstrikeoutinalldirectionsthroughthesmallprovince,nowadistrict of KarnatakaState.Themainrivers,theKveriandLaksmanatirtha,areshallowandunnavigable.TheCoorgyearisdividedintothreeseasons-cold,hot,andrainy-withamarkedvariationinrainfallinthevariousregions.Theaverageyearlytemperaturerangesfrom10'to27' C. Coorgisprimarilyanagriculturalcountrywithcoffeeandricebeingthemainproducts.Coorgcontainsdensefor-ests of bamboo,sandalwood,andcardamom.Faunaincludeselephants,tigers,panthers,boars,anddeer.Theearlyhistory of CoorgcanbetracedbacktotheninthcenturyA.D.andconsists of asuccession of feudalrulersleadinguptothedynasty of theLingayatrajasbeginninginthe1600s.Thelastsurvivors of thedynastywerethebrothers,Doddavirarajendra(died1809)andLingarajendra(died1820).Theheirtothethrone,adaughter,Devammaji,was10atthetime of herfather'sdeathandthethronewasthere-foreusurpedbyanuncle.Theuncle,Lingarajendra,wassuc-ceededbyhissonChikkavirarajendra(ViraRajaII)whowaspoorlyacceptedbyhissubjects.Thisledtotheeventualan-nexation of CoorgbytheBritishin1834.Theannexationledtoanumber of economic,political,andsocialreforms,one of themostprominentbeingtheabolition of slavery.Therearethreelevels of territorialgroup;thevillageisthesmallestandthemostimportant.Villages,whicharemul-ticaste,containanumber of ancestralestates,eachcomprised of amainhouse of stoneandwoodandnearbyservants'huts of mudandbamboo.Thenad,consisting of severalvillages,isthenextlargergroup.Inthe1931census94percent of thepopulation of Coorglivedinsuchvillages.TraditionallyCoorgwasdividedintothirty-fivenadsandtwelvekombus,whichservejudicialpurposes.Everyvillagehasacouncil of eldersthatispresidedoverbyaheadmanwhosepositionishereditary.TherearetwotownsinCoorg:Mercara,(orMadikeri)withapopulation of 7,112;andVirarajpet,with4,106per-sons(as of 1931).Mercaraliesinthenorth-centralportion of theregion.Virarajpetisthemostimportantcommercialcentertoday. Of thetotal1931population of 163,327,89percentwereHindus,8percentMuslims,and2percentChristians.Thenumber of Kodaguspeakerswaslistedas72,085inthe1971census.TheprimarylanguagesspokeninCoorgareKodagu,Kannada(Dravidianlanguage),Hindi,andEnglish.CoorgsconsiderthemselvestobeKshatriyas,whocon-stitutethecaste of rulersandsoldiersinthetraditionalhier-archyandrankbelowonlyBrahmans.TodayCoorgsaresome of theprominentmilitaryleadersinIndia.Therearemore60Chakmadren.TheyaretaughtBuddhistideologyatanearlyage.Re-spectfor...

... Indianpriests,andalsobroughtinlargenumbers of EuropeanJesuitsinasu-pervisorycapacity.Theyear1947markedalandmarkinProtestantchurchhistory,notjustbecausethiswastheyear of independenceforbothIndiaandPakistanbutalsobecauseitwastheyearwhentheChurch of South Indiacameintobeing-thefirstunifiedProtestantchurchanywhere.It of courseabsorbedtheformerAnglican,Methodist,andseveralothersectarianinstitutions.In1970therefollowedaunifiedProtestantChurch of NorthIndiaandaProtestantChurch of Pakistan.Thesechurches,bothProtestantandCatholic,arenowentirelyinthehands of South Asianbishopsandarchbish-ops,withveryfew of theformerEuropeanmissionariesre-maining.InSriLankaand south India,thegreatestgrowthshaverecentlybeenseenamongtheRomanCatholics,notprimarilybecause of newconversionsbutratherbecause of acalculatedavoidance of familyplanning.InNepalChristianandMuslimmissionaryactivityisprohibitedbylaw.Thehistory of Christianityin South Asia hasindeedbeenacheckeredone,butithasbeenanimportantinstru-ment of Westernization.ThefirstprintingpressesandthefirstmodemcollegeswereintroducedbyEuropeanmissionar-ies.Bythemiddle of thenineteenthcenturythesepeopleweremakingimportantcontributionstothegeneralsocialuplift of thecountry(andnotonlyforChristianconverts)bytheirpromotion of ruralandurbanschooling,adultliteracy,femaleeducation,colleges,hospitalsandclinics,andmodemurbancareers.AsaresulttheChristianpopulationhaswieldedadisproportionateinfluenceinmodemIndianandSriLankanlife.Littleconversionisstilltakingplace.IndianChristianstodaytendtobeurban,arealwaysmo-nogamous,andformnuclearfamiliesuponmarriage(whichtakesplaceinachurch).TheyusuallyfollowWesternizedprofessions,becomingteachers,nurses,bankclerks,andcivilservants.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; SyrianChristian of KeralaBibliographyCoutinho,Fortunato(1958).Leregimeparoissialdesdiocesesderitelatindel'Indedesorigines(XVIesiecleanosjours).Paris:EditionsBiatrice-Nauwelaerts.Gibbs,MildredE.(1972).TheAnglicanChurchinIndia,160 0-1 970.Delhi:IndianSocietyforPromotingChristianKnowledge.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930)."IndianChristian."InTheMysoreTribesandCastes,editedbyH.V.NanjundayyaandL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer.Vol.3, 1-7 6.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Neill,Stephen(1984).AHistory of ChristianityinIndia.2vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Thomas,AbrahamV.(1974).ChristiansinSecularIndia.Rutherford:FairleighDickinsonUniversity.PAULHOCKINGSIrula105gosa)andtamarindareoftenpresentwithinlowlandsettle-ments.ThelowlandIrulawhoherdcattleforothers,typicallyindrierareaswiththornforest,areassociatedwithadistinc-tivesettlementpatterninwhichalargecattleenclosureissur-roundedbyathornywall of piledbranches.TheIrulaalsohaveburialgroundswithancestraltemples,calledkoppamanais,inwhichstonesassociatedwiththedepartedspirits of thedeadarehoused.Eachpatricianhasaburialplaceandakoppamanai,butthetwoarenotnecessarilytogether(forexample,whileSambanpeopleareonlyburiedatKallampa-layam,thereareSambankoppamanaisatHallimoyarandKunjappanai).Althoughaburialgroundisusuallyclosetoasettlement,itcanbefartheraway.Asinmanyotherparts of Asia andintothePacificBasin,thesacredness of aburialgroundisoftenassociatedwiththepagodatree(thePolyne-sianfrangipani).Largelybecausemany of theIrulaarelandlesslaborers,most of themliveinone-roomedhouses.Nevertheless,IrulaplantationlaborersinhabitingtheNilgirislopesstilloccupybipartitehouseswiththesacredcookingareaformallyseparated(typicallynotwithawallbutwithashallowearthenplatform)fromthelivingandsleepingareas.TheKasabatothenorth of theNilgirimassif,whoherdcattleforothers(Badagasincluded),occupytripartitestructureswithlivingquartersforhumanstooneside of aroomwithanopenfront,andacalfroomtotheotherside.Theopenfront of thecenterroomfacilitatesthewatching of theenclosedcattleatnight,anditismostusefulwhenpredatorsorwildel-ephantscomenear.WhiletraditionalIrulahousesaremade of wattleanddaub,withthatchedroofs(orinsomeinstancesbananasheathsforwallingandroofing),moreIrulaarelivinginhouseswithwalls of stoneorbrickandroofswithtiles,es-peciallyifthegovernmenthasprovidedfinancialassistance.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theearliestre-portsindicatethatthehoe-usingIrula of theeasternNilgirislopesobtainedonecrop of milletinayearfromshiftedplots,involvingagrowingperiodthatcoincidedwiththewesterlymonsoon.Theythendependedupongardenproduce,gath-erededibles,andhuntingforsurvivaloncetheharvestedgrainhadbeenconsumed.ThattheseIrulawereprobablynamedafterayamspeciesisindicative of howimportantyamsweretothemwhentheyturnedtogathering.Severalwildyamspecieswereavailable.Irulaarestillwellknownforthegatheringandsupply of honeytotheirneighbors.Despitesculpturedrepresentations of bowsandarrowsinsomeNilgiridolmensathigherelevation,itisnoteworthythattheIrulaseemalwaystohaveusednetsandspearswhentheyhunted.Ourrecord of atleasteightyspecies of plantsgrowinginIrulagardenstestifiestothepastandcontinuingsignificance of gardenstoalltheIrula.Thatatleasttwenty-five of theidenti-fiedplantshadaNew World originalsoprovesthewilling-ness of theIrulatoincorporateintroducedspeciesintotheireconomy.Thecontinuedcultivation of fingermillet(Eleusinecorocana),Italianmillet(Setariaitalica),andlittlemillet(Panicumsumatrense)andnodryricebytheIrulaonthehigherslopesmayinitselfrepresentaNeolithicsurvival,be-causethecultivation of dryricehasinSoutheast Asia widelyreplacedtheearliercultivation of theItalianandlittlemilletsfromChina.TheIrulastillcommonlygrowthesetwospecies of millettogetherandthenharvesttheItalianmilletwhenthelittlemilletisfarfrommaturation.Verysmallsicklesareusedforharvestingindividualgrainheads.Whenfingermillet(grownapartfromtheothertwo)istobeharvested,theplantsarevisitedperiodicallytopermittheremoval of grainasitripens.Anothereconomicpursuitthatmayhavecontin-uedfromNeolithictimes,duringwhichcattlerearingwaswidespreadinsouthernIndia,isthemannerbywhichlow-landIrulainforestedareaskeepcattlefortheirneighbors(Kuruvasincluded).ThefewIrulawhostillmanagetoprac-ticeshiftingagriculturesetfireinAprilorMaytothevegeta-tiontheyhavecut,sothecultivation of milletwillthentakeplaceduringthewesterlymonsoon.Thebarnyardmillet(Echinochloa),bullrushmillet(Pennisetum),commonmillet(Panicummiliaceum)andsorghummillet(Sorghum),all of thelowland,renownedfortheirdroughtresistance,andthustypicallygrownondryfields,arecultivatedwiththeaid of plowsandmainlyintheseason of thewesterlymonsoon.Nowwiththecooperation of theForestDepartment,theIrulagatherforestproduce(includingmedicinalplants)forsale.SincemostIrula of theNilgirislopescurrentlyworkasplantationlaborers,plantationmanagementsstartingwiththoseinthetime of theBritishRajhadtoprovideperiodicre-leasetimeforthoseIrulawhoneededtoperformtheirownagriculturalchores.TheGandhianquesttoimprovethelives of members of theScheduledTribesisdemonstratedbythemannerinwhichthegovernmenthasenabledIrula of theeasternNilgirislopestoestablishcoffeeandteagardens of theirown,andatKunjappanaitheSilkBoard of thegovern-ment of TamilNaduisnowprovidingfinancialassistancetoenablesilkwormfarmingamongtheIrula.From1974thegovernmentgavesmallplotstoIrulaontheeasternslopes,andtheCooperativeLandDevelopmentBank(anagency of theTamilNadugovernment)atthenearesttown(Kotagiri)wasby1979helpingtofinancethegrowing of coffeeandteainnurseries,sothattheIrulacouldhavetheirowncommer-cializedgardens.WhileafewIrulawhowiselymanagedtheirgrantedlandsandloansprospered,manydidnotmanagetheirendeavorswellandthereturnpaymentonloansatalowratewaseventuallyendedinmanyinstancesbyaspecialbillpassedinMadrasbytheTamilNadugovernment.Itispri-marilythecooperation of thegovernment,withtheForestDepartment of TamilNaduplayinganimportantrole,thathasenabledmorelowlandIrulatobecomeinvolvedinthean-nualcultivation of irrigatedrice.Hallimoyar,Kallampalayam,andThengumarahada(withitsCooperativeSociety),inwhichtheIrulaliveclosetothemembers of severalcastes,haveirrigationnetworks.OnericecropstartedinMarchisharvestedinJune,andthesecondcropstartedinJulyisreadyinDecember.In1978anewlyconstructedricemillbecameoperationalatThengumarahada.Irulalivingtothe south of theNilgirimassifare ... providesthemainmeansforintroducingtheIrulaintobroadercivilization.Unfortu-nately,mostIrulahavethusfarabandonedtheformaleduca-tionalinstitutionsinthelowerstages.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inthetribalmanner,theIrulamain-tainanopenandfreesociety.Eachhamletorvillagehasaheadman(gaundanormuppan)whoseroleisnottocontrolfromabovebuttohelpinthesolving of problemsandtoactasamediatoramonghispeopleandbetweenthemandgov-ernmentofficialsornon-Irulaneighbors.Followingthean-cientIndiantradition of thepanchayat(thehamletorvillagecouncil),theheadmancancallavaryinggroup of malesto-gethertohelphim.AsSambanpatricianmembers(orKoduvanpatricianmembers,ifaSambanpersonisinvolved)traditionallyhaveactedasmediatorsfortheIrula,aheadmancanalsoturntoone of themforcounsel.Thereisalsoalocalgo-betweenperson(bandari)whoassiststheheadman.Anydecision of ... acouncilisconsideredtobebinding(kattumanam)onanindividualorfamily.Eachfriendshippatricianinahamletorvillageisheadedbyafacilitator(jatti)whoplaysthevitalrole of organizinganycooperativeeffort.Alocalpriest(pujari)isalsopresenttotakecare of religiousmatters.Lastly,aKurumbahelpsduringceremonialocca-sions. South of theNilgirimassif,suchanindividual(aPaluKurumba)alsoservestoprotecttheIrulafromMudugasorcery.PoliticalOrganization.Intheperiod of theBritishRaj,thelowestpoliticaldivisionwasavillageunitwithoneormorevillagesandseveralhamlets.Alongwithseveralap-pointedofficials,suchasthemaniagarwhowastherepresen-tativetotheCrownandthetahsildarwhokeptthelandrec-ords(andthereforethebasisfortaxation),therewasaformalgroup of maleswhoformedthevillagepanchayat.Themem-bers of thepanchayatthenmanagedtheaffairs of thevillage.Afterindependence,thevillageunitswerekeptandthepanchayatwasenvisionedasthegrass-rootsorganizationthatwouldguaranteerepresentationbythepeople.Itsmembersweretobeelected.Unfortunately,primarilybecausetheIrulaaresolackingineducation,theyarepoorlyrepresentedinthelargerpanchayats.AlsoenvisionedintheIndianconstitutionwastheestablishment of landunitscalledblocks,eachwithablockdevelopmentofficer,inwhicheconomicdevelopmentwouldbepromotedwithgovernmentalassistance.AlthoughsomeIrula-lowlandIrulainparticular-havebenefited,in-cludingthoselivinginHallimoyar,Kallampalayam,andThengumarahada,thegenerallack of Irularepresentationamongblockdevelopmentofficershastoofrequentlypre-cludedIrulafromobtainingthetype of aidthatwoulden-hancethemeconomically.SocialControl.TheIrulaastribalsplaceapremiumupontheavoidance of conflict.Theyareinmanywaysrigidlycon-trolledbytheircasteandpatricianstanding.Thepossibility of beingmadeanoutcasteforunacceptablebehaviornor-mally...

... careforjhumfieldsandgirlsaretaughthowtoweave.Magicoreligiousritesare,forthemostpart,masteredbymeans of observation.ThesoleexceptiontothisnormistheKhazangpinachant(whichac-Limbu149orNepalidishes.Riceisthemostpopularstaple of theLepchadiet;wheat,maize,andbuckwheatarealsoeatenbutarenotnearlyaspopular.Milletisgrownforfermentingasanalcoholicbeverage;thisgrainisnevereatenbypeople.TheLepchadietisroundedoutwithfreshfruitsandvegetables;fishisoccasionallycaughtbutnotoften.Thetraditionalspartannature of Lepchalifedoesnotlenditselftosecularartorpainting,which(exceptforspe-ciallytrainedlamas)arecompletelyalientothem.Theyare,however,outstandingcarpenters,andmanydofindemploy-mentinthistrade;theyarealsonotedfortheirweavingandspinningabilities.TheMarwari,anIndianmerchantcaste,arechieflyresponsibleforsettingupshopsandactingasmoneylenderstotheLepcha.Theprinciplecashcrop of theLepchaiscardamom,theirmainexport.Thereisnorigiddivision of laborbasedonsex;women,however,arestrictlyforbiddentokillanyanimals.Groups of womenandmenworksidebysideinthefields,andalthoughmengenerallyweavethebasketsandmats,andwomenspinyam,ifone of thesexesweretotryoneortheotheractivity,nostigmawouldbeattachedtoit.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyTheLepchasaredividedintogroupsbasedonbirthandmar-riage;thesearethepatrilinealclanandtheimmediatenuclearandextendedfamily.TheLepchascountdescentforninegenerationsonthefather'ssideandaminimum of fouronthemother's.Theyhaveaverysmallnumber of kinshiptermsandexcludethewholecategory of cousins;and,exceptforthemother'sbrothers,theymakenodistinctionbetweenthepa-ternalandmaternallines.Forpeopleyoungerthanthespeaker,theydonotmakeanydistinctionbasedongender.Onlychildren'sspouseshavedifferenttermsforson-in-lawanddaughter-in-law.Anysexualconnectionwithbloodrelationsforninegen-erationsonthefather'ssideandfouronthemother'ssideisconsideredincestuous.Lepchatraditionallymarryveryyoung,girlsusuallybeforeage14andboysbyage16.TherearetwostagesinLepchamarriage:betrothalandbringinghomethebride.Thebetrothalphaseisavalidatingceremonyatwhichthefamily of thegroompresentsthebride'sfamilywithgifts,called"theprice of thebride,"andoncetheseareacceptedthemarriageiscompletedandthegroommayhavefullaccesstohisbride.SociopoliticalOrganizationEachLepchavillageistraditionallyheadedbyavillageleader,whoisresponsibleforkeepingorderandcollectingtaxes.CrimeisaveryrareoccurrenceinaLepchavillage;murderisalmostunheard of, althoughtherehavebeenaccusations of poisoning.TheftishighlyunusualbecausetheLepchaecon-omyisfoundedonthebeliefthatpeopledonotsteal,andwhenthisdoeshappenitisverydisquieting.Anyoutbreak of aquarrelishandledimmediatelybyneutralpersons.TheLepchaattitudetowardaggressionisthatitisnotnaturalandthatitisdestructivetothecommunityatlarge.ReligionTheLepchapracticetwomutuallycontradictoryreligionssi-multaneously,withoutanyambivalentfeeling.TheolderMunreligion,namedafterthetitle of thepriests,involvesaspecialrelationshipwithafamilyspirit.Thisspiritisappeasedbyanimalsacrificesandbydirectcommunication,aspart of anefforttowardoffevilspiritswhocauseillnessanddisaster.Itisinterestingtonotethat,amongthemanymythsandleg-ends of theLepcha,therearemanyaccounts of theAbomina-bleSnowman(Yeti)intheglacialregions of theHimalayas,andheisworshipedasthegod of thehunt,theowner of allmountaingame,andthelord of allforestcreatures.TibetanLamaismwasintroducedintheseventeenthcenturyandisrootedinapriesthoodandinsanctitygainedbylearning,notbyinspiration;thesacrifice of animalsisconsideredaterriblesinbymembers of thisreligion.SeealsoSikkimeseBibliographyGorer,Geoffrey(1938).HimalayanVillage:AnAccount of theLepchas of Sikkim.London:MichaelJoseph.2nded.NewYork:BasicBooks,1967.Hooker,JosephD.(1891).HimalayanJournals.London:Ward,Lock,Bowden&Co.[Numerousearliereditions.]Jest,Corneille(1960).'ReligiousBeliefs of theLepchasintheKalimpongDistrict(WestBengal)."Journal of theRoyalAsiaticSociety1960:12 4-1 34.Morris,John(1938).LivingwithLepchas:ABookabouttheSikkimHimalayas.London:WilliamHeinemann.Siiger,Halfdan,andJorgenRischel(1967).TheLepchas:CultureandReligion of aHimalayanPeople.EthnographicalSeries2.Copenhagen:NationalMuseum of Denmark.Tobias,Michael(1967).MountainPeople.Norman:Univer-sity of OklahomaPress.2nded.1986.NewYork:BasicBooks.JAYDiMAGGIOLimbuETHNONYMS:noneOrientationTheLimbu,one of thelargesttribalaggregatesinNepal,liveinthemosteasterlypart of NepalbetweentheArunRiverandtheborder of SikkimDistrict,India.TheLimbuare of MongoliandescentandspeakaTibeto-Burmandialect.In1970,thepopulationwasestimatedat245,000.HistoryandCulturalRelationsInthelatterpart of theeighteenthcenturyNepalwasformedbyunitingvariousethnicgroupsandnumerousprincipalitiesunderahigh-casteHindudynasty.Thisconquestresultedinanumber of migrations of high-casteHindugroupsintoeast-152Lingayattionisaporchwitharaisedplatform,usuallyopenbutsome-timesclosed,whichisusedforvisitorsandresting.Athresh-oldandadoorframewithcarvedfigures of Basavaleadtothesecondsection,whichconsists of unitsusedforhousingthecattleandfordomesticpurposes,includingakitchen,astore-room,andapuja(worship)room.Thethirdsection of thehouse,thebackyard,isusedforstoringhay,fuel,etc.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theeconomy of aLingayatvillage,whichispredominantlyagricultural,re-flectstheLingayatculture.Theirsocialstructureispopulistic,withbirthandoccupationintertwined.Lingayatsareengagedinanentirerange of occupationalactivities-agriculture,commerceandtrade,teachingandscholarship,blacksmith-ing,carpentry,weaving,oilpressing,hairdressing,etc.Tradi-tionally,Lingayatfarmersproducedpartlyforlocalconsump-tionandpartlyforamarketeconomy,andplowedtheirlandwithmetal-shodwoodenplowspoweredbypairs of bullocks.Much of economiclifewasregulatedbytheayasystem,inwhichexchange of goodsandservicestookplace.Thelocalartisangroupsandlabordependeduponthefarmersfortheirsurvival.Withindependencein1947andthelaunching of five-yearplansandcommunitydevelopmentprojects,thetra-ditionalmode of cultivationisbeinggraduallymodernizedbytheuse of chemicals,fertilizers,liftpumps,irrigation,etc.Rurallife,oncecharacterizedbyexchangerelationships,isgivingwaytocompetitiveinterestsrevolvingaroundtheeco-nomicrealities of supplyanddemand.Forexample,thearti-sancommunityinthevillagehasnearlycloseditsdoorstolocalcustomers,asitnowseeksnewopportunitiesinthenearbycitymarketinitstraditionalspecialities.Andthevil-lagewasherman'sfamilyalsoisinvolvedinthecityelectriclaunderingestablishment,thecobblerinitsshoestores,theblacksmithintool-makingjobs,andthegoldsmithinthejew-elrystore.Sotraditionalworkisbecomingmodemwork,andtraditionalskillsarebecomingmodernizedintheprocess.Thevillagefarmers,whoonceproducedprimarilyfordomes-ticandlocalpurposes,nowprefercashcropssuchassugar-cane,cotton,chilies,fruits,andvegetablesforexport.Butsuchconcernsdonotseemtohaveerodedtraditionalvaluesasindicatedbytheincreasingnumber of cooperativesocietiesinLingayatvillages.UrbanLingayatsarefoundequallyinalloccupationsanddominatesmalltrade,commerce,andthetextileindustryinKarnataka.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thekinshipuniverse of theLingayatscanbedescribedinterms of twocategories:effec-tiveandnoneffective.Relationshipsamongeffectivekinareclose,intimate,obligatory,andreciprocal,whereasthoseamongnoneffectivekinarelessintimateandfunctionallyin-significant.Effectivekinarethosecloselyrelatedbydescentandmarriage,andmateselectionamongsuchkinispreferen-tial.Noneffectivekinareremotelyrelatedandrarelyremem-bered,andmeaningfulinteractionbetweenthemisabsent.Ideally,Lingayatkinshipemphasizesthepatrimonialprinci-ple,butinrealitymatrilinealorientationsprevailbothinsen-timentsandobligations.KingroupsamongruralLingayatsmaintainandreinforcetheirkinshiprelationsthroughuncle-niece,cross-cousin,andexchangemarriages.Affinalrelation-shipsarerecognizedonlyiftheyareinvolvedinpreferentialmarriages.KinshipTerminology.Lingayatkinshipmaybedescribedasmultilateralwithpartlydescriptiveandpartlygenerickinterms.Father'sbrothersandsisters,forexample,arede-scribedas"big"or"little""fathers"and"mothers"dependingonrelativeage;termsforpaternalandmaternalgrandfathersandgrandmothersaretreatedinthesameway.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.AcommonpracticeamongLingayatparentsistoarrangetheirchildren'smarriages.Aboutfivedecadesago,abrideandbridegroomcouldseeeachother'sfaceonlyatthemarriagepedestal,butincreasingeducationandwidespreadurbanizationhavecreptintothevillagesandslowlyaffectedtheways of traditionalmatchmaking.Thesedays'love"mar-riagesareheard of eveninthecountryside.IneducatedLingayatfamilies,youngergenerationsenjoysomefreedominthechoice of partners,apracticeunheard of halfacenturyago.Theuse of horoscopesisconspicuouslyabsentamongthe_Lingayats.Divorceandseparationareuncommonandmaritalbreakdownsarefrownedupon.Precautionsagainstpossibledisintegrationaretakenbyarranginginterkinmar-riages,whichhelptostrengthenthemaritalbonds.Intheevent of abreakdown,however,Lingayatattitudestowarddi-vorce,especiallyincomparisonwithsomeotherreligiousgroups,areliberalandtolerant.Theyareequallyliberalinen-couragingwidowremarriages,whicharecondemnedbytheHindu-Brahmanicsociety.ResidenceispatrilocalamongruralLingayats.Uponmarriage,thebridegoestolivewiththegroom'shousehold.Amongurbanitestheyareexpectedtoliveindependently.ForaneducatedLingayatcouple,neo-localresidenceisthenorm.DomesticUnit.TheextendedfamilyisregardedastheidealarrangementamongruralLingayats,althoughthenu-clearfamilyisactuallymorecommonandthereareocca-sionalinstances of conjugalfamilyarrangements.Nuclearorconjugal,thefamilydoesnotliveinisolation,asitisalwaysembeddedinthelargerkingroup.Sincethecollectivesolidar-ity of thekingroupistheprimevalueinthecommunity,fam-ilyautonomyandprivacyareneveritsconcerns.Allrelatedfamiliesareheldtogetherbyasense of mutualityandcomple-mentarity.Suchinterdependenceisseenonoccasions of births,weddings,fairs,andfestivals.TheurbanLingayatfam-ilyisprimarilynuclearbutittoomaintainsitstieswithitsruralkinbyprovidingshelter,hospitality,andemploymentopportunities,whenneeded.Inheritance.Traditionally,legalrightsfavoredthepatri-lineage.Uponmarriage,agirltookherhusband'ssurnameandallthelegalclaimsthatwentwithit.Herloss of ashareinherparentalfamilyproperty,however,wasmetthroughade-quategifts of jewelryandgoldduringhermarriageandonsuccessivevisitstothenatalfamily.Herparentsandsiblingsfulfilledtheirmoralobligationstoher,especiallyintimes of crisis.Suchcustomsandconventionsgenerallycreatedanen-vironmentinwhichbrother-sisterrelationscontinuedevenaftertheparents'deaths.TheSuccessionAct of 1956thatgaveguaranteedequalrightstosurvivingchildren of deceasedparentsalteredthebondsthatonceunitedtheconjugalandnatalfamiliesandbrother-sisterrelationships.Itisnotun-150Limbu.emNepal,causinganethnicandculturalsplitwiththeLimbus.Limbusareconsideredthefirstsettlers of eastNepalandarethoughttobedescendants of theKiratis.Limbusbe-cameknowntohistoryintheeighteenthcentury,atatimewhenanumber of smallchiefdomsinLimbuanwereundertheauthority of thekingdom of Bijayapur.TheLimbuswereexpectedtograntlandtotheimmigrantsfortheirsupport.TheNepalesegovernmentbroughtalltriballands(withtheexception of certainLimbus)underraikar,"asystem of land-lordismunderwhichtherights of anindividualtoutilizationandtransfer of thelandarerecognizedbythestateaslongastaxesarepaid."BeforethissystemwasenforcedallLimbugroupsheldlandunderthesystem of kipat,inwhich"anindi-vidualobtainsrightstolandbyvirtue of hismembershipinaseries of nestingkingroups."Thischange of landtenurecausedLimbustoloselandstotheHinduimmigrants,whoweremostly of Brahmancaste.Thereweretworeasonsforthischange.First,ashortage of landswasbeginningtobefelt,andthereforethegovernmentdissolvedalltheLimbuanrightstotheirkipatlands.Asecondfactorwastheabsence of ownershipdocuments,whichledtolegalconflictsoverown-ershipandrent.Surrenderedkipatlandshelpedtofinancerevenuesettlements,postalservices,andthearmy.TheLimbuswereleftonlywiththelandtheywerelivingonandcultivating.TheBrahmanshadsomeadvantagesoverLim-bus:theywereskilledandhadlaborresourcesthattheLimbuslackedandneeded.Theywerealsoabletoreadandwrite,whichqualifiedthemforadministrativejobsandforcedtheabolition of thekipatsystem.Intheeyes of theLimbus,Brahmanswere"ungratefulservants"whoweretrustedwiththeirlandbut"stole"itinstead.TheLimbusarenowdeter-minedtosalvagetheirlandunderthekipatsystemandrefrainfrompassingitontomembers of othergroups.Brahmans,atacosttotheLimbus,havebecomethemostauthoritarianethnicgroupineastNepal.ResentmentisalsofeltbytheBrahmanstowardtheLimbus;BrahmansregardtheLimbusas"simple"and"concernedonlyforthepresent."BrahmansfeelthatifLimbushadlookedtothefuture,theywouldnothavegrantedtheirlands.TheLimbuanstruggleforlandisanongoingprocessthatcontinuestoaffectsocialandpoliticalconditionsintheregion.EconomyAgricultureisthemainsource of income.Theabundance of landhasmadethecultivation of newagriculturallandspossi-ble,butinsufficientknowledge of technologyhaslimitedtheirproductivity.Limbugrowwheat,rice,andmaize,andtheytradesome of thecropsforgoodsthatcannotbegrownormadeintheirregion.Asexualdivision of laboroccursinagriculture.Menplowthefields,womenplanttheseeds,andattheharvestingperiodbothsexesjointocompletethejob.Duringcultivationfamiliesbringfriendstohelpwiththefields.Thesegroups of peoplesharelaborwithoneanotherduringespeciallybusytimes.Anothersource of incomeforLimbusismilitaryservice.EconomichardshiphasmadeitworthwhiletojointhearmybothinNepalandinIndiainre-turnforasmallamount of cash.Associatedwithmilitaryserviceisrespectandhonor,especiallyforthose of highermil-itaryrank.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMarriageisdefinedasalegitimateunionbetweenamanandawomansothattheymayproducelegitimatechildren.Inthepast,marriageswerearrangedbyfamilieswithneitherthebridenorthegroomhavingmuchcommentonthemarriagepaymentsorceremonies.Aftertheweddingthegirlwouldgiveupherlastnameforherhusband's,inreturnforabride-price.Modemtimeshavechangedthisandnowbothpartieshaveachancetochooseanddecideonthematter.Thegiftgivingcontinuesaftertheweddingandmarriagepaymentsex-tendovermanyyears.Womenplayagreatandveryactivepartinthemarriage,inpartbecauseinmanyhouseholdsthemanservesinthearmyformanyyearsandthewomanisthedecisionmakerconcerningthehouse,children,marriage,andbusiness.Womenalsoinfluencethestability of amarriage.Themother-in-lawphobiaisstronglyfelt,andinmostcasesthemother-in-lawistheprimereasonforabride'sdeparture.Languageisalsoabarrierifthebrideisfromadifferentre-gion.TheLimbus,likemanyNepalese,arehesitanttoad-dressoneanotherdirectly.Callingoutanameinpublicistabooandcreatesembarrassment;thereforethenewbrideiscalled"you"or"thewife of so-and-so"(teknonymy)andshedoesnothavefullstatusasawomanuntilshebearsachild.Untilfullacceptancebythemother-in-law,themarriageisuncertain,asthewifecanreturntohernatalhomeifsheismadetofeeluncomfortable.Polygamyisnotwidelyprac-ticed;itispracticedonlyifthewifeisbarrenorhasfailedtoproducesons.Kinshipisveryimportantinamarriage.Aunionwithkinisconsideredsuccessfulandideal.FortheLimbustherearethreetypes of marriages:adultery,arrange-ment,and"theft."Allthreearelegal.Incase of adulterousmarriageabride-priceisnotrequired.Somecompensationispaidtotheformerhusbandbythenewhusband.Also,ifthewomanissingle,thenewhusbandvisitsthewoman'snatalhomewithofferingstoformacloserbondwithherfamily."Theft"marriagesarecommon.Theterm"theft"meansthatshehasagreedtobetakenwithoutnegotiations.Suchelope-mentisonewaytoavoidthehighcost of abride-price.Thewomeninthesemarriagesareconsideredasweaksubjects,laborresources,andchildbearers.FortheLimbustheseun-desirablemarriages,especiallytheft of marriedwomen,areusuallyinitiatedatdances.Familiesrelated"bythebone"makeuppatrilineallineagesandclans.Death of amemberbringspollutiononthelocalagnaticdescentgroup.Duringthistimeadultsrefrainfromeat-ingmealscookedwithsaltandoil.Wiveswhohavetakentheirhusband'sfamilynamealsotaketheirimpuritiesbyeatingleft-oversfromtheirmeals.Lineageandclangroupsareexogamous,somenandwomenwiththesameclannameareforbiddentomarryorhavesexualrelations.Today,lineagesdonothaveagreatinfluenceonmarriage,thoughpaymentsaremadetothechief of theclan.IngeneralLimbufamiliesareeconomicallyandrituallyindependent of eachother.ReligionandExpressiveCultureOnearea of differencebetweenLimbusandBrahmansisreli-gious.LimbusrecognizeandparticipateinmanypopularHindufestivalsbutalsohaveanumber of theirownpracti-tioners.Theyworshipbymeans of bloodsacrifice.Theybe-lievethatlineagedivinitiesarenottransmittedpatrilineally.Lakher145LinguisticAffiliation.TheLakherspeakMaraChin(BurmicFamily,Tibeto-BurmanStock),alanguagebelong-ingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheseparategroupsthatmakeuptheLakherareallbelievedtohaveoriginatedsomewherenorth of theirpresentlocation,intheChinHills.Theadvancement of thesepeoplescanbetracedwithsomedegree of certainty,andtheoriginalhome-land of atleastthree of thesegroups(Tlongsai,Hawthai,andSabeu)canbeposited.TheTlongsaimigrationbeganinLeisai(betweenLeitakandZaphai).Theoriginalhomeland of theHawthaiisbelievedtohavebeenChira(inHaka).TheSabeuarefoundinChapi,butitisbelievedthattheymigratedtothatlocationfromThiatla,whichisnearHaka.Beforetheadvent of Britishimperialdomination,intervillageconflictwastheLakhernorm.IndividualLakhervillagesfoughtagainstoneanotherandagainstneighboringpeoples(e.g.,theKhumis ... careforjhumfieldsandgirlsaretaughthowtoweave.Magicoreligiousritesare,forthemostpart,masteredbymeans of observation.ThesoleexceptiontothisnormistheKhazangpinachant(whichac-Limbu149orNepalidishes.Riceisthemostpopularstaple of theLepchadiet;wheat,maize,andbuckwheatarealsoeatenbutarenotnearlyaspopular.Milletisgrownforfermentingasanalcoholicbeverage;thisgrainisnevereatenbypeople.TheLepchadietisroundedoutwithfreshfruitsandvegetables;fishisoccasionallycaughtbutnotoften.Thetraditionalspartannature of Lepchalifedoesnotlenditselftosecularartorpainting,which(exceptforspe-ciallytrainedlamas)arecompletelyalientothem.Theyare,however,outstandingcarpenters,andmanydofindemploy-mentinthistrade;theyarealsonotedfortheirweavingandspinningabilities.TheMarwari,anIndianmerchantcaste,arechieflyresponsibleforsettingupshopsandactingasmoneylenderstotheLepcha.Theprinciplecashcrop of theLepchaiscardamom,theirmainexport.Thereisnorigiddivision of laborbasedonsex;women,however,arestrictlyforbiddentokillanyanimals.Groups of womenandmenworksidebysideinthefields,andalthoughmengenerallyweavethebasketsandmats,andwomenspinyam,ifone of thesexesweretotryoneortheotheractivity,nostigmawouldbeattachedtoit.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyTheLepchasaredividedintogroupsbasedonbirthandmar-riage;thesearethepatrilinealclanandtheimmediatenuclearandextendedfamily.TheLepchascountdescentforninegenerationsonthefather'ssideandaminimum of fouronthemother's.Theyhaveaverysmallnumber of kinshiptermsandexcludethewholecategory of cousins;and,exceptforthemother'sbrothers,theymakenodistinctionbetweenthepa-ternalandmaternallines.Forpeopleyoungerthanthespeaker,theydonotmakeanydistinctionbasedongender.Onlychildren'sspouseshavedifferenttermsforson-in-lawanddaughter-in-law.Anysexualconnectionwithbloodrelationsforninegen-erationsonthefather'ssideandfouronthemother'ssideisconsideredincestuous.Lepchatraditionallymarryveryyoung,girlsusuallybeforeage14andboysbyage16.TherearetwostagesinLepchamarriage:betrothalandbringinghomethebride.Thebetrothalphaseisavalidatingceremonyatwhichthefamily of thegroompresentsthebride'sfamilywithgifts,called"theprice of thebride,"andoncetheseareacceptedthemarriageiscompletedandthegroommayhavefullaccesstohisbride.SociopoliticalOrganizationEachLepchavillageistraditionallyheadedbyavillageleader,whoisresponsibleforkeepingorderandcollectingtaxes.CrimeisaveryrareoccurrenceinaLepchavillage;murderisalmostunheard of, althoughtherehavebeenaccusations of poisoning.TheftishighlyunusualbecausetheLepchaecon-omyisfoundedonthebeliefthatpeopledonotsteal,andwhenthisdoeshappenitisverydisquieting.Anyoutbreak of aquarrelishandledimmediatelybyneutralpersons.TheLepchaattitudetowardaggressionisthatitisnotnaturalandthatitisdestructivetothecommunityatlarge.ReligionTheLepchapracticetwomutuallycontradictoryreligionssi-multaneously,withoutanyambivalentfeeling.TheolderMunreligion,namedafterthetitle of thepriests,involvesaspecialrelationshipwithafamilyspirit.Thisspiritisappeasedbyanimalsacrificesandbydirectcommunication,aspart of anefforttowardoffevilspiritswhocauseillnessanddisaster.Itisinterestingtonotethat,amongthemanymythsandleg-ends of theLepcha,therearemanyaccounts of theAbomina-bleSnowman(Yeti)intheglacialregions of theHimalayas,andheisworshipedasthegod of thehunt,theowner of allmountaingame,andthelord of allforestcreatures.TibetanLamaismwasintroducedintheseventeenthcenturyandisrootedinapriesthoodandinsanctitygainedbylearning,notbyinspiration;thesacrifice of animalsisconsideredaterriblesinbymembers of thisreligion.SeealsoSikkimeseBibliographyGorer,Geoffrey(1938).HimalayanVillage:AnAccount of theLepchas of Sikkim.London:MichaelJoseph.2nded.NewYork:BasicBooks,1967.Hooker,JosephD.(1891).HimalayanJournals.London:Ward,Lock,Bowden&Co.[Numerousearliereditions.]Jest,Corneille(1960).'ReligiousBeliefs of theLepchasintheKalimpongDistrict(WestBengal)."Journal of theRoyalAsiaticSociety1960:12 4-1 34.Morris,John(1938).LivingwithLepchas:ABookabouttheSikkimHimalayas.London:WilliamHeinemann.Siiger,Halfdan,andJorgenRischel(1967).TheLepchas:CultureandReligion of aHimalayanPeople.EthnographicalSeries2.Copenhagen:NationalMuseum of Denmark.Tobias,Michael(1967).MountainPeople.Norman:Univer-sity of OklahomaPress.2nded.1986.NewYork:BasicBooks.JAYDiMAGGIOLimbuETHNONYMS:noneOrientationTheLimbu,one of thelargesttribalaggregatesinNepal,liveinthemosteasterlypart of NepalbetweentheArunRiverandtheborder of SikkimDistrict,India.TheLimbuare of MongoliandescentandspeakaTibeto-Burmandialect.In1970,thepopulationwasestimatedat245,000.HistoryandCulturalRelationsInthelatterpart of theeighteenthcenturyNepalwasformedbyunitingvariousethnicgroupsandnumerousprincipalitiesunderahigh-casteHindudynasty.Thisconquestresultedinanumber of migrations of high-casteHindugroupsintoeast-152Lingayattionisaporchwitharaisedplatform,usuallyopenbutsome-timesclosed,whichisusedforvisitorsandresting.Athresh-oldandadoorframewithcarvedfigures of Basavaleadtothesecondsection,whichconsists of unitsusedforhousingthecattleandfordomesticpurposes,includingakitchen,astore-room,andapuja(worship)room.Thethirdsection of thehouse,thebackyard,isusedforstoringhay,fuel,etc.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theeconomy of aLingayatvillage,whichispredominantlyagricultural,re-flectstheLingayatculture.Theirsocialstructureispopulistic,withbirthandoccupationintertwined.Lingayatsareengagedinanentirerange of occupationalactivities-agriculture,commerceandtrade,teachingandscholarship,blacksmith-ing,carpentry,weaving,oilpressing,hairdressing,etc.Tradi-tionally,Lingayatfarmersproducedpartlyforlocalconsump-tionandpartlyforamarketeconomy,andplowedtheirlandwithmetal-shodwoodenplowspoweredbypairs of bullocks.Much of economiclifewasregulatedbytheayasystem,inwhichexchange of goodsandservicestookplace.Thelocalartisangroupsandlabordependeduponthefarmersfortheirsurvival.Withindependencein1947andthelaunching of five-yearplansandcommunitydevelopmentprojects,thetra-ditionalmode of cultivationisbeinggraduallymodernizedbytheuse of chemicals,fertilizers,liftpumps,irrigation,etc.Rurallife,oncecharacterizedbyexchangerelationships,isgivingwaytocompetitiveinterestsrevolvingaroundtheeco-nomicrealities of supplyanddemand.Forexample,thearti-sancommunityinthevillagehasnearlycloseditsdoorstolocalcustomers,asitnowseeksnewopportunitiesinthenearbycitymarketinitstraditionalspecialities.Andthevil-lagewasherman'sfamilyalsoisinvolvedinthecityelectriclaunderingestablishment,thecobblerinitsshoestores,theblacksmithintool-makingjobs,andthegoldsmithinthejew-elrystore.Sotraditionalworkisbecomingmodemwork,andtraditionalskillsarebecomingmodernizedintheprocess.Thevillagefarmers,whoonceproducedprimarilyfordomes-ticandlocalpurposes,nowprefercashcropssuchassugar-cane,cotton,chilies,fruits,andvegetablesforexport.Butsuchconcernsdonotseemtohaveerodedtraditionalvaluesasindicatedbytheincreasingnumber of cooperativesocietiesinLingayatvillages.UrbanLingayatsarefoundequallyinalloccupationsanddominatesmalltrade,commerce,andthetextileindustryinKarnataka.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thekinshipuniverse of theLingayatscanbedescribedinterms of twocategories:effec-tiveandnoneffective.Relationshipsamongeffectivekinareclose,intimate,obligatory,andreciprocal,whereasthoseamongnoneffectivekinarelessintimateandfunctionallyin-significant.Effectivekinarethosecloselyrelatedbydescentandmarriage,andmateselectionamongsuchkinispreferen-tial.Noneffectivekinareremotelyrelatedandrarelyremem-bered,andmeaningfulinteractionbetweenthemisabsent.Ideally,Lingayatkinshipemphasizesthepatrimonialprinci-ple,butinrealitymatrilinealorientationsprevailbothinsen-timentsandobligations.KingroupsamongruralLingayatsmaintainandreinforcetheirkinshiprelationsthroughuncle-niece,cross-cousin,andexchangemarriages.Affinalrelation-shipsarerecognizedonlyiftheyareinvolvedinpreferentialmarriages.KinshipTerminology.Lingayatkinshipmaybedescribedasmultilateralwithpartlydescriptiveandpartlygenerickinterms.Father'sbrothersandsisters,forexample,arede-scribedas"big"or"little""fathers"and"mothers"dependingonrelativeage;termsforpaternalandmaternalgrandfathersandgrandmothersaretreatedinthesameway.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.AcommonpracticeamongLingayatparentsistoarrangetheirchildren'smarriages.Aboutfivedecadesago,abrideandbridegroomcouldseeeachother'sfaceonlyatthemarriagepedestal,butincreasingeducationandwidespreadurbanizationhavecreptintothevillagesandslowlyaffectedtheways of traditionalmatchmaking.Thesedays'love"mar-riagesareheard of eveninthecountryside.IneducatedLingayatfamilies,youngergenerationsenjoysomefreedominthechoice of partners,apracticeunheard of halfacenturyago.Theuse of horoscopesisconspicuouslyabsentamongthe_Lingayats.Divorceandseparationareuncommonandmaritalbreakdownsarefrownedupon.Precautionsagainstpossibledisintegrationaretakenbyarranginginterkinmar-riages,whichhelptostrengthenthemaritalbonds.Intheevent of abreakdown,however,Lingayatattitudestowarddi-vorce,especiallyincomparisonwithsomeotherreligiousgroups,areliberalandtolerant.Theyareequallyliberalinen-couragingwidowremarriages,whicharecondemnedbytheHindu-Brahmanicsociety.ResidenceispatrilocalamongruralLingayats.Uponmarriage,thebridegoestolivewiththegroom'shousehold.Amongurbanitestheyareexpectedtoliveindependently.ForaneducatedLingayatcouple,neo-localresidenceisthenorm.DomesticUnit.TheextendedfamilyisregardedastheidealarrangementamongruralLingayats,althoughthenu-clearfamilyisactuallymorecommonandthereareocca-sionalinstances of conjugalfamilyarrangements.Nuclearorconjugal,thefamilydoesnotliveinisolation,asitisalwaysembeddedinthelargerkingroup.Sincethecollectivesolidar-ity of thekingroupistheprimevalueinthecommunity,fam-ilyautonomyandprivacyareneveritsconcerns.Allrelatedfamiliesareheldtogetherbyasense of mutualityandcomple-mentarity.Suchinterdependenceisseenonoccasions of births,weddings,fairs,andfestivals.TheurbanLingayatfam-ilyisprimarilynuclearbutittoomaintainsitstieswithitsruralkinbyprovidingshelter,hospitality,andemploymentopportunities,whenneeded.Inheritance.Traditionally,legalrightsfavoredthepatri-lineage.Uponmarriage,agirltookherhusband'ssurnameandallthelegalclaimsthatwentwithit.Herloss of ashareinherparentalfamilyproperty,however,wasmetthroughade-quategifts of jewelryandgoldduringhermarriageandonsuccessivevisitstothenatalfamily.Herparentsandsiblingsfulfilledtheirmoralobligationstoher,especiallyintimes of crisis.Suchcustomsandconventionsgenerallycreatedanen-vironmentinwhichbrother-sisterrelationscontinuedevenaftertheparents'deaths.TheSuccessionAct of 1956thatgaveguaranteedequalrightstosurvivingchildren of deceasedparentsalteredthebondsthatonceunitedtheconjugalandnatalfamiliesandbrother-sisterrelationships.Itisnotun-150Limbu.emNepal,causinganethnicandculturalsplitwiththeLimbus.Limbusareconsideredthefirstsettlers of eastNepalandarethoughttobedescendants of theKiratis.Limbusbe-cameknowntohistoryintheeighteenthcentury,atatimewhenanumber of smallchiefdomsinLimbuanwereundertheauthority of thekingdom of Bijayapur.TheLimbuswereexpectedtograntlandtotheimmigrantsfortheirsupport.TheNepalesegovernmentbroughtalltriballands(withtheexception of certainLimbus)underraikar,"asystem of land-lordismunderwhichtherights of anindividualtoutilizationandtransfer of thelandarerecognizedbythestateaslongastaxesarepaid."BeforethissystemwasenforcedallLimbugroupsheldlandunderthesystem of kipat,inwhich"anindi-vidualobtainsrightstolandbyvirtue of hismembershipinaseries of nestingkingroups."Thischange of landtenurecausedLimbustoloselandstotheHinduimmigrants,whoweremostly of Brahmancaste.Thereweretworeasonsforthischange.First,ashortage of landswasbeginningtobefelt,andthereforethegovernmentdissolvedalltheLimbuanrightstotheirkipatlands.Asecondfactorwastheabsence of ownershipdocuments,whichledtolegalconflictsoverown-ershipandrent.Surrenderedkipatlandshelpedtofinancerevenuesettlements,postalservices,andthearmy.TheLimbuswereleftonlywiththelandtheywerelivingonandcultivating.TheBrahmanshadsomeadvantagesoverLim-bus:theywereskilledandhadlaborresourcesthattheLimbuslackedandneeded.Theywerealsoabletoreadandwrite,whichqualifiedthemforadministrativejobsandforcedtheabolition of thekipatsystem.Intheeyes of theLimbus,Brahmanswere"ungratefulservants"whoweretrustedwiththeirlandbut"stole"itinstead.TheLimbusarenowdeter-minedtosalvagetheirlandunderthekipatsystemandrefrainfrompassingitontomembers of othergroups.Brahmans,atacosttotheLimbus,havebecomethemostauthoritarianethnicgroupineastNepal.ResentmentisalsofeltbytheBrahmanstowardtheLimbus;BrahmansregardtheLimbusas"simple"and"concernedonlyforthepresent."BrahmansfeelthatifLimbushadlookedtothefuture,theywouldnothavegrantedtheirlands.TheLimbuanstruggleforlandisanongoingprocessthatcontinuestoaffectsocialandpoliticalconditionsintheregion.EconomyAgricultureisthemainsource of income.Theabundance of landhasmadethecultivation of newagriculturallandspossi-ble,butinsufficientknowledge of technologyhaslimitedtheirproductivity.Limbugrowwheat,rice,andmaize,andtheytradesome of thecropsforgoodsthatcannotbegrownormadeintheirregion.Asexualdivision of laboroccursinagriculture.Menplowthefields,womenplanttheseeds,andattheharvestingperiodbothsexesjointocompletethejob.Duringcultivationfamiliesbringfriendstohelpwiththefields.Thesegroups of peoplesharelaborwithoneanotherduringespeciallybusytimes.Anothersource of incomeforLimbusismilitaryservice.EconomichardshiphasmadeitworthwhiletojointhearmybothinNepalandinIndiainre-turnforasmallamount of cash.Associatedwithmilitaryserviceisrespectandhonor,especiallyforthose of highermil-itaryrank.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMarriageisdefinedasalegitimateunionbetweenamanandawomansothattheymayproducelegitimatechildren.Inthepast,marriageswerearrangedbyfamilieswithneitherthebridenorthegroomhavingmuchcommentonthemarriagepaymentsorceremonies.Aftertheweddingthegirlwouldgiveupherlastnameforherhusband's,inreturnforabride-price.Modemtimeshavechangedthisandnowbothpartieshaveachancetochooseanddecideonthematter.Thegiftgivingcontinuesaftertheweddingandmarriagepaymentsex-tendovermanyyears.Womenplayagreatandveryactivepartinthemarriage,inpartbecauseinmanyhouseholdsthemanservesinthearmyformanyyearsandthewomanisthedecisionmakerconcerningthehouse,children,marriage,andbusiness.Womenalsoinfluencethestability of amarriage.Themother-in-lawphobiaisstronglyfelt,andinmostcasesthemother-in-lawistheprimereasonforabride'sdeparture.Languageisalsoabarrierifthebrideisfromadifferentre-gion.TheLimbus,likemanyNepalese,arehesitanttoad-dressoneanotherdirectly.Callingoutanameinpublicistabooandcreatesembarrassment;thereforethenewbrideiscalled"you"or"thewife of so-and-so"(teknonymy)andshedoesnothavefullstatusasawomanuntilshebearsachild.Untilfullacceptancebythemother-in-law,themarriageisuncertain,asthewifecanreturntohernatalhomeifsheismadetofeeluncomfortable.Polygamyisnotwidelyprac-ticed;itispracticedonlyifthewifeisbarrenorhasfailedtoproducesons.Kinshipisveryimportantinamarriage.Aunionwithkinisconsideredsuccessfulandideal.FortheLimbustherearethreetypes of marriages:adultery,arrange-ment,and"theft."Allthreearelegal.Incase of adulterousmarriageabride-priceisnotrequired.Somecompensationispaidtotheformerhusbandbythenewhusband.Also,ifthewomanissingle,thenewhusbandvisitsthewoman'snatalhomewithofferingstoformacloserbondwithherfamily."Theft"marriagesarecommon.Theterm"theft"meansthatshehasagreedtobetakenwithoutnegotiations.Suchelope-mentisonewaytoavoidthehighcost of abride-price.Thewomeninthesemarriagesareconsideredasweaksubjects,laborresources,andchildbearers.FortheLimbustheseun-desirablemarriages,especiallytheft of marriedwomen,areusuallyinitiatedatdances.Familiesrelated"bythebone"makeuppatrilineallineagesandclans.Death of amemberbringspollutiononthelocalagnaticdescentgroup.Duringthistimeadultsrefrainfromeat-ingmealscookedwithsaltandoil.Wiveswhohavetakentheirhusband'sfamilynamealsotaketheirimpuritiesbyeatingleft-oversfromtheirmeals.Lineageandclangroupsareexogamous,somenandwomenwiththesameclannameareforbiddentomarryorhavesexualrelations.Today,lineagesdonothaveagreatinfluenceonmarriage,thoughpaymentsaremadetothechief of theclan.IngeneralLimbufamiliesareeconomicallyandrituallyindependent of eachother.ReligionandExpressiveCultureOnearea of differencebetweenLimbusandBrahmansisreli-gious.LimbusrecognizeandparticipateinmanypopularHindufestivalsbutalsohaveanumber of theirownpracti-tioners.Theyworshipbymeans of bloodsacrifice.Theybe-lievethatlineagedivinitiesarenottransmittedpatrilineally.Lakher145LinguisticAffiliation.TheLakherspeakMaraChin(BurmicFamily,Tibeto-BurmanStock),alanguagebelong-ingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheseparategroupsthatmakeuptheLakherareallbelievedtohaveoriginatedsomewherenorth of theirpresentlocation,intheChinHills.Theadvancement of thesepeoplescanbetracedwithsomedegree of certainty,andtheoriginalhome-land of atleastthree of thesegroups(Tlongsai,Hawthai,andSabeu)canbeposited.TheTlongsaimigrationbeganinLeisai(betweenLeitakandZaphai).Theoriginalhomeland of theHawthaiisbelievedtohavebeenChira(inHaka).TheSabeuarefoundinChapi,butitisbelievedthattheymigratedtothatlocationfromThiatla,whichisnearHaka.Beforetheadvent of Britishimperialdomination,intervillageconflictwastheLakhernorm.IndividualLakhervillagesfoughtagainstoneanotherandagainstneighboringpeoples(e.g.,theKhumis ... byanymember of ahousehold.ThereisnohereditaryLakherpriesthood,thesoleexceptionbeingthetleuliabopawhoisappointedbythevillagechieftoperformthetleuliasacrifice.InmostLakhervillages,thispositionisheldforlife.Misconductcan,however,resultindismissalandreplace-ment.Uponthedeath of thetleuliabopa,theofficepassestohisson.Theservices of akhazanghneipa(medium)maybeobtainedbythosedesiringfertility,curesforsickness,orknowledge of futureevents.Ceremonies.Ceremoniesaccompanymost of themajorlife-cycleeventsandothersignificantsocialevents.Festivaloccasionsarefewinnumberandareusuallyassociatedwithmarriageandbirth.Aman of wealthmaysponsorafeastuponthecompletion of anewhome.Beerfeastsmayalsobegivenbyamanforhisassociates.ThemajorLakherfestivalsarePazusata(afeastthatmarkstheend of theyearanddur-ingwhichbehavioralrestrictionsonchildrenaresuspended),andPakhupila(the"kneedance,"occasionedbyanexcellentcropyield).TheSiaharoyalclan(theKhichhaHleuchang)departsfromthisnorm.Ithasaseries of sixfeastsdesignedtoensurefavorabletreatmentintheafterlife(i.e.,entranceintoParadise).Inadditiontothesefestivals,numerousadditionalmagicoreligiousrites (of asacrificialnature)areassociatedwiththesubsistencecycle,matters of state,legalproceedings,medicalpractice,domesticaffairs,ancestralworship,andthereligiouscults. Of these,theKhazangpinasacrifice(offeredtoKhazangpa),duringwhichthesacrificerasksforblessingsonhimselfandhisfamily(e.g.,wealth,health,abundance of children,goodcrops,andfertiledomesticanimals),isunsur-passedinimportance.Arts.Lakhervisualartisrepresentedbypersonaleffectsservingornamentalandotherpurposes(e.g.,belts,hairpins,combs,earrings,bracelets,necklaces,pipes,guns,powderflasks,daos,swords,knives,nicotine-waterflasks,syphons,andthelids of earthenwarepots)andbytattooing.Musicis of greatimportanceandtheLakherhavethreeclasses of songs:thosefordailyusage;thoseaccompanyingtheiacere-mony(performedoverthehead of adeadenemyorthecar-cass of adeadanimal);andthoseaccompanyingthePakupilafestival("kneedance").Instrumentsincludegongs,flutes,drums,violins,zithers,andthechaei...

... inThakhola,whichbeganevenbeforethe1960s,issummarizedasfollows.(1)ChangesintheThakaliway of lifehavebeeninstituted,suchasavoid-ance of eatingyakmeat(beef)and of drinkingTibetanbeer.(2)Some of theThakalileadershavediscouragedthemem-bers of thecommunityfromwearingbakus(Tibetanrobes)andhaveencouragedthemtowearNepaleseorWesterndressinstead.ButmanywomenstillprefertowearHimalayan-styleToda297andtheothersubcastealonemayoperatethem.Eachsub-casteisagaindividedintonamedexogamouspatricians,whichownthehamlets,funeralplaces,andsometimesaniso-lateddairysite.Apatricianhasfoursubdivisions:kwiYr,arit-ualbifurcation;po-lm,aneconomicsection, of whichtheremaybemorethantwo;hamletandfamily.Thetwosubcastesarealsodividedintoexogamousmatriclans,importantde-scentcategoriesformaritalandritualpurposesbutlackingcorporateunity.PoliticalOrganization.Todasocietyfunctionswithoutformalheadmenatanylevel,exceptthehousehold,wheretheeldestmaleisdominant.Acastecouncilmakespoliticaldeci-sionsaffectingthewholecommunity:alladultmalesmaypar-ticipate,debatingeachissueuntilaconsensusisreached.Mattersconcerningonesubcastealone,oronepatrician,aredebatedbythesubcasteorpatriciancouncilrespectively,comprisingalladultmalememberswhowishtoparticipate.BecauseTodahavelongrecognizedthepoliticoeconomic(butnotritual)dominance of theBadaga,theysometimesaskcertainBadagaleaderstoparticipateintheircastecouncil.SocialControl.Thehouseholdheadisresponsibleforthegoodbehavior of allwholiveunderhisroof.Disputesbe-tweenhouseholdsaremediatedbythepatriciancouncil;un-resolvedcasesmaybetakentothesubcasteor,finally,castecouncil.Eachpatricianoverseesitsownmembers,butdis-putesbetweenpatricianmembersmaygotoasubcasteorulti-matelyacastecouncilforresolution.Thesubcastealsooper-atesthroughitssubcastecounciltoregulateitsmembers,withthepossibility of takingunresolvedissuesbeforethecastecouncil.Thecastecouncilhasthepowertodealwithanyinfringement of socialconductwithinthecommunityandcanfineorexcommunicateoffenders.Conflict.TheTodahavenoweapons of warormartialin-stitutions.Conflicts,eitherbetweenindividualsorgroups,onlyoccasionallyprovokephysicalviolenceratherthanthevitriolicverbalconfrontationthatiscommon.Thevariouscouncils-clan,subcaste,andcaste-arequicktointervene,defuseemotions,andargueforcompromise.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefsandPractitioners.TraditionalTodacosmologyidentifiestwoworlds:that of theliving,ruledbythegoddessTiskisy,andthat of thedead,whereherbrother,O-n,reignssupreme.Thereisnoconception of aneternalHell,butthosewhohaveledunmeritoriouslivesaresaidtosuffermanyindignitiesbeforetheytooeventuallyreachtheother world. Todaalsohaveappropriatedmuch of the world- view of theirHinduneighbors,andconcepts of ritualpurity,pollution,hierarchy,andritualspecializationunderlieeventhemostindigenous of Todaritualpractices.PilgrimagetoHindutemples,norecentinnovation,isincreasinglypopularamongyoungerToda.Todareligionfindsritualexpressionprincipallyinthecult of the ... of theparents of eitherbride,groom,orboth.Thebride-priceissettledatsomepointaftertheuniontakesplace.Postmaritalresidenceispatrilocal.Divorceisfrequentandpermissible.Inheritanceisexclusivelythroughthemaleline.Thadouwomenarethechiefagents of socialization.Childrenarepermittedagreatdegree of independenceoncetheyareabletowalk.Littlestructurededucationisprovidedbyparents,therebyleavingtheThadouchildtolearnthroughexperientialmeans.SociopoliticalOrganizationShawprovidedlittleinformationaboutthepoliticalstructure of thetraditionalThadouvillage.Fromwhathehasmen-tioned,theposition of chief/headmanwas of primaryimpor-tance.Thechiefwasusuallyinpossession of thelargestdomi-cileinavillage.Thegatheringpointforvillagemaleswasadjacenttothechief'shome.Thechiefalsohadtherighttoconfiscatestandingcropsandstoredgrainbelongingtoanymember of thevillagewhomigratedfromtherewithouthispermission.Further,inregionalintervillagecombat,itwascustomarytotakechiefshostageratherthantokillthem.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthiswasduetothebeliefthatallchiefswererelatedbyblood.Thechiefisowner of allvillagelandsandreceivesthebenefit of dues(e.g.,annualcultiva-tiondue,migrationdue,andtheduepaidbyanyonesellinggayals,buffalo,orothercattle)andrequiredservicesfromhissubjects(e.g.,eachvillagermustworkonedayeachmonthinthechief'sfields).Socialcontrolismaintainedbytheimposi-.Telugu285southernpart of theTelugucountrywasconqueredbyMus-linmsin1565.Europeantraders-Dutch,French,andEnglish-attractedbytextilesandspicesbeganarrivingonthesceneinthesixteenthcentury.TheBritishultimatelypre-vailedintheeighteenthcentury,acquiringcontrolfromtherulers of Golkondaoverextensivetractsinthenortheastcoastalbelt of theTelugucountry.Latertheseterritorieswerelinkedwiththosetheyacquiredinthe south andruledfromthecity of Madras.Thenorthwesternpart of theTelugu-speakinglandsremainedinwhatbecamethestate of theNizam of Hyderabad,whoseforeignaffairsanddefensecametobecontrolledbytheBritish.PoliticaltrendssinceIndianindependencein1947in-cludethreedecades of dominancebytheCongressparty.Thiswasfollowedbytheascent of theregionalTeluguDesam.party,spearheadedbyaformerTelugumovieidol,N.T.RamaRao.SettlementsTeluguvillagesrangeinsizefromseveralhundredinpopula-tiontomanythousand,withlargeronesresemblingsmalltowns.Frequentlyseveral"hamlets"areaffiliatedtogetherasasinglevillage.Insomecases,theconstituentsettlementshavebeendesignatedavillagebythegovernmentforpur-poses of taxation,economicdevelopment,andpoliticalrepre-sentation.Typicallythemainsettlement of thevillagehasthewidestvariety of castes(orjatis,endogamousgroupsoftenas-sociatedwithparticularoccupations),withatemple,smallshops,teaanddrinkstalls,aweeklymarket,apostoffice,andavillageschool.Quarters of formerUntouchablecastesaretraditionallysegregatedfromtheotherhouses of asettlement.Teluguhousetypesvaryconsiderablyevenwithinthesamevillage.Differencesinconstructionmaterialsusuallyin-dicatedifferingeconomicstatuses.Dwellingsrangefrommud-walled,single-familyhouseswithpalm-thatchedroofstohousesmade of brickandmortar-orstoneinsomeregions-withflat,cementroofs.Allhouseshaveatleastoneinnerroomwherethefamilyvaluablesarestored,ceremonialbrassvessels(dowry)aredisplayed,anddeitiesareworshipedatasmallshrine.Aroofedverandawithcookingnookliesoutsidethisinnerroom.Forthehighestcastes,forwhomitisimportantthatcookingtakeplacebeyondthepollutinggaze of outsiders,thecookingareaisadjacenttotheback of thedwellinginawalledcompound.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Thefoodgrainheldinhighestesteemisrice,cultivatedintensivelyintheKrishnaandGodavarideltasaswellasextensivelythrough-outotherparts of thecoastalzoneandinscatteredparts of theinterior.Awayfromstreamsirrigationisbyreservoirsknownastanks.Theseareformedwithearthendamsthatholdrainwaterinthewetseason.Otherfoodgrains,grownonnonirrigatedlands,arealsoimportant.Mungbeans,limabeans,andblack-eyedpeasarewidelycultivated,asareses-ameseedsandpeanutsforoil.Populargardenvegetables,grownforhomeuseandforsale,includetomatoes,eggplants,onions,garlic,chilies,bittergourds,pumpkins,okra,yams,ginger,andcorn.Widelygrownfruitsincludemangoes,tama-rinds,guavas,bananas,coconuts,custardapples,sapodillas,limes,toddy-palm(palmyra,Borassusflabellifer),cashews,andpineapples.Turmericrootisalsocultivated,asismus-tard,fenugreek,coriander,andfennel.Inadditiontorice,im-portantcommercialcropsaresugarcane,tobacco,andcot-ton.Chiliesarecultivatedthroughoutthestateforsale.Fishingisimportantalongthecoastaswellasininlandtanks.Cultivationismainlyunmechanized,exceptforgasoline-poweredpumpsusedbywealthierfarmerstoaidirrigation.Bullocksorwaterbuffaloareusedtopullwoodenplowsrein-forcedwithirontips.Cropsareharvestedbyhand.Inadditiontocattleandwaterbuffalo-whichareusednotformeatbutfordairyproducts-numerousotherdomes-ticanimalsareraised.Theseincludechickens,ducks,turkeys,goats,sheep,andpigs.Dogsarekeptbysomevillagersforhunting.IndustrialArts.TelugusocietywithitsHinducastesys-temhasahighlydevelopedtradition of familytransmission of manufacturingandfood-processingskills.Amongtheseareblacksmithing,carpentry,goldsmithing,cottonandsilkweav-ing,basketmaking,pottery,andoilpressing.Manyvillagersweavetheirownbaskets,maketheirownropefrompalmfiber,andthatchtheirownroofs.Trade.Villagemarketssellingfreshvegetables,meat,spices,cloth,andbanglesaretypicallyheldonedayeachweek.Generallyoneparticularlylargeweeklymarketonamainbusrouteservesasamagnetforanentireruralregion.Women of farmercastesoftenbringproducefromtheirfami-lies'farms,andtheirhusbandsengageinpettytrading,offer-ingchickensforsale.Pottersandsellers of banglesandcloth-ingalsooffertheirwares.Professionalmerchantcastesmaintainsmallprovisionstores,whichareopendailyinthevillages.Division of Labor.TOagreatextent,women'stimeistakenupwithchildrearingandfoodpreparation.However,amongthemiddleandlowercasteswomenengageinstrenu-ousphysicalagriculturallaborsuchastransplantingriceshootsandharvesting.Intowns,womenworkonconstruc-tionsites,carryingheavybasketswithcementorbricksorbreakingrocks.Butamongthehighercastestherearerestric-tionsonwomengoingout of theirhomesorevenappearinginpublicunescorted.InTelugusocietylaborismoststrikinglydividedbycaste.Castesareeconomicallyinterdependentendogamousgroupsoftenassociatedwithparticularoccupationsorcrafts-barbering,washing,andoilpressing,forinstance.LandTenure.Landisheldbyhouseholdsandpassespa-trilineallyalongthemaleline,inequalsharesbetweenbroth-ers.Landisnotownedbyallfamiliesbutratherheldmainlybymembers of fannercastes,aswellasbymembers of highercasteswhoemploylowercastestocultivateit.Foodistradi-tionallydistributedthroughouttheruralpopulationviaex-change of grainorcashforservices.Landlesslower-castemembers of societywhocannotsupportthemselvesinthevil-lageeconomyfrequentlymigratetourbanareastoworkforwages.Theythenusuallymaintaintieswiththeirhomevillage.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Anindividualisamember of thefollowinggroups:(1)afamilyresidinginahousehold ... unabletosurvivewellinabigcitylikeKath-mandu.Thankstotheirbusinessacumenandindustrious-ness,however,some of themhavestartedtheirownprofitablebusinessesandareforminganewclass.Asforthetradingactivities of theThakalis,asort of fi-286Teluaugenerallyheadedbytheeldestmale;(2)anendogamoussub-clanorbranch of apatrilineage;(3)anexogamousclan(shar-ingapatrilineallytransmittedfamilyname);and(4)anen-dogamouscastewithaparticularhierarchicalstatus,customs of diet,prohibitionsonfoodexchangewithothercastes,andoftenatraditionaloccupation.Descentispatrilinqal.KinshipTerminology.Dravidiankinshiptermsareused;theterminologyemphasizesrelativeage.Forexample,termsdifferaccordingtotheages of thespeakerandthepersonspo-ken of; thereareseparatetermsfor"olderbrother"and"youngerbrother."Theterminologyalsodividesrelativesintomarriageableandunmarriageablecategories.Ontheonehand,onecallsone'sparallelcousins"brothers"and"sisters."Theyarenotconsideredtobepotentialspouses.Ontheotherhand,one'scrosscousinsaredesignatedbytermsim-plyingthattheyarepotentialaffines.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriagesaremonogamous,polygynyhavingbeenprohibitedsinceIndianindependence.Marriagesaregenerallyarrangedbyparentsandrelatives,thoughpotentialmatesmaygettomeeteachotherormayalreadybeac-quaintediftheyarerelatedorliveinthesamevillage.Asmentioned,marriagewithcrosscousinsiscommon,andaman'smaternaluncleisviewedasapreferreddonor of awife.Wivesareconsideredresponsibleforthewell-being of theirhusbandsandarefelttobeatfaultiftheirhusbandsdiebe-foretheydo.Thetheme of theinauspiciousness of widow-hoodrecursinmanyritualcontexts.Marriagesaregenerallypatrilocal.Thefission of individualhouseholdsisagradualprocess,beginningwithaman'ssonsmarryingandbringingtheirwivestolivewithhimandhiswife.Eventuallyseparatehearthsareestablished,followedlaterbyadivision of lands.Asharing of tasksaroundagriculturalfieldhutsneartheirlandsisthelasttietobemaintained.Differentcasteshavevaryingattitudestowarddivorce.Thehighestinstatuspro-hibititentirely.Nextdowninthehierarchyarecastesthatpermitdivorceifnochildrenhavebeenborn.Thesearefol-lowedbycastespermittingdivorcerelativelyunrestrictedly.Agreementsarereachedregardingthereturn of marriagegiftsandproperty.Formalwrittendocuments of releasearedrawnupandexchangedbytheparties,leavingthemfreetoremarry.DomesticUnit.Thebasicunitisanuclearfamily.Ahousehold,definedasthosewhosharefoodpreparedatacommonhearth,isledbyahouseholdhead.Duringthecourse of itsdevelopment,ahouseholdcanincludeaddi-tionalmembers-spousesandoffspring of sons,orwidowsandwidowers.Inheritance.Property,suchasland,isdividedequallyamongbrothers,thoughthelesseconomicallyestablishedyoungestsonalsoofteninheritsthefamilyhome.Socialization.Infantsandsmallchildrenareraisedbythewomen of thehousehold.Oldersiblingsandothercousinsalsooftentendchildrenyoungerthanthemselves.Childrenareencouragedtoaccompanytheirparentseverywhereandbeginlearningsex-specifictasksandcasteoccupationsfromanearlyage.SociopoliticalOrganizationAndhraPradesh,one of thelargeststatesintheRepublic of India,isledbyachiefministerandagovernorandhasanelectedlegislature.ItscapitalisHyderabad.SocialOrganization.Theprimaryorganizingprinciple of Telugusocietyishierarchy,basedonage,sex,andsocialgroup.Eachendogamouscastegroupreckonsitsrelationshiptoothercastesaseitherone of superiority,equality,orinferi-ority.Whiletheserelativerankingsproduceahierarchy,thisisinsomecasesamatter of dispute.Tosomeextenttherela-tivepositionsareperceivedtobeachievedonthebasis of mu-tualwillingnesstoengageinvarioussorts of symbolicex-changes,especially of food.Castemembersdonotacceptfoodpreparedbyacastetheyconsidertobeinferiortotheirown.Inaddition,castesmaintaindistinctivediets-thehigh-estrefusestoeatmeat,thenextlevelrefusestoeatdomesticporkorbeef,andthelowesteatsporkandbeef.Thereareclusters of castes of similarstatus-suchasfarmers-thataccepteachother'sfood,aswellaspairs of similar-statuscastes-suchasthetwomajorformerUntouchablecastes-thatrejecteachother'sfood.Thereisalsoagroup of castes-thePanchabrahma,artisansingold,brass,iron,andwood-thatclaimtobehigherthanthehighestBrahmans.Butwhiletheyrefusefoodfromallothercastes,noothercastesacceptfoodfromthem.PoliticalOrganization.Thestate of AndhraPradeshisdi-videdintotwenty-onedistricts(zilla).Districtsweretradi-tionallysubdividedintotaluksuntil1985whenasmallersub-division,themandal,wasinstitutedbytheTeluguDesamparty.Themandal,whoseleaderisdirectlyelected,servesasafunctionary of revenueadministrationand of governmentde-velopmentprojects.Townswithtalukheadquartersaretheseat of courts,police,andgovernmenthealth-careprograms.Thepoliticalculture of democracyamongtheTelugusishighlydeveloped,withfrequentelectionsforstateandna-tionalrepresentatives.SocialControlandConflict.Intimes of conflicttheau-thority of eldermalesisrespected.Amalehouseholdheadrulesonadisputewithinhishousehold.Next,aninformallyconstitutedgroup of eldermales of thesamecastearbitratesdifficultdisputeswithinorbetweenfamiliesinthecaste.Casesinvolvingmembers of differentcastesareoftenreferredtohighercastesforsettlement,inapattern of ascendingcourts of appeal.Whenconflictsbeginthereisoftenmuchcommotionandshouting of accusationsorgrievances.Thisattractstheparticipation of bystandersandtriggerstheproc-ess of arbitration.ReligionThevastmajority of TelugusareHindus.TherearealsosomeTelugucastesthathaveconvertedtoChristianityandIslam.Eachvillagehasitsmaintemple-oftendedicatedtoagreatHindugod,usuallyRamaorSiva-aswellassmallshrinestonumerousvillagedeities,most of whicharefemale.Preemi-nentamongtheregionalshrinesintheTelugucountryisthetemple of SriVenkatesvarainthetown of Tirupati,amajorpilgrimagecenter.ReligiousBeliefs.Hinduismlacksacentralizedecclesias-ticalhierarchyorunifiedauthorityofficiallydefiningdoc-280Tamil of SriLankaTamil of SriLankathe1978constitution,TamilsneverthelessbelievethatTamilspeakersaresubjecttorampantdiscriminationandcannotef-fectivelyparticipateinSriLanka'snationalaffairs.ETHNONYMS:Tamilarkal(Tamilpeople),TamilianOrientationIdentification.LinguisticallyandculturallyrelatedtotheTamil-andMalayalam-speakingpeoplesof...

... northernandcentralIndia,numberingseveralmillions.Theirtraditionaloccupationwastappingpalmsforthesap,buttheyalsousedtobethieves.Nowsomearehuntersandfowlers;mostarefarmers.(Risley1891,2:16 6-1 68;Crooke1896,4:13 8-1 52;ThurstonandRangachari1909,6:15 8-1 59;Rose1911,2:204;RussellandHiraLal1916,4:38 0-3 85)Patari(Pathari)Acaste of prieststotheMajhwartribe,foundinUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,4:15 3-1 55)PatharvatAcaste of stonecuttersandimagecarvers,un-usualinthattheyincludeVaishnavites,Shaivites,Lingayats,andMuslims.TheyarewidespreadinMaharashtraandKarnataka.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,3:22 2-2 23)Pathiyar(Pathiyan)AtribefoundinKozhikodeDistrict,northernKerala.Theycultivateorworkasfarmlaborers.(GopalanNair1911,8 2-8 5;Luiz1962,22 2-2 24)Patni(Patuni,Patauni,Dom-Patni)Atradingandfarm-ingcaste of WestBengalandBangladesh,whoalsoengageinfishingandbasketmaking.(Risley1891,2:17 0-1 72)PatnulkaranAweavingcastefoundinparts of TamilNadu,especiallyMadurai.TheyoriginatedinGujarat.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,6:16 0-1 76)Pattanavan(Karaiyan)Acaste of fishermenonthecoast of TamilNadu.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,6:17 7-1 86)Patwa(Patwi,Patra,Patua,Patvekari,Patvegar,llakeband,Ilaqeband,Alaqeband)Acaste of weaversinsilkandmak-ers of bodyornaments,foundinmuch of centralandnorth-ernIndia.MostareHindus,butsomeareMuslims.TherearealsoMuslimPatwasinWestBengal,whoarepeddlers.(Risley1891,1:8 3-8 5;Crooke1896,4:17 2-1 76;ThurstonandRangachari1909,6:17 6-1 77;RussellandHiraLal1916,4:38 5-3 87;Enthoven192 0-1 922,3:22 4-2 26;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,4:47 6-4 81)EthnonymIndextoAppendix355Kanchaviralu-MailariKandera-DhuniyaKandera-KaderaiKandeyo-VahupuraKandhaKandhaGanda-KandhaKandu-BharbhunjaKanetKangraBrahmanKani-KanikkarKanialanathRaval-RavalJogiKanikar-KandkkarKanikaran-KanikkarKanilkarKanikkaran-KanikkarKaniRazu-BhatrajaKanisan-KaniyanKaniyanKannadiyanKannajiBhat-BhatrajaKanphataKansabanik-TameraKansar-TameraKansara-TameraKansari-TameraKantaha-UahabrabmanKanu-BharbhuijaKanwar-KawarKanyakublaBrahmanKanyan-KaniyanKaora-KlhairwarKapaliKaparia-BasdewaKapariyaKapdi-BasdewaKapewar-MunurKappiliyanKaragir-NaiKaraiyan-PattanavanKaranKarana-KaranKaranga-KoravaKaranjkar-JingarKarataha-MahabrahmanKaravaKaravazhiKarenga-KoravaKareOkkaluKarhadaBrahmanKarhadeBrahman-KarhadaBrahmanKarhatakaBrahman-KarhadaBrahmanKarigar-BeldarKarimbalan-KarimpalanKarimpalanKarmakar-KamarKamam-KaranKarnaSaleKamati-NatKamaticBrahman-KanadaBrahmanKarral-ChandalKarumpuraththal-KappfliyanKarunjra-KunjraKawaiKasar-BohoraKasar-TameraKasban-DevadasiKasbi-DevadasiKasera-TameraKashikapdi-T-rmaliKassab-KasaiKastaBrahmanKasthaKatabu-KillekyataKataha-MahabrahmnKatakoti-KatalarayanKaftlarayanKatbo-TelagaKatera-DhuniyaKathakKathar-KhattarKathiKathia-KathiKathik-KathakKatdiyaraKathkari-KatkariKathodi-KatkariKathodia-KatkariKatiaKatibaglodu-TelagaKatila-KasaiKatikeKatikldu-KatikeKatipappla-TelagaKatkariKattalan-UlladanKattan-UlladanKattiBomalawaru-TelagaKattuMahrati-KuruvikkaranKatua-KatiaKatwa-KatiaKaur-KawarKavaraKavarai-BdijaKavikaraKawarKaya-KayasthKayalanKayashta-KayasthKayasthKayath-KayasthKeer-KirKehalKelasi-NaiKeot-KewatKewatKeyot-KewatKhaa-KhoKhadriVaishnava-SataniKhagar-KotwalKhaira-KhairwarKhairwa-KhairwarKhairwarKhambuKhamtiKhandaitKhandayat-KhandaitKhangar-KotwalKhantKhapariya-KapariyaKharadi-BarhaiKharakKhareng-KuliKhariaKharia-LodhiKharian-KhariaKharpatil-AgriKharralKharria-KhariaKharvaKharvi-KharvaKharwarKharwar-KhairwarKhasa-KhasiyaKhasiyaKhasiyaRajput-DusadhKhatak-KhattakKhati-LoharKhatikKhatik-KasaiKhatriKhatriya-SataniKhattakKhattarKhattri-KhatriKhavaKhawathlang-KukiKhawchung-KukdKhayra-KhairwarKhelma-KukdKhephong-KuldKheria-KhariaKheria-LodhiKherwar-KhairwarKherwar-KharwarKhetriKhewat-KewatKhoKhodalo-BavuriKhokarKhokur-KhokarKholhou-KukiKhothalong-KulciKhubar-KumharKhuhar-KumharKhyan-KewatKiliket-KillekyataKillekyataKillekyatha-KillekyataKillikiyata-KillekyataKingariya-KingriyaKingriha-KingriyaKkwNiyaKinnaraKinnara-KanetKinnaurese-KanetKinner-KanetKiot-KewatKipgen-KulciKirKirad-KirarKirarKisada-NagasiaKisan-NagasiaKizhakkanPulaya-PuluvanKo-KhoKocch-KochhKoch-KochhKochhKoch-Mandai-KochhKochuvelanKochuvelanmar-KochuvelanKoeri-KoiriKohliKoilPantala-KoilTampuran352EthnonymIndextoAppendixDarji-JinprDarkhan-TarkhanDarshani-KanphataDarwesh-DafaliDarzDasaDasari-DasriDasi-DevadasiDasiDatiyalKachari-RabhaDaur-DauriDaureGosavi-DavreJogiDauriDavreGosavi-DavreJogiDavreJogsDawari-DauriDanaGtDepaDeshasth-DeshasthaBrahmanDeshasthaBrahmanDesi-KochiDeswali-MinaDeuri-Chutiya-ChutiaDevadasiDevadig-SuppaligDevadiga-SuppaligDevang-DevangaDevangaDevangalu-DevangaDevangaSale-DevangaDevli-BhavinDevra-DevanpDewarDhakarDhanak-DhanukDhangad-DomaraDhangad-GoflDhangar-GolfaDhangarMahratta-GollaDhanka-GamitDhanka-GodlaDhanuhar-DhanwarDianukDhanwarDhaonsi-DakautDharhi-DosadhDhari-DosadhDharkarDharua-DhurwaDhebra-BhoiDhed-DhedaDhedaDheda-MeghvalDhedha-MeshvalDhemal-DhimalDhenuar-DhanwarDher-MadigaDher-MalaDhimalDhimar-BhoiDhivar-MangelaDhivara-KewatDhobaDhoba-DhobiDhobhi-DhobiDhobiDhoby-HenaDhoddiyan-YogiDhodi-DhodiaDhodiaDholi-BajaniaDholi-MirasiDhondphoda-BeldarDhorDhotada-BottadaDbuldhoyaDhulia-BasorDhuna-DhunlyaDhundDhundia-DhodiaDhunia-BahnaDhuruyaDhupi-DhobiDhuriDhuru-DhurwaDhurwaDibongiya-ChutiaDidayiDigwan-JingarDikhit-DikshitDikhshit-DikshitDikshitDimasa-KachariDimasaKachari-KachariDivaru-HalePaikaDogarDograDohor-DhorDoluvaDom-BhangiDom-DomaraDom-MfirasiDomahra-DornaraDomar-DornaraDomaraDomban-DomaraDombar-DomaraDombara-DomaraDombari-DomaraDombo-DomaraDome-DornaraDomMirasi-MirasiDom-Patni-PatniDomra-DomaraDomri-DomaraDongaDasariDongore-GavliDoom-DomaraDophia-DaflaDorhaDosadhDosadha-DosadhDoungel ... KuliDubaduba-JoehiDublaDudekulaDudwalaDulia-BasorDum-DomaraDumalDumar-DomaraDumMirasi-MirasiDummna-DomaraDuravaDurayi-PannaDurba-BabriaDurgaMurgi-BestaDusadhDusadh-DosadhEastIndianEdanadanChettiElama-VelamaElayad-AmbalavasiElmaEmbatteo-PanikkiEmbran-HavikBrahmanErakalaEranadan-AranadanEravallanEravaiiar-EravallnEravallen-EravallanErudandi-GangedduEtdwandlu-MadigaEzhuvaFakirFaqir-FakirFirasteMang-MangGaroriFun-KukiGabitGadaba-GadbaGadariaGadariya-GadariaGadbaGaddiGaderiya-GadariaGadhavi-CharanGadi-GaddiGadit-DudwalaGadri-GadariaGaduliyaLoharGahadawala-GaharwarRajiputGahala-BeravaGaharwarRpaptGahlot-SesodiaRaiputGakkharGalBhoi-RaikariGaliara-BandharaGaliong-AdiGamadiGamalhou-KukiGamgauda-GamVakkalGamitGammalaGamta-GamitGamVakkalGandaGandhabania-GandhabanikGandhabandkGandharb-GandharvGandhariaGandharvGandhi-AtariGandhmaliGandi-GandaGandia-GandaGandla-GanigaGandla-TeliGaneshia-MeghvalGangariGangauta-GangotaGangeddu320AppendixLingayats.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,1:36 7-3 73;SirajulHassan1920,1:19 6-2 00;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,3:51 4-5 15;Feio1979,8 5-9 0)GhadiAsmallcaste of soothsayers,foundonthecoast of Karnataka.Theyalsoworkasfarmersandlaborers.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,1:37 4-3 75)GhadshiAsmallcaste of hereditarymusicians,foundinnorthernKarnataka.Manyreceivepaymentsfromtemplestheyareattachedto;theyalsoworkasfarmersorfarmlabor.ers.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,1:37 5-3 76)Ghasia(Ghasiya,Ghasi,Sais,Syce)AHinducaste of northernandcentralIndia.Theiroccupationistogroomhorses,cutgrassforthem,andperformmusicatfestivals;somearecultivatorsorfishermen.(Risley1891,1:27 7-2 79;Crooke1896,2:40 8-4 19;RussellandHiraLal1916,1:403;3:2 7-3 2)GhermediAcaste of MuslimfarmerslocatedfromBombaynorthtoSindh,inPakistan.TheirnameindicatesthattheydisbelieveinthecomingMahdi,aprophetwhowillestablishdivinejusticeonearthpriortotheending of the world. (Campbell1899,6 2-6 4)GhirthAcaste of cultivatorsinKangraDistrict,HimachalPradesh.TheyareHinduRajputs.(Rose1911,1:28 7-2 95)Ghisadi(BaitiKamara,BailneKumbar)Acaste of itiner-anttinkersandknifegrinders.Gujaratiistheirlanguage,buttheyarefoundthroughoutwesternandcentralIndia.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,2: 3-5 ;SirajulHassan1920,1:20 1-2 03)GhosiAherdingcastefoundinnorthernandcentralIndia.InnorthernIndiatheyareMuslimconverts,whereasinMadhyaPradeshnearlyallareHindus.(Crooke1896,2:41 9- 421;Rose1911,1:297;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:3 2-3 5)Goan(Goanese,Luso-Indian)Inhabitants of Goa,whichisasmallUnionTerritoryonthewestcoast of India(andaformerPortuguesecolony).Theirnumbersareabout1.5mil-lion(1991),buttheyarealsofoundtodayinmanyotherIn-diancities,andafewliveinLisbon.Theyareespeciallynu-merousintheBombayarea,wheretheyareesteemedascooks.GoanesearenearlyallRomanCatholics,bearPortu-guesesurnames,andarepartPortuguese,partKonkaniinan-cestry.(Feio1979)Gola(Rana)Acaste of ricepounders,foundthroughoutGujaratState.(Campbell1901,18 3-1 86;Enthoven192 0- 1922,2: 6-9 )GolakBrahman(Govardhan)ABrahmancaste of cen-tralMaharashtra.Theyhaveavariety of professions,beingprieststotheKunbisaswellasastrologers,hereditaryvillageaccountants,moneylenders,andfarmers.(Enthoven192 0- 1922,1:245;SirajulHassan1920,1:11 6-1 17)GolapurabAnagriculturalcaste,foundonlyinAgraDis-trict,UttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,2:42 2-4 30)Golla(Gollam,Golar,Gol,Gola,Gulla,Gullar,UruGolla,Gollarajulu,Gollewar,Dhangar,Dhangad,Dhanka,DhangarMahratta,KachaGauliga,Gavada,Gavali,Gauliga,Golkar,Yadava-kula,Krishna-kula,KrishnaGolla,Hanbar)Agreatshepherdtribalcluster,numberingseveralmillion.TheyareHindusandarefoundthroughoutcentralandwesternIndia.Theydealincattleandsheep,weaveblankets,andselldairyproductsandmedicines.Partialtotal:192,234in1971.(Risley1891,1:219,Crooke1896,2:26 3-2 71;ThurstonandRangachari1909,2:28 4-2 96;RussellandHiraLal1916,2:48 0-4 84;3:3 5-3 8,34 2-3 43;Enthoven192 0-1 922,1:31 1-3 21;2: 9-1 3,5 6-6 0;SirajulHassan1920,1:16 6-1 70,20 4-2 15;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8- 1936,3:19 7-2 18,50 7-5 13)Gond-GowariAsmallcaste of mixedGondandGowariancestry;theyarecultivatorsandlaborers.Somemarrywomenfromcertainothercastes.TheyaremainlyfoundineasternMaharashtra.(RussellandHiraLal1916,3:14 3-1 44)Gondhali(Gondaliga)Anorder of wanderingmusicians,dancers,andbeggarsfoundinwesternandcentralIndia;theyareHindus.SomepeopleleavetheircastesandbecomeGondhalistofulfillavow.SeealsoSADHU.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,2:29 6-2 97;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:14 4-1 47;Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:1 3-1 7;SirajulHassan1920,1:23 3-2 36;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,3:24 3-2 49)Gone(Goniga)Asection of theReddis;theymakesacks.TheyarefoundinAndhraPradeshandaroundBangalore.SeealsoJanappan.(RussellandHiraLal1916,3:34 2-3 43;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,3:25 0-2 53)Gonsavi(Motcare,Zogui)Acaste of cultivatorsandcarters,foundinGoa.(Feio1979,7 5-7 6)Gopal(Borekar)Asmallwanderingcriminalcaste,nowprofessionalacrobats,streetentertainers,andbuffalodealers,foundinwesternandcentralIndia.TheyareHindus;somespeakMarathi,othersGujarati.SeealsoPERIPATETICS.(RussellandHiraLal1916,3:14 7-1 49;Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:1 7- 19;SirajulHassan1920,1:23 7-2 39)Gorait(Korait,Baikar)AHindutribe of musicians,combmakers,andcottoncarders,foundincentralBiharandWestBengal.Total:3,720in1971.(Risley1891,1:29 7-2 99)Gosain(Gusain,Gosayi,Goswami)Acaste of religiousmendicantswidespreadinIndia.TheyarerelatedtotheSadhusorSannyasis,but,unlikemembers of thosegroups,theyareusuallymarried.SeealsoSADHU.(Crooke1896,2:46 9-4 72;ThurstonandRangachari1909,2:29 8-3 00;Rose1911,1:30 3-3 05;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,3:25 4-2 59)Goundala(Gouda,Idiga,Kalal)Atoddy-makingandliquor-sellingcastefoundinnorthernAndhraPradesh.(SirajulHassan1920,1:24 0-2 47)GowariAlargeherdingcaste of easternMaharashtra,re-latedtoAhirs.TheyareHindus,forwhomancestorworshipisimportant.(RussellandHiraLal1916,3:16 0-1 65)GoyigamaThedominantcultivatingcasteinSriLanka.(Ryan1953;Leach1968;Obeyesekere1974)Gudikara(Gudigar,Gudigara,Rathakara,GaudaEthnonymIndextoAppendixLuvana-LohanaMacddiMachchhi-MacchiMachhandar-BhoiMachhi-MacchiMachhua-MallahMachhua-TryarMachigar-MochiMachindeBhoi-MacchiMadak-MadunapitMadarMadgi-MadigaMadhuna*Madig-MangMadipMadigaru-MadigaMadigowd-MadigaMadiwal-AgasaMadiyal-DhoblMadkar-BhandariMadru-MadigaMag-MarmaMagada-BhatrajaMagahayaBrahman-BabhanMagh-MarmaMahabrahmanMaha-Brahman-AcharajMahali-MahliMahali-NaiMahaMalasar-MaluarMahanti-KaranMahanubhao-ManbhaoMahapatra-MahabrabmanMahara-KoghtiMaharana-JingarMahatmana-ManbbaoMahato-GandaMabdaviaMusalmanMaheaMamaMahesri-MahegariMarwadiMaheswari-MahesarlMarwadiMahiaMahigir-BhoiMahili-MahliMaNliMahmand-MohmandMahra-BhoiMahra-JhinwarMahtamMahtonMaina-MinaMaira-MayaraMajhi-MyjhwarMajhia-MajhwarMojh-Mal-MalaMal-MalerMalaMalaAdiyar-MalayaliarMalaArayanMalacharivanMalasar-MalasarMalaiArayan-MalaArayanMalaiMalasar-MalasarMalaiVedam-MalaVedanMalaiVedan-MalaVedanMalakar-MaliMalduwanMalakkuravan-MalaKuravanMalaKoravan-MalaKuravanMalaKuravanMalaMalasar-MalasarMalankudi-VishavanMalankuravan-MalaKuravanMalaPanickkar-MalaPanildcarMalaPanikkarMalapulaya.MalaPulayan-MalapulayaMaasarMalaUlladan-UlladanMalavara-KavikaraMalaVedanMalaveder-MalaVedanMalavetan-MalaVedanMalaVettuvan-MalaVedanMalavadiarMalayalee-MalayaliMalayaliMalayaliKshatriyaMakyaynMalayarayan-KanikkarMalayarayan-MalaAravanMalayarayar-MalaArayanMale-MalerMaleKudia-KudiyaMaleKudiya-KudiyaMalerMaleru-MalerMalha-MallahMalhaMalasar-MalasarMaliMaliGiaradMallabhadu-HelavaMaiahMaiaKshatriya-JettiMalligeMadeviVakkalu-AgasaMaloMalo-Patni-MaloMalPaharia-MalerMauaManbhaoManbhav-ManbhaoMand-MerMandaBuchawad-TelagaMandadanChettiMandatanChetti-MandadanChettiMandulaGollalu-HandiJogMandulajogi-HandijogiManManga-MangMangalaMangala-NaiMangan-CharanMangelaMangela-MangMangGarodi-Mang-GarodiMang-GaroMangGarudi-Mang-GaroriMangjel-KukiMangRaut-MangManihar-KacheraManipurManjhi-MalhwarMaMannewarManyari-JohariMarakkayarMaral-MaliMaramagri-MarmaMaran-AmbalavasiMarar-AmbalavaiMarar-MaliMarathaBhoiMaratiMaravanMarayan-AmbalavasiMariyari-MuriariMarnaMarwadiBrahmanMarwariShravakMarwatMasanjogi-TelagaMashki-BhishidMatadi-UpparwarMatam-MahtamMatangiMakallu-MadigaMathaMatiaKanbiMatial-MochiMatko-NaiMatkuda-BeldarMaulikMaulik-DhimalMauntadanChetty-MandadanChettiMavchi-GamitMavilanMavillon-MavilanMayarMdariya-MadariMechMechi-MechMedar-BasorMedara-BasorMedarakaran-BasorMedare-BasorMedarlu-BasorMeerolu-DarziMegh-MeghvalMeghvalMeghwal-MeghvalMehar-BhuliaMehtar-BhangiMeithiMelakkaranMelakudi-KudiyaMemar-UpparwarMendicantTelega-TelagaMeng-MeghvalMenghvar-MeghvalMenghwal-MeghvalMerMerai-DarziMesriMarwadi-MahesariMarwadiMestri-PananMewa-farosh-KunjraMhali-NaiMhed-MerMher-MerMianMihir-BhuliaMihngh-MeghvalMihtar-Hari357326 C5 )JJVCIUItA1911,1:43 6-4 37;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:40 4-4 22;Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:18 4-1 90;SirajulHassan1920,2:32 2-3 35;Leonard1978)KehalAnomadictribe of Muslimfishermen,foundontheIndusRiverinPunjabProvince,Pakistan.(Rose1911,1:48 6-4 88)Kewat(Khewat,Keot,Keyot,Kiot,Khyan,Jaliya,Jele,Jalo,Jalwa,Jeliya,JaliaKaibartta,JaliaKaibarta,Kaibartta,Kaibartta-Das,Chasi-Das,Halia-Das,Parasar-Das,Dhivara)Agroup of castes of fishermen,boatmen,grainparchers,andcultivators,foundfromUttarPradeshandeasternMadhyaPradeshtoBangladesh.Eachsuchcastehasitsownname(e.g.,Bagdi).(Risley1891,1:34 0-3 42,37 5-3 82,45 4-4 58;Crooke1896,3:21 7-2 20;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:42 2-4 26)Khairwar(Kherwar,Kharwar,Khaira,Khairwa,Khayra,Kora,Kaora)AHindutribefoundthroughoutmuch of theGangeticPlain.Theyarecultivators,pigfarmers,catechumak-ers,andbasketmakers;theyspeakaMundalanguageandarerelatedtotheGondsandSoras.Partialtotal:62,909in1971.SeealsoGOND;SORA.(Dalton1872,12 3-1 26;Risley1891,1:50 6-5 11;Crooke1896,3:22 1-2 25;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:42 7-4 36)Khambu(Jimdar,Rai)AHinduwarriortribefoundinNepal.TheyclaimtohavegonetherefromVaranasi.(Risley1891,1:45 9-4 61)Khamti(Tai)APaleo-Mongoloidtribe of cultivators,foundineasternArunachalPradesh.Total:4,078in1971.(Dalton1872, 9-1 3;Sarkar1987)Khandait(Khandayat)Amilitarycaste of Orissa,for-merlyswordsmen.SeealsoPaik.(Risley1891,1:46 1-4 64;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:43 6-4 38;Mohanti1975)KhantAcastefoundinKathiawarDistrict,northernGujarat.Theyarecultivatorsandfarmlaborers.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:19 4-1 96)KharakAcaste of farmersfoundinparts of Gujarat.TheyareHindus.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:19 6-1 99)Kharia(Kheria,Kharian,Kharria)AlargeMunda-speakingtribe of easternMadhyaPradeshandsouthernBihar.Theyarehuntersandcultivators,andtheyalsocollectforestproduce.TheirlanguageiscloselyrelatedtoSora,Korku,andJuang.Total:274,540in1971.SeealsoBHurYA,KoRKuandSoRA.(Dalton1872,15 6-1 59;Risley1891,1:46 6-4 72;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:44 5-4 53;RoyandRoy1937;VidyarthiandUpadhyay1980;Sinha1984)KharralARajputcaste of PunjabProvince,Pakistan,whoarelandowners.(Rose1911,1:49 5-4 99)Kharva(Kharvi)Acaste of coastalsailors,fishermen,andboatbuilders,foundfromKathiawartoBombay.(Campbell1901,52 0-5 22;Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:20 0-2 05)Kharwar(Kherwar)AlargecultivatingtribefoundinnortheasternIndia.TheyspeakaDravidianlanguageandareHindus.Total:142,580in1971.(Risley1891,1:47 2-4 76;Crooke1896,3:23 7-2 53)Khasiya(Khasa)NameappliedtoBrahmansandRajputsfoundinthehills of Jaunsar-Bawar,northernUttarPradesh,andNepal.(Crooke1896,3:25 3-2 57;Majumdar1944,11 0- 184;Saksena1962;Bishop1990)Khatik(Sultankar,Alitkar,PardeshiAlitkar)AHinducaste of tanners,skindyers,muttonbutchers,andvegetablesellers.TheyarefoundthroughoutnorthernandwesternIndia,andtheyareusuallyconsideredUntouchables.Some,however,doemployBrahmansastheirpriests.(Risley1891,1:477;Crooke1896,3:25 7-2 64;Rose1911,1:50 0-5 01;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:45 3-4 56;Enthoven192 0- 1922,1:3 4-3 7;SirajulHassan1920,2:32 6-3 27)Khatri(Khattri,Chhatri)AlargeHindumerchantcasteprimarily of thePunjabandGujarat,butfoundalloverIndia.Theyclaimtobe of RajputoriginandderivetheirnamefromKshatriya,thesecond-highestvarna.SomearesilkweaversinGujarat.(Risley1891,1:47 8-4 84;Crooke1896,3:26 4-2 77;Campbell1901,18 8-1 89;ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:28 2-2 87;Rose1911,1:50 1-5 26;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:45 6-4 61;Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:20 5-2 08;SirajulHassan1920,2:32 8-3 31)Khattak(Khatak)Atribe of Pathans,foundintheNorth-WestFrontierProvince of Pakistan.TheyareMuslimsandherdtheiranimalsinadryland.(Rose1911,1:52 6-5 32;Caroe1958)Khattar(Kathar,Kahtar)AMuslimcaste,recentlycon-vertedfromHinduism,whoarefoundinPunjabProvince,Pakistan.(Rose1911,1:53 2-5 34)Khava(Gola,Hajuri,Vajir,Lunda)Acaste of servantsandpersonalattendants,foundthroughoutGujarat.Theyalsoworkasfarmersanddaylaborers.(Campbell1901,23 4- 236;Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:20 8-2 12)Khetri(Chhetri,Mustigar)Acultivatingcaste,foundinnorthernKarnataka.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:21 2-2 17)Kho(Ko,Koo,Khaa)Agroup of tribes of cultivators,foundinthehills of northeasternIndia.(Dalton1872,11 2-1 13)Khokar(Khokur)Acaste of Rajputorigin,foundinPunjabProvince,Pakistan.TheyareMuslimlandowners.(Rose1911,1:53 9-5 49)Killekyata(Killekyatha,Killikiyata,Kiliket,Katabu,Chhatri,Shillekyata,BombeAtadavaru,Bomalatavallu,Togalubombeyavaru)Anitinerantgroup of pictureshow-menandentertainers,foundinKarnatakaandrecruitedfromseveralcastes.Someareswimmersandfishermen.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:23 1-2 36;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,3:51 6-5 35;Morab1977a)Kingriya(Kingariya,Kingriha)Acaste of dancersandsingersfoundineasternparts of UttarPradesh.TheyareSunniMuslims.(Crooke1896,3:28 0-2 82)KinnaraAcaste of cultivatorsandmatweavers,foundincentralSriLanka.(Ryan1953)Kir(Keer)AfarmingtribefoundinHoshangabadDis-trict,inwesternMadhyaPradesh.TheyareHindus,whogrowmarketvegetables;someactasfamilyprieststolocal312Appendixnotedforsuchcriminalcustomsaskidnappingchildren,slavery,trafficinwomen,andpettytheft.UnlikemostIndiancastes,theyarenotwhollyendogamousbutacceptwivesfromothergroups,includinggirlsthattheyhavekidnapped.Theyarefoundthroughoutmost of India,andtheynowmayworkascultivatorsorfarmlaborers.BanjharaisalsoaMuslimtradingcasteinGujarat,con-vertedfromthesameHinducaste.Partialtotal:138,877in1971.SeealsoPERIPATETICS.(Risley1891,1:59;Crooke1896,1:14 9-1 67;Campbell1899,8 5-8 6;ThurstonandRangachari1909,4:20 7-2 32;Rose1911,1:6 2-6 3;RussellandHiraLal1916,2:16 2-1 92;Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:33 1-3 43;SirajulHassan1920,1:1 5-2 7;2:62 7-6 34;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,2:13 5-1 96)Bant(Bunt)AHinducastefoundinKodaguDistrictandalongthenearbyTulucoast of southernKarnataka.Theyarefarmers.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,1:14 7-1 72;KrishnaIyer1948,6 7-7 0)BargujarAsection of theRajputs,foundinUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,1:18 7-1 90)Barhai(Barhi,Badhi,Sutar,Suthar,Kharadi,Tarkhan,Mistri)Alargecaste of Hinducarpenterslivinginnorth-ern,central,andwesternIndia,fromBihartoMaharashtra.(Risley1891,1:6 6-6 8;Crooke1896,1:19 0-1 99;RussellandHiraLal1916,2:19 9-2 02;Enthoven192 0-1 922,3:35 5-3 59)Bari(Bargah,Bargaha,Bargahi,Panwale)Acaste of householdservantsandmakers of leafplates,foundinnorth-ern,western,andcentralIndia.AlthoughtheyareShaivites,afewclaimtobeMuslims.(Risley1891,1:6 8-6 9;Crooke1896,1:18 4-1 85,20 1-2 06;RussellandHiraLal1916,2:20 2-2 04;Enthoven192 0-1 922,1:5 9-6 5)BarwarAnex-criminaltribe,foundineasternUttarPradesh.Thesamenameidentifiesasection of Rajputs,foundinwesternUttarPradesh.ThearticlebyCrookein-cludesavocabulary of thieves'cant.(Crooke1896,1:20 6-2 21)Basdewa(Wasudeo,Harbola,Kaparia,Jaga,Kapdi,Sanadhya,SanauriaBrahman)Acaste of wanderingbeg-gars,whocallthemselvesSanadhyaorSanauriaBrahmans.Althoughfewinnumber,theyarewidelyscatteredthroughnorthern,central,andwesternIndia.(RussellandHiraLal1916,2:20 4-2 07;Enthoven192 0-1 922,3:45 4-4 55)Basor(Bansphor,Bansphod,Dulia,Dhulia,Balahar,Bulahar,Burud,Ghanche,Ghanchi,Ghache,Miyadar,Myadar,Medar,Medare,Medara,Medarlu,Medarakaran)Atribe of HindubambooworkersfoundwidelyinIndia.SomeareLingayats.TherearealsoMuslimGhanchisinnorthernGujarat,convertsfromtheHinducaste,whoselloil.Partialtotal:17,888in1971.(Crooke1896,1:13 2-1 34,16 7-1 73,22 2-2 28;Campbell1899,73;1901,18 1-1 83;ThurstonandRangachari1909,5:5 2-5 8;RussellandHiraLal1916,2:20 8-2 12;Enthoven192 0-1 922,1:25 4-2 60;SirajulHassan1920,1:13 5-1 42;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,4:19 1-2 05)Batgam(Padu)AcastefoundincentralSriLanka.Theyarefarmlaborersandinsomeareasfuneraldrummers.(Ryan1953)Batwal(Barwala)Acaste of northernPunjab,whoworkaslaborers.TheyareHindus.(Rose1911,1:6 6-6 8)Bavacha(Bamcha)AsmalltribefoundinsouthernGujarat.Traditionallytheysellgrassandworkasgrooms,butsomearelaborers.Total:2,831in1971.(Enthoven192 0- 1922,1:6 5-6 7)Bavuri(Baurio,Khodalo)Acaste of basketmakers,foundinGanjamDistrict,Orissa.TheyareHindus.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,1:17 5-1 80)Bawariya(Bauria,Baori,Bauri,Bawaria)Ahuntingandthievingtribe,foundinMuzaffarnagarandMirzapurdistricts,UttarPradesh,andinPunjab.(Crooke1896,1:22 8-2 37;Rose1911,1:7 0-7 9)Bedar(Bendar,Beria,Beriya,Bed,Berad,Bedia,Bediya,Bedea,Bejia,Bejea,Boya)AsmallbutwidespreadHindutribefoundinmuch of India,Untouchableinstatus.Theyaremainlyinvolvedinagriculture,buttheirnamemeans"hunter,"andtheywereonceirregulartroops.Somearevil-lagewatchmen.Total:51,360in1971.(Risley1891,1:83;ThurstonandRangachari1909,1:18 0-2 09;RussellandHiraLal1916,2:21 2-2 14;Enthoven192 0-1 922,1:7 8-9 0;SirajulHassan1920,1:3 4-4 3;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,2:19 7-2 30)Beldar(Od,Ode,Odh,Ud,Odde,Odden,Vodden,Vodda,Vaddar,Waddar,Wudder,WaduRajlu,Odewandlu,Sonkar,Raj,Larhia,Karigar,Kalkola,Matkuda,Chunkar,Munurwar,Thapatkari,Pathrot,Takari,Takara,Dhondphoda)Agrouping of earth-andstone-workingcastesfoundwidelyinIndiaandparts of Pakistan.TheyaremostlyHinduswhonowengageinroadmakingandotherlaboringactivities;theyusedtomakestonehandmills.ThosecalledTakaraorDhondphodaareMuslims.SeealsoSansia.(Risley1891,1:8 6-8 7;Crooke1896,1:23 7-2 40;AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,3:39 0-3 93;ThurstonandRangachari1909,5:42 2-4 36;Rose1911,2:17 5-1 76;RussellandHiraLal1916,2:21 5-2 20;Enthoven192 0-1 922;3:13 8-1 49,35 9- 361;SirajulHassan1920,2:64 5-6 51;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,4:65 9-6 77)BeravaAcaste of drummers,foundinSriLanka.(Ryan1953;Leach1968)Beria(Bedia,Bediya,Beriya,Kolhati,Dandewala,Bansberia,Kabutari)Aperipateticgroup of casteswidespreadinnorthernandcentralIndia.ThearticlebyRisleylistsnumer-ousspecificoccupations.TheyareGypsiesandformerdacoits(thieves).Many of thewomenwereonceprofessionalprostitutesandnevermarried;somearetattooistsandchil-dren'sdoctors.BeriaarerelatedtotheSansiaandNai,whohadmuchthesameoccupations.SeealsoPERIPATETICS.(Risley1891,1:8 3-8 5;Crooke1896,1:24 2-2 49;RussellandHiraLal1916,2:22 0-2 24;3:52 7-5 31;4:286)BeriChettiAtradingcastefoundinTamilNadu.Al-thoughHindus,afewareLingayat.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,1:21 1-2 18)Besta(Bestha,Kabbaligar,Kabber,Kabher,Kabbera,Ambi,Appendix319District,AndhraPradesh.TheirworshipisHindu,andtheyburytheirdead.Total:75,430in1971.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,2:24 2-2 52;RussellandHiraLal1916,3: 9-1 4;ThusuandJha1969)Gaddi(Gadi)AtribalgroupfoundinHimachalPradesh,some of whomareHindus,othersMuslims.Theyclaimde-scentvariouslyfromBrahmans,Thakurs,Rajputs,andoth-ers.Theykeeplargeflocks of sheepandgoats.Total:50,685in1971.(Rose1911,1:25 5-2 71;Newell1960,1967)GaduliyaLoharAHindunomadictribefoundinRajasthan.Theyworkasblacksmithsandcastratebulls;theymayoriginallyhavebeenRajputs.(Ruhela1968)Gahala-BeravaAcaste of formerexecutioners,foundinSriLanka.Todaytheyarecultivatorsandprostitutes.(Ryan1953)GaharwarRajput(Gahadawala,GherwalRajput)AsmallRajputcastefoundintheChhattisgarharea of easternMadhyaPradesh.(Crooke1896,2:37 1-3 73;RussellandHiraLal1916,4:44 6-4 48)GakkharAprominentMuslimcaste of PunjabProvince,Pakistan,whoaresoldiersandfarmers.(Rose1911,1:27 4-2 77)Gamadi(Gavandi)Acaste of masonsfoundinwesternIndiaandasection of theReddiswhoaremasons.Some of thoseinGujaratareMuslims.(RussellandHiraLal1916,3:34 2-3 43;Enthoven192 0-1 922,1:36 3-3 67)Gamit(Gamta,Gavit,Mavchi,Padvi,Tadvi,Tetaria,Dhanka,Vasava,Vasave,Valvi)Alargetribe of farmersandwoodcutters,foundineasternGujarat.Total:405,588in1971.(Campbell1901,31 8-3 19)GammalaAcaste of toddytappersandliquorsellers,foundinAndhraPradesh.TheyareHindus.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,2:25 3-2 57)GamVakkal(Gamgauda)Acultivatingcaste of UttarKannadDistrict,inKarnataka.Somearefarmlaborers,whileothersareinthetimberbusiness.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,1:35 2-3 54)Ganda(Gandi,Gandia,Pan,Panwa,Panr,Pao,Pab,Panka,Panika,Chik,Chil-Baraik,Baraik,Mahato,Sawasi,Tanti)AlargeUntouchablecasteortribe of theeasternGangeticPlain,traditionallyweavers,laborers,andmusicians;theyareHindus ... Kerala,andwesternTamilNadu.ThereisalsoacultivatingcastenamedKadarinsoutherndistricts of WestBengal.Total:1,926in1971.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3: 6-2 9;AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,1: 1-2 7;Ehrenfels1952;Sarkar1959;Luiz1962,5 9-6 4;Thundy1983)KaderAtribefoundinKozhikodeandCannanoredis-tricts,innorthernKerala.Theycultivatepepper,coffee,andrice.(GopalanNair1911,8 0-8 2;Luiz1962,6 5-6 7)Kadera(Kandera,Kadhera,Golandaz,Bandar,Hawaidar)Asmallcaste of fireworkmakers,foundmainlyinNar-simhapurDistrict,centralMadhyaPradesh.TheyareHindus,buttheyworshiptheMuslimLukmanHakim,believedbythemtobetheinventor of gunpowder.Kadheraisalsore-portedasacaste of cultivatorsandboatmeninUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,3:9 0-9 1;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:28 8-2 91)Kadia(Kadiya,Chunara)AHinduandMuslimcaste of bricklayers,foundinGujarat.(Campbell1899,74;1901,186)KaduGolta(Yadavakuladavaru,Krishnakuladavaru)AcastefoundinsouthernKarnataka,whosenamemeans'wildcowherds."TheyareVaishnavites,whorearanimalsandfarm.(NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,3:21 9-2 42)KaduKurubaAgeneraltermforthetwotribes of BettaKurubaandJenuKurubainsouthernKarnataka.Partialtotal:14,848in1971.SeealsoKuruba.(NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,4:6 8-7 3)KadupattanAcaste of teachers,astrologers,andmagi-ciansfoundinErnakulamDistrict,incentralKerala.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:3 0-3 1;AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,2:10 3-1 15)KafirAgenericnameforthetribes of Kafiristan,intheHinduKush.Theyarewarriorsandcultivators.Thename358EthnonymIndextoAppendixMinaMinyong-AdiMir-MirasiMirasiMiriMirshikar-PardhiMisao-KukiMi-shing-MiriMishmiMistri-BarhaiMithGavada-GavadaMithiya-HalwaiMiyadar-BasorMizel-KukiMochavaru-MochiMochiMochigar-MochiModak-MayaraModaliyar-MudahyarModi-Raj-MutrasiMogerMogh-MarmaMogha-RabariMoghia-PardhiMohmandMoili-SuppaligMolesalamMominMomin-JulahaMomna-MominMondaruMondi-MondaruMondiwadu-MondaruMorasu-MorasuOkkaluMorasuOkkaluMorung-TripuraMotcare-GonsaviMowarMoyili-SuppaligMro-TripuraMru-TripuraMrung-TripuraMuamin-KachiMemanMuchi-MochiMudaijyarMudi-BagdiMudugaMudugar-MudugaMudukkan-MudugaMuduvan-MudugaMuduvar-MudugaMug-MarrnaMuhialMujawar-ChhalapdarMukaDora-KondaDoraMukeri-BanjaraMukkava-MukkuvanMukkuvanMukriMullaKuruman-MuliukurunmbaMullakurumber-MullukurumbaMullukururnbaMultani-MochiMunnudKapu-MunurMunnur-MunurMunnurwad-MunurMunurMunurwar-BeldarMunurwar-MunurMurao-KoiriMurhaMuriariMurli-WaghyaMurliJoshi-WaghyaMusabir-MochiMusaharMusalli-BhangiMusalmanBrahman-HusainiBrahimanMushahar-MusaharMushera-MusaharMussadMustigar-KhetriMuthrasi-MutrasiMuthuvan-MudugaMuthuwan-MudugaMutracha-MutrasiMut-Raj-MutrasiMutrasa-MutrasiMutrasiMutratcha-MutrasiMuttanMuttaracha-MutrasiMuttarasan-MutrasiMuttatu-AmbalavasiMuttatu-MussadMutfirajulu-MutrasiMuttiriyan-MutrasiMyadar-BasorMyam-ma-MarmaMyasaBedaMyasaNayakar-MyasaBedaMyatari-DevangaNaddaf-DhuniyaNadi-UlladanNadig-NaiNadorNaduGauda-NadorNagarakulam-NagarthaNagarata-NagarthaNagarattar-NagarthaNagarBrabrmanNagarthaNagasiaNagbansiNagesar-NagasiaNagesia-NagasiaNagoriNahalNahema-NaiNahul-NahalNaiNaidu-BaljaNaik-BhavinNaik-MutrasiNaik-RamosiNaikin-BhavinNaiklok-RamosiNakashMaistri-JingarNakkalvandlu-KuruvikkaranNaksia-NagasiaNalakeyava-NalkeNalkeNama-ChandalNama-Sudra-ChandalNambiar-AmbalavasiNambidi-AmbalavasiNaambiyar-ArnbalavasiNambiyassan-AmbalavasiNampati-AmbalavasiNamte-KukiNanakpanthiNanakputra-UdasiNanakshahi-NanakpanthiNanchinadVellalaNankuParisha-KammalanNao-NaiNaodaNapik-NaiNapit-NaiNaqqal-BhandariNaruNatNattukottaiChettiNattuMalasar-MalasarNattuMalayan-MalasarNattuvanNau-NaiNaua-NaiNaumuslimNavandannaNavayat-QuraishiNavdigar-NatNaya-MaulikNayadaru-NaiNayadiNayadi-UlladanNayady-NayadiNayinda-NaiNeyigeyavaru-ThakarNhavi-NaiNihal-NahalNihang-AkaliNikumbhNilari-ChhipaNilbandhu-GunloduNilgar-ChhipaNirali-ChhipaNishad-ChandalNishi-DaflaNoniar-NuniaNoniyan-NuniaNuniaNuniya-NuniaNut-NatOcchanOd-BeldarOdde-BeldarOdden-BeldarOde-BeldarOdewandlu-BeldarOdeya-VaderOdh-BeldarOja-KondaDoraOjhaOko-JuwoiOlee-OliOlgana-BhangiOUOliya-OUOllares-AllarOmaito-OmanaitoOmanaitoAppendix347Bengal:AStudy of aHinduSocialGroup.Calcutta:AsiaticSociety of Bengal.Sarkar,Jayanta(1987).Society,Culture,andEcologicalAdap-tationamongThreeTribes of ArunachalPradesh.Anthropo-logicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.68.Calcutta.Sarkar,Jayanta(1990).TheJarawa.Calcutta:SeagullBooks;AnthropologicalSurvey of India.Sarkar,S.S.,etal.(1959).APhysicalSurvey of theKadar of Kerala.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.6.Calcutta.Save,KhanderaoJagannath(1945).TheWarlis.Bombay:PadmaPublications.Saxena,RanvirPrakash(1964).TribalEconomyinCentralIndia.Calcutta:FirmaK.L.Mukhopadhyay.Sengupta,SyamalKanti(1970).TheSocialProfiles of theMahalis,theTribalBasketmakers of Midnapur.Calcutta:FirmaKL.Mukhopadhyay.Shah,Ghanshyam(1984).EconomicDifferentiationsandTribalIdentity.Delhi:AjantaPublications.Shah,P.G.(1958).Dublas of Gujarat.NewDelhi:BharatiyaAdimjatiSevakSangh.Shakespear,John(1912).TheLusheiKukiClans.London:Macmillan.Sharma,RR.P.(1961).TheSherdukpens.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Shukla,BrahmaKumar(1959).TheDaflas of theSubansiriRegion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Siegel,Lee(1991).Net of Magic:WondersandDeceptionsinIndia.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Singh,Pradip(1981)."Nature-Man-SpiritComplex of aHillTribe:ARestudy."InNature-Man-SpiritComplexinTribalIndia,editedbyRS.MannandVijoyS.Sahay, 9-4 0.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Singh,SheetalPrasad(1974)."TheVanishing'Shompen'Tribe of GreatNicobarCurrentProblemsandRemediesforSurvival."Vanyajati22(2):5 0-5 8.Sinha,Dikshit(1984).TheHillKharia of Purulia:AStudyontheImpact of PovertyonaHuntingandGatheringTribe.An-thropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.59.Calcutta.Sinha,R.K(1981)."ANoteontheNature-Man-SpiritComplex of aTribe(Pando)."InNature-Man-SpiritComplexinTribalIndia,editedbyRS.MannandVijoyS.Sahay,6 9- 115.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Sinha,Raghuvir(1962).TheAkas.Shillong:Adviser'sSecretariat.SirajulHassan,Syed(1920).CastesandTribes of theNizam'sDominions.2vols.Bombay:TimesPress.Reprint.1990.Gurgaon:VintageBooks.Srinivas,MysoreNarasimhachar(1952).ReligionandSocietyamongtheCoorgs of South India.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Reprint.1965.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Srivastava,L.RN.(1962).TheGallongs.Shillong:Adviser'sSecretariat.Srivastava,RamP.(1966)."Tribe-CasteMobilityinIndiaandtheCase of KumaonBhotias."InCasteandKininNepal,India,andCeylon:AnthropologicalStudiesinHindu-BuddhistContactZones,editedbyChristophvonFiirer-Haimendorf,16 1-2 12.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Stevenson,MargaretSinclair(1930).WithoutthePale:TheLifeStory of anOutcaste.Calcutta:AssociationPress.Syamchoudhuri,N.K,andM.M.Das(1973).TheLalungSociety:AThemeforAnalyticalEthnography.AnthropologicalSurvey of India.Calcutta.Thundy,ZachariasP.(1983). South IndianFolktales of Kadar.Meerut:ArchanaPublications.Thurston,Edgar,andKadamkiRangachari,eds.(1909).CastesandTribes of SouthernIndia.7vols.Madras:Govern-mentPress.[Numerousreprints.1Thusu,KidarNath(1965).TheDhurwa of Bastar.Anthropo-logicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.16.Calcutta.Thusu,KidarNath(1977).ThePengoPorajas of Koraput:AnEthnographicSurvey.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Mem-oirno.39.Calcutta.Thusu,KidarNath,andMakhanJha(1969).OllarGadba of Koraput.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.27.Calcutta.Trivedi,HarshadR(1986).TheMers of SaurashtraRevisitedandStudiedintheLight of Socio-CulturalChangeandCross-CousinMarriage.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Vidyarthi,LalitaPrasad(1963).TheMaler:AStudyinNature-Man-SpiritComplex of aHillTribeinBihar.Calcutta:Bookland.Vidyarthi,LalitaPrasad,andV.S.Upadhyay(1980).TheKharia:ThenandNow,aComparativeStudy of Hill,Dhelki,andDudhKharia of theCentral-EasternRegion of India.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Appendix313Ambig,Ambiga,Ambekar,Barkar,Barekari,Bhillakabberu,)ad,Sungar,SunnakalluBestha,DurgaMurgi,Parkitiwaru,Parivara,Toreya,Torea,Gangimakkalu,Gangemakkalu)AHinducastegroup,foundinMaharashtra,AndhraPradesh,TamilNadu,andKarnataka.Manyworkasdomes-ticservantsorporters,thoughtheywereformerlyfishermenandpalanquinbearers.Thename"Toreya"comesfromtore,"riverbank,"andisalsousedforthelowestphratry of BadagasintheNilgirisDistrict of TamilNadu.InMaharashtratheyareaKannada-speakingcaste of fishers,ferrymen,andformerpalanquinbearers,nowsometimesbeg-garsorfarmers.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,1:21 8-2 22;3: 1-6 ;7:17 6-1 82;RussellandHiraLal1916,1:348;Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:11 0-1 18;SirajulHassan1920,1:7 7-8 2;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,2:23 9-2 58;4:63 7-6 39)BhabraAJaincaste,mainlytraders,foundinthePunjab.SeealsoBAN'A.(Rose1911,1:8 0-8 2)BhadauriyaAsection of theRajputs,foundinwesternUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,1:25 0-2 52)Bhagat(Bhakat)Aclass of Vaishnavitedevoteesinnorth-ernIndia.Thetermseemstobeappliedratherloosely:asec-tion of theOraontribeisknownasBhakat.Atribe of easternUttarPradeshisalsocalledBhagatorRadha.(Risley1891,1:9 1-9 2;Crooke1896,1:25 2-2 53;4:19 5-1 96)BhainaAtribefoundinthewildforestlands of BilaspurDistrict,inMadhyaPradesh.Theyworshipa"noselessgod-dess"andareessentiallyHindus.TheymaysharesomeearlyancestrywiththeBaigas.Total:24,740in1971.(RussellandHiraLal1916,2:22 4-2 33)BhaleSultanAsection of Rajputs,foundinmuch of UttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,1:25 3-2 56)Bhamta(Bhamtya,Uchla,Uchlia,Takari,Ghantichor,Ganthachor)AsmallHinducasteof...

... South Asia. "InAnthropologicalBibliogra-phies:ASelectedGuide,editedbyMargoL.SmithandYvonneM.Damien,10 6-1 21. South Salem,N.Y.:RedgravePublishing.Dumont,Louis(1970).HomoHierarchicus:AnEssayontheCasteSystem.TranslatedbyMarkSaintsbury.Chicago:Uni-versity of ChicagoPress.Garrett,John(187 1-1 873).AClassicalDictionary of IndiaIl-lustrative of theMythology,Philosophy,Literature,Antiquities,Arts,Manners,Customs,& ;c. of theHindus.1vol.+supple-ment.Madras:Higginbotham.Reprintin1vol.1973.NewYork:BurtFranklin.Goonetileke,H.A.I.(1970).ABibliography of Ceylon:ASys-tematicGcidetotheLiteratureontheLand,People,History,PrefaceThisprojectbeganin1987withthegoal of assemblingabasicreferencesourcethatprovidesaccurate,clear,andconcisede-scriptions of the cultures of the world. Wewantedtobeascomprehensiveandauthoritativeaspossible:comprehensive,byprovidingdescriptions of allthe cultures of eachregion of the world orbydescribingarepresentativesample of cultures forregionswherefullcoverageisimpossible,andauthori-tativebyprovidingaccuratedescriptions of the cultures forboththepastandthepresent.Thepublication of the Encyclopedia of World Cultures inthelastdecade of thetwentiethcenturyisespeciallytimely.Thepolitical,economic,andsocialchanges of thepastfiftyyearshaveproduceda world morecomplexandfluidthanatanytimeinhumanhistory.Threesweepingtransformations of theworldwideculturallandscapeareespeciallysignificant.Firstiswhatsomesocialscientistsarecallingthe"NewDiaspora"-thedispersal of culturalgroupstonewlocationsacrossthe world. Thisdispersalaffectsallnationsandtakesawidevariety of forms:inEastAfricannations,theformation of newtownsinhabitedbypeoplefromdozens of differentethnicgroups;inMicronesiaandPolynesia,themovement of islanderstocitiesinNewZealandandtheUnitedStates;inNorthAmerica,thereplacementbyAsiansandLatinAmeri-cans of Europeansasthemostnumerousimmigrants;inEu-rope,theincreasedrelianceonworkersfromtheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica;andsoon.Second,andrelatedtothisdispersal,istheinternaldivision of whatwereoncesingle,unifiedculturalgroupsintotwoormorerelativelydistinctgroups.Thispattern of internal ... features of ordinarylifeinthesubcontinent.Withoutclaiminganyfa-vorites,wewillsimplypointtothework of AhmadAli,MulkRajAnand,BankimChandraChatterjee,Nirad C. Chaud-huri,AnitaDesai,RuthPrawerJhabvala,HanifKureishi,ManoharMalgonkar,KamalaMarkandaya,VedMehta,W.D.Merchant,RohintonMistry,RK.Narayan,RajaRao,SalmanRushdie,KushwantSingh,andRabindranathTagore(theirmanybooksarenotlistedinthefollowingbibliogra-phy). Of BritishliteraturedealingwiththeoldIndiathereisamassiveamount:mostoutstandingsurelyareRudyardKipling'sshortstories,E.M.Forster'sAPassagetoIndia(1924),andLeonardWoolf'sVillageintheJungle(1913).AfineintroductiontoIndianreligionsandphilosophywaseditedbydeBary(1958),anewedition of whichwasre-centlyprepared.Verysimilarinitscoverage of HinduismandBuddhism,andlikethepreceding volume featuringmanytranslationsfromtheclassics,isRadhakrishnanandMoore(1957).AnothersuccinctintroductiontoIndianphilosophyisBishop(1975).Aconcisedictionary of HinduismisStutleyandStutley(1977);Garrett(187 1-1 873),thoughold,mayalsoberecommended.Thenaturalhistory of thesubcontinenthasbeenstudiedinincredibledetail,andsothereare,forexample,excellenthandbooksontheflora of eachregion(most of themnowquiteold,however).Asuperbnewencyclopedicsurveythatcoversflora,fauna,geography,geology,andclimatologyinasingle volume iseditedbyHawkins(1986).Alsoveryusefulforitsbotanical,zoological,andhistoricalinformation(al-thoughnotforitsout -of- dateeconomicdata)isWatt(1908),whichisaone -volume abridgment of ADictionary of theEconomicProducts of Indiathathewrotein188 5-1 893.Amodem encyclopedia that ... IntroductionxxviiWilliams,L.F.Rushbrook,ed.(1975).AHandbookfo'rTravellersinIndia,Pakistan,Nepal,Bangladesh&SriLanka(Ceylon).22nded.London:JohnMurray.Yule,Henry,andA. C. Burnell(1903).Hobson-Jobson,AGlossary of ColoquialAnglo-IndianWordsandPhrases,and of KindredTerms,Etymological,Historical,Geographical,andDiscursive.Rev.ed.London:JohnMurray.Reprint.1968.NewYork.HumanitiesPress;numerousreissues.PAULHOCKINGSPrefacexviitheproject,andnotjustfortheirownvolumesbutalsofortheprojectasawhole.TimothyO'Leary,TerenceHays,andPaulHockingsdeservespecialthanksfortheircommentsonthisprefaceandtheglossary,asdoesMelvinEmber,presi-dent of theHumanRelationsAreaFiles.Members of the of- ficeandtechnicalstaffalsomustbethankedforsoquicklyandcarefullyattendingtothemanytasksaproject of thissizeinevitablygenerates.TheyareErlindaMaramba,AbrahamMaramba,VictoriaCrocco,NancyGratton,andDouglasBlack.AtMacmillanandG.K.Hall,the encyclopedia hasbenefitedfromthewiseandcarefuleditorialmanagement of EllyDickason,ElizabethKubik,andElizabethHolthaus,andtheeditorialandproductionmanagement of AraSalibian.Finally,IwouldliketothankMelvinEmberandtheboard of directors of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesfortheiradministrativeandintellectualsupportforthisproject.DAVIDLEVINSONReferencesMurdock,GeorgePeter(1967).EthnographicAtlas.Pitts-burgh,Penn.,University of PittsburghPress.Murdock,GeorgePeter(1983).Outline of World Cultures. 6threv.ed.NewHaven,Conn.,HumanRelationsAreaFiles. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD CULTURES DavidLevinsonEditorinChiefNorthAmericaOceania South Asia Europe(Central,Western,andSoutheasternEurope)EastandSoutheast Asia SovietUnion(EasternEuropeandRussia)andChina South AmericaMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanAfricaandtheMiddleEastBibliographyThe Encyclopedia of World Cultures waspreparedundertheauspicesandwiththesupport of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesatYaleUniversity.HRAF,theforemostinternationalresearchorganizationinthefield of cul-turalanthropology,isanot-for-profitconsortium of twenty-threesponsor-ingmembersand300participatingmemberinstitutionsintwenty-fivecoun-tries.TheHRAFarchive,establishedin1949,containsnearlyonemillionpages of informationonthe cultures of the world. xContributorsTrilokiNathMadanInstitute of EconomicGrowthUniversity of DelhiDelhiIndiaL.K.MahapatraSambalpurUniversitySambalpur,OrissaIndiaClarenceMaloneyLouisBerger,International,Inc.NewDelhiIndiaJoanP.MencherDepartment of AnthropologyHerbertH.LehmanCollegeCityUniversity of NewYorkBronx,NewYorkUnitedStatesW.D.MerchantDepartment of SocialandBehavioralSciences South SuburbanCollege South Holland,IllinoisUnitedStatesPromodeKumarMisraDepartment of AnthropologyNorth-EasternHillUniversityShillong,MeghalayaIndiaBrianMorrisDepartment of SocialAnthropologyGoldsmiths'CollegeUniversity of LondonLondonUnitedKingdomNilsFinnMunch-PetersenLouisBerger,International,Inc.NewDelhiIndiaSerenaNandaDepartment of AnthropologyJohnJayCollege of CriminalJusticeCityUniversity of NewYorkNewYork,NewYorkUnitedStatesWilliamA.NobleDepartment of GeographyUniversity of MissouriColumbia,MissouriUnitedStatesPandit of KashmirOriyaDivehi;TamilNambudiriBrahman;NayarBania;Castes,Hindu;Maratha;ParsiPeripateticsHillPandaramDivehiHijraIruLaProjectStaffEditorialBoardResearchSaraJ.DickJayDiMaggioAlliyaS.ElahiSarwatS.ElahiNancyE.GrattonLeShonKimbleSaidehMoayed-SanandajiHughR.Page,Jr.AngelitoPalmaEditorialandProductionEllyDickasonEvaKitsosAbrahamMarambaVictoriaCroccoElizabethHolthausAraSalibianLindaA.BennettMemphisStateUniversityEuropeFernandoCamaraBarbachanoInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanNormaJ.DiamondUniversity of MichiganChinaPaulFriedrichUniversity of ChicagoSovietUnionTerenceE.HaysRhodeIslandCollegeOceaniaCartographyRobertSullivanRhodeIslandCollegePaulHockingsUniversity of IllinoisatChicago South andSoutheast Asia RobertV.KemperSouthernMethodistUniversityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanKazukoMatsuzawaNationalMuseum of Ethnology,OsakaEast Asia JohnH.MiddletonYaleUniversityAfricaTimothyJ.O'LearyHumanRelationsAreaFilesNorthAmericaAmalRassamQueensCollegeandtheGraduateCenter of theCityUniversity of NewYorkMiddleEastJohannesWilbertUniversity of CaliforniaatLosAngeles South AmericaviContributorsxiAlfredPach III Department of MedicalEducationUniversity of IllinoisatChicagoChicago,IllinoisUnitedStatesHughR.Page,Jr.Department of ReligiousStudiesCaliforniaStateUniversitySacramento,CaliforniaUnitedStatesVishvajitPandyaWestminsterCollegeFulton,MissouriUnitedStatesRobertParkinInstitutfurEthnologieFreieUniversititzuBerlinBerlinGermanyRobertPaulDepartment of AnthropologyEmoryUniversityAtlanta,GeorgiaUnitedStatesBryanPfaffenbergerDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of VirginiaCharlottesville,VirginiaUnitedStatesMohammedHabiburRahmanDepartment of SociologyUniversity of DhakaDhakaBangladeshAparnaRaoInstitutfurV6lkerkundeUniversititzuKolnKolnGermanySankarKumarRoyDepartment of AnthropologyGauhatiUniversityGuwahati,AssamIndiaGhanshyamShahCentreforSocialStudies South GujaratUniversitySurat,GujaratIndiaNepaliAbor;Baiga;Bondo;Burusho;Khasi;Lakher;Nagas;Purum;SadhuAndamaneseMundaSherpaSinhalese;Tamil of SriLankaChakmaJatGaroGujaratiMEASUREMENTCONVERSIONS1992bytheHumanRelationsAreaFiles,Inc.Firstpublishedin1991byG.K.Hall&Co.1633Broadway,NewYork,NY10019,6785Allrightsreserved.Allrightsreserved.Nopart of thisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,orbyanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystemwithoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.10Library of CongressCataloginginPublicationData(Revisedfor volume 3) Encyclopedia of world cultures. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindexes.Filmography:v.1,p.40 7-4 15.Contents:v.1.NorthAmerica/TimothyJ.O'Leary,DavidLevinson, volume editors...

... thevariousAborgroups)andexternal(i.e.,withneighboringpeoples)warfarewereeffectivelyelimi-natedaftertheinitiation of Britishrule.Conflictbetweenvil-lagesishandledbythebangocouncilandtheresolution of interbangoconflictistheresponsibility of thebogumbokang.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief&.Aborreligionischaracterizedbyabeliefinahost of spirits(uyu),bothbeneficentandmalevolent. Of these,theEpom(offspring of Robo,father of evilspirits)fig-ureprominently.Theyaretheadversaries of humanbeings(whoarebelievedtobetheoffspring of Robo'sprimordialbrother,Nibo)andaresaidtoinduceaccidents.Thesouls of thosewhohavenotbeenproperlyburiedorwhodiedunnat-uraldeathsbecomerams(evilspiritswhojointheEpomincombatagainsthumanity).Othernotableevilspiritsincludethenipong(spirit of awomanwhodiesduringpregnancy)andtheayinguyu(lowlandevilspiritswhoseassaultsaredirectedagainstmenandwomen of allages).Amongthemoreimpor-tantbenevolentspirits,BenjiBama(controller of humandes-tiny)mustbenoted,andeachnaturalforceisbelievedtopos-sessaspiritthatmustbeheldincheckthroughproperpersonalconductandtheperformance of certainrituals.Inaddition,theAborbelieveinseveraleternalbeings(e.g.,Seti,theearth,andMelo,thesky)whowereinexistencebeforecreationandareremovedfromtheaffairs of humanity.Thesebeingsbelongtoahigherorderthanthespirits,andtheyfig-ureprominentlyinAborcreationmyths.ReligiousPractitioners.TheAborhavetwocategories of religiouspractitioners:theepakmiri(diviner)andthenyibo(medicineman).Throughtheuse of incantations,herbs,div-ination,andspiritualdiscernment,theydeterminewhichspiritsareresponsiblefortheirmisfortuneandappeasethesemalevolentforcesthroughtheinvocation of afamiliarspirit.Thisspiritpossessesthebody of thepractitionerandassiststhesoul of theepakmiriornyiboinlocatingthespiritthatmustbeappeasedandinarrangingforasuitablepropitiatoryact of theindividualwhohasbeenafflicted.Thenyiboestab-lishescontactwiththe world of spiritsbyrecountingcreationstories,whiletheepakmiriutilizesdanceandsong.Nospe-cialsocialsignificanceisattachedtoeitheroffice,thoughtheepakmiriisallowedtowearspecialbeadsonceremonialoccasions.Ceremonies.Ceremonialactivityaccompaniesthemajoreventsinthehumanlifecycleandisalsoassociatedwithaf-fairs of state,thelife of themoshupandrasheng,subsistenceactivities,warfare,andhealthcare.Songanddanceare of greatimportanceontheseoccasions.Theepakmiri,whoisalsotheguardian of tribalmyths,histories,genealogies,andothertraditionallore,isthecentralfigureduringtheseritualobservances.Arts.InadditiontothoseartifactsmanufacturedbytheAborsthathaveautilitarianorornamentalpurpose,tattoo-ingisalsopracticedbymanygroups.Abororalliteraturein-cludesanumber of myths,legends,folktales,traditionalbal-lads(abangs),religiousballads(ponungs),andpoliticalnarrations(abes).Therecentintroduction of writinghascon-tributedtoanincreaseinthisliterature.Whilemusicalcom-positionsarefewinnumber,danceisahighlydevelopedartformamongtheAbor.Medicine.IntraditionalAborthought,sicknessisbe-lievedtohaveitsbasisinthemalevolentactivity of forcesinthespirit world andtreatmentconsists of theministrations of theepakmiri.Itishisorherjobtoascertainfromthespirit world whichspirithasbeenoffendedandhowexpiationistobemade.DeathandAfterlife.Itisbelieved ... Thus,"Abor"suggestsonewhodoesnotsubmitallegiance(i.e.,onewhoishostile,barbarous,orsavage).ThealternativeviewconnectsthewordwithAbo,theprimordialmaninAbormythology.Thefinal-ristakentobesimilartofinal-rrintribaldesignationssuchasAorr,Simirr,andYim-chungrr,whichmeans"man."Inthe1960s,theAborbegancallingthemselvesAdisbecause of thenegativeconnotations of theirformername(seeAdiintheAppendix).Location.AborcommunitiesinIndiaareconcentratedonthebanks of theSiangandYamnerivers.Theirterritory,totalingsome20,000squarekilometers,hastheIndia-Tibetborderasitsnorthernboundary,Pasighatasitssouthernboundary,andGallongcountryandtheSiyomriverasitswesternboundary.Theregion'sgeographiccoordinatesare28°and29°N,by95°and96"E.Demography.Accordingtothe1971censustherewere4,733Abor.AUnitedBibleSocietiessurveysuggestsatotalAdi-speakingpopulation of 84,026in1982.LinguisticAffiliation.TheAborspeakAdi(alsocalledMiri,Abor,Arbor,orMishing),alanguage of theTibeto-BurmanStockbelongingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAborsimmigratedtotheirIndianhomelandfromthenorthcrossingtheHimalayasintotheAssamValley.Eventu-allytheyretreatedintothehighlandregionsthattheycur-rentlyoccupy.Thecause of thismigrationisunknown,al-thoughnaturalcausesandpoliticalupheavalhavebeensug.gestedaspossiblecatalysts.Itisalsonotknownwhethertheymigratedasasolidbodyatasinglepointinhistory,orinsmallersubgroupsoveraperiod of severalhundredyears.Be-tween1847and1862,theBritishgovernmenttriedunsuc-cessfullytoconquerall of Aborterritory.Followingthefailure of severalmilitaryendeavors,atreatywasreachedthatguar-anteedlimitedBritishhegemonyanduninhibitedtradeandcommunicationonthefrontier.Inspite of occasionaltreatyviolations,anuneasypeacewasmaintained.AfterthefinalBritishmilitaryactionagainsttheAbor(inresponsetothemurder of theassistantpoliticalofficerandacompanion)in1912,thehillsnorth of Assamweredividedintowestern,central,andeasternsectionsforadministrativepurposes.Thelast of thesewerecollectivelygiventhename of SadiyaFron-tierTract.In1948,theTirapFrontierTractwasdividedintotheMishmiHillsDistrictandtheAborHillsDistrict.Finally,in1954,thename of theAborHillsDistrictwaschangedtotheSiangFrontierDivision.Sincethistime,theAborhaveundergoneconsiderableacculturation,whichhasresultedinanumber of changesinthenature of villagelife,thelocaleconomy,socialstructure,andpoliticalorganization.SettlementsVillagesareusuallybuiltonhilltops(thoughintheplains,Abortendtofollowthelocalpractice of buildingvillagesonlevelland).Preferenceisgiventothoselocationsthataffordaccesstoariverbyaslopinginclineononesideandthepro-tection of averysteepdeclineontheotherside.Housesarebuiltonelevatedplatforms.Theyarearrangedinrowsex-tendingfromthetoptothebottom of thehill,andarecon-structedsothattherearside of thehousefacesthehillitself.Publicbuildingsinatypicalvillageincludethemoshup(bach-elors'dormitory),therasheng(singlefemales'dormitory),andgranaries.Inoldervillages,stonewallswithwoodenrein-forcementsarefound.Majorbuildingmaterialsarebamboo,wood,thatchinggrass,andcane.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themajorsub-sistenceactivitiesarehunting,fishing,gathering,agriculture,andbarter of surpluscropsforbasicnecessitiesandluxuries.Slash-and-burn(orjhum)agricultureisthenorm.Forestandundergrowtharecut,dried,andburned,afterwhichseedsareplanted.Soilfertilityismaintainedforaperiod of onetothreeyearsusingthismethod.Agriculturallandisgradedac-cordingtolatentfertility,andcropsareassignedaccordingly.36AborFiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1962).TheApaTanisandTheirNeighbours.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Lal,Parmanand,andBimanKumarDasGupta(1979).LowerSiangPeople.Calcutta:Government of India.Roy,Sachin(1960).Aspects of Padam-MinyongCulture.Shillong:Notth-EastFrontierAgency.Simoons,FrederickJ.,andElizabethS.Simoons(1968).ACeremonialOx of India:TheMithaninNature,Culture,andHistory.Madison:University of WisconsinPress.Srivastava,L.R.N.(1962).TheGallongs.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.HUGHRPAGE,JRAgariaETHNONYMS:Agariya,AghariaAlthoughtheAgariaarenotahomogeneousgroup,itisbelievedtheywereoriginallyaDravidian-speakingbranch of theGondtribe.Asaseparatecaste,however,theydodistin-guishthemselvesfromothersbytheirprofessionasironsmelters.Theirpopulationwas17,548in1971,andtheywerewidelydispersedacrosscentralIndiaontheMaikalrangeinMandla,Raipur,andBilaspurdistricts of MadhyaPradesh.Thereareothercastes of AgariasamongtheLoharsaswell.TheAgaria'snamecomesfromeithertheHindugod of fireAgni,ortheirtribaldemonwhowasborninflame,Agyasur.TheAgarialiveintheirownsection of avillageortown,orsometimestheyhavetheirownhamletoutside of atown.Sometravelfromtowntotownworkingtheirtradeaswell.Asalreadyindicated,thetraditionaloccupation of theAgariaisironsmelting.TheygettheirorefromtheMaikalrange,pre.ferringstones of adarkreddishcolor.Oreandcharcoalareplacedinfurnacesthatareblastedbyapair of bellowsworkedbythesmelters'feetandchanneledtothefurnacethroughbambootubes,aprocessthatiskeptupforhours.Theclayin-sulation of thekilnisbrokenupandthemoltenslagandcharcoalaretakenandhammered.Theyproduceplowshares,mattocks,axes,andsickles.Traditionallybothmenandwomen(inBilaspurmenonly)collecttheoreandmakethecharcoalforthefurnaces.Atduskthewomencleanandpreparethekilnsforthenextday'swork,bycleaningandbreakingupthepieces of oreandroastingtheminanordinaryfire;thetuyeres(cylindricalclayventsfordeliveringairtoafurnace)arerolledbyhandandmadebythewomenaswell.Duringsmeltingoperationsthewomenworkthebellows,andthemenhammerandfashiontheoreonanvils.Theconstruction of anewfurnaceisanim-portanteventinvolvingthewholefamily:themendigtheholesforthepostsanddotheheavywork,thewomenplasterthewalls,andthechildrenbringwaterandclayfromtheriver;uponcompletion,amantra(prayer)isrecitedoverthefur-nacetoensureitsproductiveness.TherearetwoendogamoussubcastesamongtheAgaria,thePathariaandtheKhuntias.Thesetwosubgroupsdonotevensharewaterwitheachother.TheexogamousdivisionsusuallyhavethesamenamesastheGonds,suchasSonureni,Dhurua,Tekam,Markam,Uika,Purtai,Marai,tonameafew.SomenamessuchasAhindwar,Ranchirai,andRattoriaare of HindioriginandareanindicationthatsomenorthernHinduspossiblyhavebeenincorporatedintothetribe.Indi-vidualsbelongingtoasectionarebelievedtoconstitutealineagewithacommonancestorandarethereforeexoga-mous.Descentistracedpatrilineally.Marriagesareusuallyar-rangedbythefather.Whenaboy'sfatherdecidestoarrangeamarriage,emissariesaresenttothegirl'sfatherandifac-ceptedpresentswillfollow.ContrarytoHindumarriagecus-toms,marriageispermittedduringthemonsoonswhenironsmeltingispostponedandthereisnowork.Abride-priceisgenerallypaidafewdaysbeforetheceremony.AswiththeGonds,firstcousinsarepermittedtomarry.Widowmarriageisacceptedandisexpectedwithone'slatehusband'syoungerbrother,particularlyifheisabachelor.Divorceisallowedforeitherpartyincases of adultery,extravagance,ormistreat-ment.Ifawomanleavesherhusbandwithoutbeingdivorced,theothermanbycustomisobligatedtopayapricetothehusband.Evenamongthewidelydispersedsubgroups of theAgariatheretraditionallyhasbeendiscrimination:amongtheAsur,marriagewassanctionedbycustomwiththeChokh,althoughbothgroupsrefusedtomarrywiththeHinduLoharsubgroup,owingtotheirlowerstatus.ThefamilygodisDulhaDeo,towhomofferings of goats,fowl,coconuts,andcakesaremade.TheyalsosharetheGonddeity of theforest,BuraDeo.Lohasur,theirondemon,istheirprofessionaldeity,whomtheybelieveinhabitsthesmeltingkilns.DuringPhagunandontheday of DasahiatheAgariamakeofferings of fowlasasign of devotiontotheirsmeltingimplements.Traditionally,villagesorcererswerere-cruitedduringtimes of sicknesstodeterminethedeitywhohadbeenoffended,towhomanatonementwouldthenbeoffered.BibliographyElwin,Verrier(1942).TheAgaria.Oxford:HumphreyMil-ford,OxfordUniversityPress.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916)."Agaria."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India,byR.V.RussellandHiraLal.Vol.2, 3-8 .Nagpur:GovernmentPrintingPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.JAYDiMAGGIOAbor5SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Theprimaryallegiance of anindivid-ualistohisorherfamily.Thecohesion of largergroupswithinthesociety,suchassubclans,clans,andmoieties,canalsobeoccasionedbydisputesandconflictsthatthreatenoneormore of theconstituentmembers of theselargergroups.AmongtheAbor'sprimaryinstitutionsmustbein-cludedjhumagriculture,thenuclearfamily,themoshup,andtherasheng.Theanticipatedsecondaryinstitutions(i.e.,corereligiousbeliefs,ritualcults,andfolklorecorpus)alsoobtainamongtheAbor.Traditionally,socialstatuswasachievedthroughtheaccumulation of wealth.Today,educationandoccupationarealsoviewedassigns of status.PoliticalOrganization.Eachvillageisanautonomousunitwhoseaffairsareadministeredbyacouncil(kebang).Councilmembershipconsists of clanrepresentativesandin-dividualvillagemembers.Everyaspect of villagelifeisgov-ernedbythekebang.Thisincludesthemediation of localdis-putes.Groups of villagesareorganizedintobangos,whicharegovernedbyabangocouncil.Disputesbetweenbangosaremediatedbyabogumbokang(atemporaryinterbangocouncilmadeup of bangoeldersfromthesamegroup).SocialControl.Sources of conflictwithinAborsocietyin-cludemaritalandfamilialdisputes,divorce,theft,assault,andinheritancedisputes.Theresolution of conflictandtheregulation of behaviorwithin ... thevariousAborgroups)andexternal(i.e.,withneighboringpeoples)warfarewereeffectivelyelimi-natedaftertheinitiation of Britishrule.Conflictbetweenvil-lagesishandledbythebangocouncilandtheresolution of interbangoconflictistheresponsibility of thebogumbokang.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief&.Aborreligionischaracterizedbyabeliefinahost of spirits(uyu),bothbeneficentandmalevolent. Of these,theEpom(offspring of Robo,father of evilspirits)fig-ureprominently.Theyaretheadversaries of humanbeings(whoarebelievedtobetheoffspring of Robo'sprimordialbrother,Nibo)andaresaidtoinduceaccidents.Thesouls of thosewhohavenotbeenproperlyburiedorwhodiedunnat-uraldeathsbecomerams(evilspiritswhojointheEpomincombatagainsthumanity).Othernotableevilspiritsincludethenipong(spirit of awomanwhodiesduringpregnancy)andtheayinguyu(lowlandevilspiritswhoseassaultsaredirectedagainstmenandwomen of allages).Amongthemoreimpor-tantbenevolentspirits,BenjiBama(controller of humandes-tiny)mustbenoted,andeachnaturalforceisbelievedtopos-sessaspiritthatmustbeheldincheckthroughproperpersonalconductandtheperformance of certainrituals.Inaddition,theAborbelieveinseveraleternalbeings(e.g.,Seti,theearth,andMelo,thesky)whowereinexistencebeforecreationandareremovedfromtheaffairs of humanity.Thesebeingsbelongtoahigherorderthanthespirits,andtheyfig-ureprominentlyinAborcreationmyths.ReligiousPractitioners.TheAborhavetwocategories of religiouspractitioners:theepakmiri(diviner)andthenyibo(medicineman).Throughtheuse of incantations,herbs,div-ination,andspiritualdiscernment,theydeterminewhichspiritsareresponsiblefortheirmisfortuneandappeasethesemalevolentforcesthroughtheinvocation of afamiliarspirit.Thisspiritpossessesthebody of thepractitionerandassiststhesoul of theepakmiriornyiboinlocatingthespiritthatmustbeappeasedandinarrangingforasuitablepropitiatoryact of theindividualwhohasbeenafflicted.Thenyiboestab-lishescontactwiththe world of spiritsbyrecountingcreationstories,whiletheepakmiriutilizesdanceandsong.Nospe-cialsocialsignificanceisattachedtoeitheroffice,thoughtheepakmiriisallowedtowearspecialbeadsonceremonialoccasions.Ceremonies.Ceremonialactivityaccompaniesthemajoreventsinthehumanlifecycleandisalsoassociatedwithaf-fairs of state,thelife of themoshupandrasheng,subsistenceactivities,warfare,andhealthcare.Songanddanceare of greatimportanceontheseoccasions.Theepakmiri,whoisalsotheguardian of tribalmyths,histories,genealogies,andothertraditionallore,isthecentralfigureduringtheseritualobservances.Arts.InadditiontothoseartifactsmanufacturedbytheAborsthathaveautilitarianorornamentalpurpose,tattoo-ingisalsopracticedbymanygroups.Abororalliteraturein-cludesanumber of myths,legends,folktales,traditionalbal-lads(abangs),religiousballads(ponungs),andpoliticalnarrations(abes).Therecentintroduction of writinghascon-tributedtoanincreaseinthisliterature.Whilemusicalcom-positionsarefewinnumber,danceisahighlydevelopedartformamongtheAbor.Medicine.IntraditionalAborthought,sicknessisbe-lievedtohaveitsbasisinthemalevolentactivity of forcesinthespirit world andtreatmentconsists of theministrations of theepakmiri.Itishisorherjobtoascertainfromthespirit world whichspirithasbeenoffendedandhowexpiationistobemade.DeathandAfterlife.Itisbelieved...

... thesur-roundingslopes.TheclosesttiesarewiththesevennearbyKotavillages.Until1930everyBadagafamilyhadaKotaas-sociatewhoprovidedaband of musicianswhenevertherewasaweddingorfuneralinthatfamilyandwhoregularlyfur-nishedtheBadagaswithpottery,carpentry,thatching,andmostleatherandmetalitems.Inreturnforbeingjacks -of- all-tradestotheBadagas(whohadnospecializedartisansintheirowncommunity),theKotasweresuppliedwithclothandaportion of theannualharvestbytheirBadagaassoci-ates.TheTodas,avegetarianpeople,weretheonlygroupintheNilgiriHillswhomtheBadagaswerewillingtoacceptasnearequals.Thetwocommunitiesusedtoexchangebuffaloandattendeachother'sceremonies.SomeTodasstillsupplytheirassociateswithbasketsandotherjungle-grownproduce,aswellasclarifiedbutter(ghee).InreturntheBadagasgiveaportion of theirharvest.Since1930therelationshiphasbe-comeattenuated,aswiththeKotas,largelybecausetheBadagapopulationhasincreasedout of allproportiontotheTodasandKotas;andalsobecausetheBadagasaredistinctlymoremodernized.TheKurumbasareseventribes of junglegatherers,gardeners,andsorcerersontheNilgirislopes.EachBadagavillagehasa"watchman,"aKurumbaemployedtoprotectthemfromthesorcery of otherKurumbas.HealsotakespartinsomeBadagaceremoniesasanauxiliarypriestandsupplieshisBadagafriendswithbaskets,nets,honey,andotherjungleproducts.TheBadagaheadmanleviesforhimafixedquantity of grainfromeachhouseholdinthevil-lage.IrulasandUralisarethoughttobesorcerersliketheKu-rumbas,iflesseffectiveones,andaretreatedsimilarly.SomeChettisareitineranttraderswhosellknickknacksonafixedcircuit of Badagavillagesonceamonth,andhavedonesoforseveralcenturies.Theyalsohaveminorceremonialconnec-tionswiththeBadagas.Paniyansareagresticserfsontheland of certainBadagasandChettiswhoinhabittheWainadPla-teaudirectlywest of theNilgirisproper.Inadditiontotheeconomicexchangesdescribedabove,theBadagasbuyallkinds of goodsinthedistrict'stownmarketsthatwerestartedbytheBritishadministratorsaround1820.Division of Labor.Arigidsexualdivision of laborisappar-ent.Mendotheheavyfieldwork of plowing,sowing,andthreshing,whilewomendothelighterwork of weedingandhelpatharvest.Alldairyoperationsareconductedbymenorboys.Womenareresponsibleforpreparingfood.ChildrenBhil37sizedthemoreconservativeaspects of Vaishnavism.Other of Caitanya'sassociatesemphasizedhismoreradicalside,espe-ciallyhisjointincarnationandthewayshebrokebarriers of casteandtraditiontoexpresshispassionatelove,asthemilk-maidslefttheirhusbandstofollowKrishna.Thisistheaspect of bhaktidevotionthatemphasizestheradicalequality of allpeoplebeforeKrishna,regardless of lawandcustom,casteandstatus.ThemoreconservativeapproachtendstobefoundinthemonasteriesandamongVaishnavascholars(pandits),whilethemoreradicalapproachtendstobefoundamongtheforestdwellersandwanderers.Therearetwooffshoots of GaudiyaVaishnavismthatareworthmentioning.OneisSahajiyaorTantricVaishnavism,inwhichsexualitycomestoplayamajorroleinbothbeliefandpractice.TheotheristheInternationalSocietyforKrishnaConsciousness(ISKCON),betterknownasHareKrishnas,whosemembershavecarriedandadaptedBengaliVaishnavabeliefstotheWestern world. SeealsoBaul;BengaliShaktaBibliographyChakravarti,Ramakanta(1985).VaisnavisminBengal.Calcutta:SanskritPustakBhandar.De,SushilKumar(1981).EarlyHistory of theVaisnavaFaithandMovementinBengal.Calcutta:FirmaK.L.Muk.hopadhyay.Dimock,Edward C. (1989).ThePlace of theHiddenMoon:EroticMysticismin theVaisnava-SahajiydCult of Bengal.Chi-cago:University of ChicagoPress.McDaniel,June(1989).TheMadness of theSaints:EcstaticReligioninBengal.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Singer,Milton,ed.(1971).Krishna:Myths,Rites,andAtti-tudes.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.JUNEMcDANIELBhilETHNONYMS:noneOrientationIdentification.TheBhilsarethethird-largest(aftertheGondsandSantals)andmostwidelydistributedtribalgroupinIndia.Althoughtheirracialoriginremainsundetermined,theyhavebeenvariouslyclassifiedasGondids,asProto-AustraloidVeddids,andasasubsection of the"Mundarace."Thename'Bhil"isbelievedtohavebeenderivedfromvilluorbill,whichinmostDravidianlanguagesisthewordfor"bow,"inreferencetotheweaponthat,untilrecenttimes,theyseemedalmostalwaystobecarrying.ManyUrduspeak-ers,however,equatetheterm'Bhil"withtheEnglish"aborig-inal,"leadingtospeculationthatthetermisagenericoneas-sociatedwithanumber of tribesincontiguousareasbearingculturalsimilarities.RecentworkontheBhilsappearstoin-dicatethatwhathasalwaysbeentreatedasonetribalgroupinfactisheterogeneousinnature.Thisisreflectedinthe1961censusbythenumeroustribesthataretobefoundunderthename of 'Bhil."Itseemsbesttoconsidertheterm"Bhils"ascoveringanumber of subtribesthatincludetheBarelas,Bha-galia,Bhilalas,Dhankas,Dholi,Dublas,Dungri,GamitsorGamtas,Garasias,Mankars,Mavchis,Mewasi,Nirle(Nilde),Patelia,Pathias,Pavadas,Pawra,Rathias,Rawal,Tadvis,Talavias,Vasavas,andVasave.TheDhankas,Tadvis,Pava-das,andtheGamitsorGamtasmayrefertothemselvesasseparatetribes,oratleastasdistinctfromthemainstock,withtheDhankasevenhavinganoriginmyththatupholdstheirderivationfromtheRajputs.TheBhilalasaregenerallyacknowledgedasamixture of BhilsandRajputs.Yetthemembers of eachtriberegardthemselvesasbelongingtoanethnicunitseparatefromtheirneighborsandhavedevelopedasharedtribalconsciousness.TheareasinhabitedbytheBhilsremainsome of themoreremoteandinaccessibleparts of Indiatoday.Theiruniquescatteredsettlementpatternhashinderedgovernmenteffortstoprovideservicesashastheirgeneraldistrust of governmentofficials.Recentstudies of theprogressmadebytheHinduBhagatmovementappeartoin-dicatethattheremaybeaprocess of transformationfromtri-balgrouptocasteunderwayamongtheBhils.Location.TheareaoccupiedbytheBhilistheforestedlands of theVindhyaandSatpurahillsinthewesternportion of centralIndiabetween20°and25°Nand73"and77°E.Straddlingtheborders of AndhraPradesh,Gujarat,MadhyaPradesh,Maharashtra,andRajasthanstates,most of thister-ritory,traditionallyreferredtoas"Rewakantha"(aGujaratitermforthedrainage of theRewa,anothernamefortheNar-madaRiver),isthehomeland of peoplescollectivelyreferredtoastheBhil.Demography.Atotalnumber of 5,172,129peoplearetobefoundundertheheading of 'Bhilsincludingothersub-tribes"inthe1971census.Thelargestconcentration,1,618,716strong,isfoundinMadhyaPradesh.InGujaratthereare1,452,987Bhils,whilethereare1,431,020inRaja-sthan.InMaharashtra678,750registeredasmembers of thetribalgroup.TheBhilsasawholerecordedanastounding64.5percentincreaseinpopulation(from2,330,278to3,833,331)duringthedecade195 1-1 961,butthisremark-ableratemaybeinlargepartattributabletothereclassifica-tion of thetribalgroupinthecensus.Between1961and1971,theBhilpopulationregisteredamuchmoremoderate45.9percentgrowthrate.LinguisticAffiliation.ThenumerousandvariedBhilidia-lectsspokenbytheBhilbelongtotheIndo-AryanFamily of languagesandexhibitdivergentlevels of RajasthaniandGu-jaratiinfluence.Aradius of 32to48kilometersappearstobethelimit of eachdialect'sboundaries.HistoryandCulturalRelationsAlthoughempiricalevidenceislacking,theBhilarecreditedwiththeearliestoccupation of theirarea;withsuccessiveim-migrations of Rajputsandconflictswithperiodicwaves of 32Bengalibasicruleandmatrilateralcousinmarriageisalsoforbidden.Bycontrast,asIslamraisesnobarriertocousinmarriage,itsoccurrenceamongBengaliMuslimsiscommon,althoughempiricalstudiesshowthatitisneitherpervasivenorneces-sarilypreferred.Similarlypolygyny,rareandstronglydiscour-agedamongBengaliHindus,is of coursepermittedtoBengaliMuslims,althoughitsactualrate of occurrenceisnothigh.Divorceamonghigh-casteHindusisstronglydiscouragedand,atleastuntilrecently,hasalwaysbroughtgreatstigma.Islamdiscouragesbutnonethelesspermitsdivorce,andthusitsrateamongBengaliMuslimsismuchhigherthanamongBengaliHindus.Finally,amonghigh-casteHindus,widowre-marriage-despiteacentury of legislationoutlawingthean-cientcustom of proscribingit-isstillgreatlyfrownedupon.Islamplacesnobarrieronremarriageforeithersexafterspou-saldeathordivorce,althoughtheincidence of remarriage of elderlyMuslimwidowsisnothigh.ForbothHindusandMuslimspatrilocal/virilocalpostmaritalresidencepatternsaremuchpreferredandalmostuniversallypracticed,atleastintheruralareas.Neolocalnuclear-familyhouseholdsaremuchmorecommonamongurbanprofessionalfamiliesinbothWestBengalandBangladesh.DomesticUnit.ThroughoutruralBengalthepatrilineallyextendedfamilyhomesteadissubdividedintoitsnaturalseg-ments,calledparibar,consisting of men,theirwives,theirchildren,andotherdependents,whoformthebasicsubsis-tence-producingandconsumingkinshipunits.Theeconomicandsocial"jointness" of theparibarisunderlinedbytheshar-ing of acommonkitchenorhearth,aswellastheownershiporcontrol of landand/orotherproductiveassets,ifany.Inheritance.AmongBengaliHindus,inheritanceisgov-ernedbythedayabhagasystem of customarylawinwhichamanhassolerightsinallancestralpropertyuntilhisdeathandcaninprinciplepassitontohissurvivorsinanymannerthathewishes.Unlesshemakesawilltothecontrary,uponhisdeathaman'ssonsaretoinheritequallyallpropertyasamatter of survivorship,notamatter of right;hiswifeanddaughtershavenoclaimbyrighttoany of hisproperty,buttheydohavetherighttomaintenancesolongastheyarede-pendentontheirsonsorbrothers.AmongMuslimsinheri-tanceis of coursegovernedbyIslamiclaw,whichpermitsaman'sfemaledependentstoinheritaportion of hisproperty;sincesonsareexpectedtobethesoleprovidersfortheirfami-lies,thelawpermitsthemtoreceivemore of afather'sprop-ertythandodaughters.InactualBengaliMuslim(atleastrural,peasant)practice,however,daughterscommonlyforgooraredeprived of theirinheritance of immovablepropertyinfavor of theirbrothers,assumingthatiftheyneedtoreturntotheirnatalhomesafterwidowhoodordivorcetheirbrotherswilltakecare of them.Althoughjointretentionanduse of thefather'spropertybyhissonsistheculturalidealforbothHindusandMuslims,inpracticethesubdivision of aman'spropertybeginsnotlongafterhisdeath,andtheformationorfurtherproliferation of thedomesticunitsdiscussedabovebegins.Socialization.Childrenlearnproperbehaviorfrompar-entsandoldersiblings,graduallybecomingdifferentiatedac-cordingtogenderastheymature.Thepattern of olderchil-drencaringfortheiryoungersiblingsiswidespread.Whilesmallchildren of bothsexesarewarmlyindulged,asgirlsap-proachphysicalmaturitytheirmovementsoutsidethehouse-holdaregraduallycurtailedinanticipation of therelativere-strictionsthatbothhigh-casteHinduandMuslimadultwomenwillexperienceformost of theirchild-bearingyears.SchoolsaboundthroughoutBengal,butwhetherandhowlongachildwillattenddependmuchupongenderaswellasthesocialstandingandfinancialcondition of thefamily.Schoolsforreligiouseducation-HindupathsalasforboysandIslamicmadrassasopentobothsexes-arefoundevery-whereandcommonlyattended,atleastduringchildhoodyears.SociopoliticalOrganizationWestBengalisafederalstatewithintheRepublic of India,withitsownelectedgovernorandlegislature;italsosendsrepresentativestoabicameralnationalparliament.Bangla-deshisanindependentsovereignrepublicwithanelectedpresidentandaunicameral,electednationalassembly(theJatiyaSangsad).SocialOrganization.BengaliHindusocietyisorganizedalongthelines of theHinducastesystem,inwhicheveryindi-vidualisamemberbybirth of acorporate,ranked,endoga-mousoccupationalgroup,calledacaste(jati).One'splaceinsocietyisdeterminedbytherank of one'scaste,andthelatterisdeterminedbytherelativeprestige-measuredbythede-gree of ritualpurityorimpurity-associatedwiththecaste'straditionaloccupation.Thecastestraditionallyassociatedwithreligiousleadershipareconsideredtobethemostpurerituallyandsohavethehighestrank.Atthebottom of thehi-erarchyarefoundthosecasteswhoseoccupations,becausetheyinvolvedirectorindirectcontactwithsuchdefilingsub-stancesasbloodandhumanexcretaormaybeassociatedwithdeathinsomeway,areconsideredtobethemostrituallyimpure.Thecustomsgoverningmuch of theindividual'sexis-tencearethose of hisorhercastecommunity;thewealth of one'sfamilyisalsocorrelatedwithone'scasteranking;theprobabilitythatapersonwillreceiveahighdegree of educa-tionisalsorelatedtocastestatus,and of coursemostpeoplemarryamember of theircasteaswell.Individualupwardso-cialmobilityishighlyrestrictedinthiskind of socialsystem,butitispossibleforawholecastetoelevateitsactualrankinitslocalhierarchyifitsmembersbecomewealthyandattempttoemulatenormsandcustoms of thehighercastes.CertaincastesfoundelsewhereinIndia,notablythoseassociatedinthepastwithroyalty(i.e.,theKshatriyavarna)andtheper-formance of traditionalrulingfunctions,havenotbeenhis-toricallypresentinBengal.AnywherefromsixtoadozencastegroupsmightbefoundinatypicalBengaliHinduvil-lage,butvillagesinBengaltendtobelesshighlystratified,inthesensethattheytendtohavea ... de-fendtherefugee.Petitionsforsuchsanctuarymustbegranted,accordingtothecode of Baluchmayar.Formalpub-lictaunting,inverseaswellasindirectspeech,providesafur-thermechanismbywhichcompliancewiththeBaluchicode of behaviorisenforced.Conflict.Thewarriortradition of theBaluchiextendsbackthroughouttheirhistory,reachingitsfullestfloweringintheeleventhtofourteenthcenturies,atatimecoincidentwiththeirneedtoestablishasettlementbasefromwhichtoconducttheirseminomadicway of life.DuringtheimperialperiodtheBritishimposedapolicy of pacificationupontheregionandenforceditbymaintainingasubstantialgarrisonpresence.TheBaluchireputationforproducingfiercewarri-orsistodayrecalledprimarilyintheactivities of the"freefighters" of theBaluchinationalistmovement.Baiga21diangovernments)havenotbeencharacterizedbylong-standingconflict.Theonlymajorissue of contentionhasbeenthat of Baigaagriculturalpractice.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheBaigaworshipaplethora of deities.Theirpantheonisfluid,thegoal of Baigatheologicaleduca-tionbeingtomasterknowledge of anever-increasingnumber of deities.Supernaturalsaredividedintotwocategories:gods(deo),whoareconsideredtobebenevolent,andspirits(bhut),whoarebelievedtobehostile.SomeHindudeitieshavebeenincorporatedintotheBaigapantheonbecause of asacerdotalrolethattheBaigaexerciseonbehalf of theHin-dus.Some of themoreimportantmembers of theBaigapan-theoninclude:Bhagavan(thecreator-godwhoisbenevolentandharmless);BaraDeo/BudhaDeo(oncechiefdeity of thepantheon,whohasbeenreducedtothestatus of householdgodbecause of limitationsplacedonthepractice of bewar);ThakurDeo(lordandheadman of thevillage);DhartiMata(motherearth);Bhimsen(raingiver);andGansamDeo(protectoragainstwildanimalattacks).TheBaigaalsohonorseveralhouseholdgods,themostimportant of whicharetheAji-Dadi(ancestors)wholivebehindthefamilyhearth.Magical-religiousmeansareusedtocontrolbothanimalsandweatherconditions,toensurefertility,tocuredisease,andtoguaranteepersonalprotection.ReligiousPractitioners.Majorreligiouspractitionersin-cludethedewarandthegunia,theformer of ahigherstatusthanthelatter.Thedewarisheldingreatesteemandisre-sponsiblefortheperformance of agriculturalrites,closingvil-lageboundaries,andstoppingearthquakes.Theguniadealslargelywiththemagical-religiouscure of diseases.Thepanda,apractitionerfromtheBaigapast,isnolonger of greatpromi-nence.Finally,thejanpande(clairvoyant),whoseaccesstothesupernaturalcomesbymeans of visionsanddreams,isalsoimportant.Ceremonies.TheBaigacalendarislargelyagriculturalinnature.TheBaigaalsoobservefestivalsatthetimes of Holi,Diwali,andDassara.DassaraistheoccasionduringwhichtheBaigaholdtheirBidaobservance,asort of sanitizingcere-monyinwhichthemendispose of anyspiritsthathavebeentroublingthemduringthepastyear.Hinduritesdonot,how-ever,accompanytheseobservances.TheBaigasimplyholdfestivalsduringthesetimes.TheChertaorKichrahifestival(achildren'sfeast)isobservedinJanuary,thePhagfestival(atwhichwomenareallowedtobeatmen)isheldinMarch,theBidriceremony(fortheblessingandprotection of crops)takesplaceinJune,theHarelifestival(toensuregoodcrops)isscheduledforAugust,andthePolafestival(roughlyequiv-alenttotheHareli)isheldinOctober.TheNawafeast(thanksgivingforharvest)followstheend of therainyseason.DassarafallsinOctoberwithDiwalicomingshortlythereafter.Arts.TheBaigaproducefewimplements.Thusthereislit-tletodescribeinthearea of thevisualarts.Theirbasketrymaybesoconsidered,asmaytheirdecorativedoorcarving(thoughthisisrare),tattooing(chiefly of thefemalebody),andmasking.Frequenttattoodesignsincludetriangles,bas-kets,peacocks,turmericroot,flies,men,magicchains,fishbones,andotheritems of importanceinBaigalife.Mensometimeshavethemoontattooedontheback of ahandandascorpiontattooedonaforearm.Baigaoralliteraturein-cludesnumeroussongs,proverbs,myths,andfolktales.Danc-ingisalsoanimportantpart of theirpersonalandcorporatelives;itisincorporatedintoallfestalobservances.ImportantdancesincludetheKarma(themajordancefromwhichallothersarederived),theTapadi(forwomenonly),Jharpat,Bilma,andDassara(formenonly).Medicine.FortheBaiga,mostillnessistraceabletotheactivity of oneormoremalevolentsupernaturalforcesortowitchcraft.Littleisknown of thenaturalcauses of disease,thoughtheBaigahavedevelopedatheoryaboutvenerealdis-eases(all of whichtheyplacewithinasingleclassification).Themostfrequentcurecitedforthecure of sexuallytrans-mitteddiseasesissexualintercoursewithavirgin.Anymem-ber of theBaigapantheonmaybeheldresponsibleforsend-ingsickness,asmaythemata,"mothers of disease,"whoattackanimalsandhumans.Theguniaischargedwiththere-sponsibility of diagnosingdiseaseandwiththeperformance of thosemagical-religiousceremoniesrequiredtoalleviatesickness.DeathandAfterlife.Afterdeath,thehumanbeingisbe-lievedtobreakdownintothreespiritualforces.Thefirst(jiv)returnstoBhagavan(wholivesonearthtotheeast of theMaikalHills).Thesecond(chhaya,"shade")isbroughttothedeceasedindividual'shometoresidebehindthefamilyhearth.Thethird(bhut,"ghost")isbelievedtobetheevilpart of anindividual.Sinceitishostiletohumanity,itisleftintheburialplace.Thedeadarebelievedtoliveinthesamesocioeconomicstatusintheafterlifethattheyenjoyedwhilealiveonearth.Theyoccupyhousessimilartothoseinhabitedbythemduringtheiractuallifetimes,andtheyeatall of thefoodthattheygaveawaywhentheywerealive.Oncethissup-plyisexhausted,theyarereincarnated.Witchesandwickedpersonsdonotenjoysuchahappyfate.However,nocounter-parttotheeternalpunishment of thewickedfoundinChris-tianityobtainsamongtheBaiga.SeealsoAgaria;BhuiyaBibliographyChattopadhyaya,Kamaladevi(1978).TribalisminIndia.NewDelhi:VikasPublishingHouse.Das,Tarakchandra(1931).TheBhumijas of Seraikella.Cal-cutta:University of Calcutta.Elwin,Verrier(1939).TheBaiga.London:JohnMurray.Elwin,Verrier(1968).TheKingdom of theYoung.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Fuchs,Stephen(1960).TheGondandBhumia of EasternMandla.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Misra,P.K.(1977)."Patterns of Inter-TribalRelations."InTribalHeritage of India.Vol.1,Ethnicity,Identity,andInterac-tion,editedbyS. C. Dube,8 5-1 17.NewDelhi:VikasPub-lishingHouse.Roy,SaratChandra(1935).TheHillBhuiyas of Orissa-withBaiffa19resultinsomenegativeBaigasentiment.Christianmission-aryeffortshavemetwithlittlesuccessamongtheBaiga.Elwinobservedthattraditionalvillagelifehadbeguntodecay(because of prohibitionsagainstbewarandhunting,theef-fects of theHinducastesystem,andthepressuresimposedbyforcedmodernization)andthattheBaiganolongerproducedthoseitemsnecessaryfordailysurvival.SettlementsTheBaigabuildvillageseitherintheform of alargesquareorwithhousesalignedonthesides of abroadstreet(approxi-mately10metersinwidth).Villagesarelocatedinareascon-venientforcultivationwithconsiderationalsobeinggiventotheaestheticvalueanddegree of isolation of theintendedsite.Villagelocationsvary(jungles,highhills,andvalleys),but,wheneverpossible,alocationatopasteephill(withlim-itedaccessbyfootpath)ispreferred.Thevillageboundary(mero)ismarkedbyalargeexpanse of land(approximately30meterswide)andisdelimitedbyintermittentlyplacedpiles of stones.Theboundaryisreinforcedbyamagicwallin-tendedtoprotectagainstwildanimalsanddisease.Thevil-lageburialplace(marqhat)islocatedwithinthisboundary.Thefourthside of thevillage(whichisopen)isprotectedbyeitherabambooorcactushedge.Individualresidenceunitswithinthevillagearedetachedstructuresconnectedbynar-rowroads.Surroundingthevillageonefindsbari(landsetasideforthecultivation of tobacco,maize,andsweetpota-toes).Pighouses(guda)areattachedtoeachhousewithinthevillagesquare.Cattlesheds(sar)aresimilarinstructuretoandbarelydistinguishablefromhumanhabitations.Plat-forms(macha)fordryingandstoringmaizearefoundinthecenterorattheside of thevillagesquare.Granaries,corpo-ratehouses,temples,andshrinesareabsentfromBaigavil-lages.Asmallcompound(chatti)forusebytravelersandoffi-cialsislocatedoutsidethevillagesquare.Oftenthesesquaresaredominatedbyasinglefamilyanditsrelatives;members of otherfamiliesbuildtheirhousesinsmallgroupsatsomedis-tancefromthemainarea of habitation.AtypicalBaigahouseisrectangularinshape.Itusuallyhasasmallverandaandasingleentrance.Theinteriorisdividedintotwopartsbygrainbinsor ... thelatterstillexistandtendtobeoccupationallyendogamous.Today,however,Muslimvillagecommunities,atleastinBangladesh,aremostoftenpopulatedbyordinarycultivators,amongwhomwell-markedcastelikedistinctionsarenotfoundandwhoempha-sizedistinctionsinwealthasthebasisforsocialrank.PoliticalOrganization.WestBengalisdividedintosix-teendistricts,andbelowthedistrictlevel(aseverywhereinIndia)thereisathree-tieredcouncilsystemknownaspancha.yatiraj,whosepurposeistoadministervillageandmultivil-lageaffairsandtocarryoutdevelopmentprojectsconsistentwithstatewideplansandgoals.Eachvillageelectsavillageas-sembly(gramsabha),whoseexecutivebodyisthevillagecouncil(grampanchayat).Usuallythesevillagecouncilsarecontrolledbythenumericallyand/oreconomicallydominantcastegroupinthevillageselectingthem.Severalvillagecoun.cilsinturnelectanareacouncil(anchalpanchayat),whichhasjurisdictionoverthevillagecouncils.Theheads of thevariousareacouncils,alongwithnominatedmembers of thestatelegislativeassembly,formthedistrictcouncil(zillaparishad),which,linkedtothestategovernment,hascontrolovertheentirelocalgovernmentsystem.Paralleltothelocalcouncilsateachlevelisathree-tieredjudicialsystemaswell.InBangladesh,whichundertookadministrativereformsin1982,the68,000officiallydesignated"villages"ormauzasareamalgamatedintoaround4,300unionswithgoverningcoun-cilsknownasunionparishadsconstitutingthelowestlevels of thenationalgovernmentandadministration,towhichthevillagerselectmembers.Unionsarefurthergroupedintonearly500upazillasorsubdistrictss,"governedbyupazillaparishads,whosemembershipsarecomposedbythechairmen of theunionparishads(exceptthatthechairman of anupazillaparishadisdirectlyelected).Upazillasinturnareunitedintosomesixty-fourdistricts,andtheseagainintofourdivisions.Thekeytothisadministrativeschemeissupposedtobetheupazillaparishad,whichhasmanylocaldecision-makingpowers,especiallythoserelevanttocommunitydevel-opment.Socialscientistswhohavestudiedthelocalgovern.mentsysteminBangladeshhavefoundthatitis.usuallydominatedbythemorewealthysections of thepeasantryandlocallypowerfulvillageelites.SocialControl.InbothWestBengalandBangladesh,for-malsocialcontrolmechanismsareprovidedbytheunits of localgovernmentdescribedabove,inconjunctionwithpoliceandcivilcourtadministration.However,informalmecha-nismshavetraditionallybeenimportantaswell.AmongHin-dus,intervillagecastepanchayats(councils),headedbytheelders,regulatemarriagesandotherwisegoverntheaffairsandmediatedisputes of themembers of thesamecasteinsev-eraladjacentvillages.AmongMuslims,similartraditionalcouncils,calledsamaj, of villageeldersperformsimilarfunc-tions,andsometimesthesegroupsmayencompassseveralcontiguousvillages.Thesetraditionalsociopoliticalgroup-ingsmayoverlapwiththeofficialunits of localgovernmentdescribedabove,inthattheleaders of theseindigenousgroupsaresometimeselectedtomembershipinthegovern.mentalbodiestoo.Conflict.Anthropologistshaveconductedmanystudies of conflictin South Asianvillages,includingthose of Bengal.Theyhavefoundthatconflictoftenoccursnotonlybetweenthevariouscastesbutalsobetweenfactions,eachcomposed of members of variouscastegroups.Competitionforscarcelandisamajorsource of conflict,aswellasrivalrybetweenlandownersforpowerandinfluenceinlocal,regional,andevenstateandnationalaffairs.Wealthylandowningfamilieswilloftenexercisecontrolovertheirtenantsandthelandlesspeoplewhoworkontheirland,relyingonthesupport of thelatterinconflictsituations.Theoutcomes of electionsforbothlocalandupper-levelcouncilsareinfluencedbyfac-tionalconflict,asarethepollsineachconstituencyforstateandnationallegislativebodies.ReligionandExpressiveCultureHinduismandIslamarethetwomajorreligions of Bengal,andreligiousidentificationwasthebasisforthepoliticaldivi-sionexperiencedbytheBengaliswiththedeparture of Britishrulein1947.InWestBengal,Hindusconstituted77percent of thepopulationin1981,andMuslims22percent.Some85percent of BangladeshisareMuslim,about14percentHindu.Lessthan1percent of BengalisareChristians;onecanalsofindafewisolatedBengaliBuddhistvillagesinsouthernBangladesh.ReligiousBeliefs.BengaliHinduismbyandlargecon-formstotheorthodoxVedanticvariety of thatfaith,althoughinresponsetotheculturalimpact of theBritishinthelastcenturythereemergedcertainmodernisticvariants(e.g.,theBrahmoSamaj,towhichsomeWesternizedhigh-casteelitesweredrawn).TheShaivitecult,focusingonworship of thegodShivaandhisfemalecounterparts,iswidespreadamongtheuppercastes,whileVaishnavism,involvingdevotiontotheLordKrishna,ispopularamongthelowercastes.BengaliMuslimsbelongoverwhelminglytotheSunnidivision of IslamandgenerallyconformtotheHanafischool of Islamiclaw.PopularreligioninBengaloftendisplayssyncretism,amixing of bothHinduandMuslimfolkbeliefs,deities,andpractices.Bengalisfamousforitswanderingreligiousmendi.cantfolkmusicians(e.g.,theBauls,whodisdaincasteandconventionalHindu/Muslimreligiousdistinctionsintheirworshipandway of life).InadditiontoformalworshipatHindutemplesandMuslimmosques,popularworshipin-volvingreligiousfolkmusiciswidespread,especiallyatVaish-navitegatherings(kirtan)andamongMuslimfollowers of severalSufiorders(tarika)presentinBengal.BengaliMus-limsarealsoknownfortheirpractice of "pirism,"theculticfollowing of Muslimsaintsorholymen(calledpirs).ReligiousPractitioners.TheHinduclergyisdrawnfromthehighest(Brahman)castesandisthusamatter of birth-right,althoughnotallBrahmansactuallypracticeaspriests(pandit,purahit).Practitionerswithin...

... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."Bulletindu C. E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."Bulletindu C. E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... careforthemosque,makecallstoprayer,andburythedead.Fanditapractitionerswereatonetimelicensedbythestate.Fanditamenandwomenseldomgointotrance,whichtheythinkIslamdisapproves of; theirpurposeistohelpothersindifficultlifesituations.Largeris-landsalsohaveastrologers.Ceremonies.Divehisknowfivecalendricalsystems:anaksatraorzodiacalsystemfromIndia;anIndiansolarcalen-dar;anArabicsolarcalendar;theArabicreligiouscalendar;whichistendaysshorterthanthesolaryear;andnowthe"English"calendar.Weatheriskeenlyobserved,alongwithfishingseasonsandagriculturalfestivals,accordingtothenaksatra(nakai)system.Otherfestivalsareobservedaccord-ingtotheirrespectivecalendricalsystems,butthenew-moonfestivalthatcamefromSriLankahasnowalmostdisap-peared.DivehisareassiduousaboutobservingtheRamzanholiday,enforcedbythestate.ButatnightinRamzanthefoodisabundant.Thetwoidfestivalsareimportant,andtheProphet'sbirthdayiscelebratedbyspecialfoods.Personalceremoniesincludegivinganameaboutaweekafterbirth,circumcision of boysatage6or8,symboliccircumcision of babygirls(whichmaybedeclining),andgirls'pubertycere-monyasacarryoverfromSriLankaand south India.Marriageislessimportantasalifeceremony.Arts.Theartsareverypoorlydevelopedbecause of theiso-latedandscatteredpopulation.Divehimusicismono-rhythmicandinfrequentlyheard;RadioMaldivestendstoplayHindicinemasongs.DancinghasbeendisfavoredbyIslam.Thereissomeartistryinlivingcraftssuchas...

... herdeceasedhusband.Socialization.Theambition of everyGondwomanistobearason.Barrennessinawomanisconsideredacurse.Preg-nancyandbirtharesurroundedwithprotectiveritesagainstmagicspellsandevilinfluences.Childrenaregenerallywel-comeandtreatedwithaffection.Althoughsonsarepreferred,daughtersarewelcometoo.Childrengrowupwithoutmuchrestriction,butthecommunityteachesthemcorrectbehav-ior.Childrenareearlyinvitedtotakeoversometasks,firstplayfully,theninearnest.Boysspontaneouslyseemtoprefermalecompany,whilegirlsseemtogravitatenaturallytowardotherfemales.Thechangetoadulthoodisgradual;thereisnoinitiationceremony.Thefirstmenstruation of agirlisnotspeciallycelebrated,butshedoeslearninadvancewhatpro-hibitionsshehastoobserve.OnlythreeGondsectionsinthe south haveyouthdormitories,andonlytheMuriasusethedormitoryfortheeducation of youthinmarriedandciviclife.TheotherGondsectionshavenodormitorysystem.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.SincetheGondsarespreadoverawidearea,therearemanylocalsubsectionsthathavenoso-cialcontactwitheachother.ThemoreSanskritizedthesesec-tionsare,thehigheristhesocialranktheyclaim.Butthehighestrankisgiventothedescendants of theGondrajasandtheirretainers,theRaj-GondsandKatholias.Amongthesetwosectionswefindthegreatestnumber of Gondswithsubstantiallandholdings.OtherGondsectionsoutside of GondavanaaretheKisans,inthe south of Biharandintheneighboringdistricts of Orissa.TheGondsreachedeventhehillsalongthesouthernbank of theGanges.TheretheyareknownasMajwarsorMajhis(headmen).AkintotheGondsareanumber of othertribes,suchastheBhattras,Koyas,KondaKapus,KondaDeras,andHalbas.TheKhonds of Orissa,anotherimportanttribe,alsomayoriginallyhavebeenGonds.PoliticalOrganization.TheentireGondtribewasneverapoliticalunit.Tribalsolidaritydoesnotextendbeyondtheconfines of asubsection.ThebasicpoliticalunitistheGondvillagecommunity.Itisademocraticorganizationinwhichtheheadmanandotherofficialsarechosenbythevillagers.Eachvillagehasitscouncil,withofficialsliketheheadman,thepriest,thevillagewatchman,andfourorfiveelders.Moreimportantaffairsarediscussedanddecideduponbyallthemen of thecommunity.Avillagehasalsoitsservantcastes,suchastheAhir(cowherds),Agaria(blacksmiths),Dhulia(drummers),andPardhan(bardsandsingers).Atthetowns of Garha-Mandla,Kharla,Deogarh,andChanda,theleadingheadmenmanagedtorisetotherank of rulers(rajas)andtoestablishdynastiesthatlastedforcenturies.ButtheveryfactthattheserajassurroundedthemselveswithHinduofficialsandeagerlyadoptedHinduorMogulmethods of administra-tionprovesthatroyaltywasalientotribaldemocracy.InthepresentpoliticalsituationtheGondsare,despitetheirnum-bers,politicallypowerless,whichispartlybecause of thistri-baldisunitybutalsobecause of theircomparativelack of edu-cationanddrive,andtheirgreatpoverty.ThosefewGondswhoaremembers of thelegislativeassembliesoreventhena-tionalparliament(LokSabha)areeitheralienatedfromtheirtribalcultureoreasilymanipulatedbyotherpoliticians.ConflictandSocialControl.Insettlingdisputesthecourt of firstinstanceisthevillagecouncil(panch),whichispre-sidedoverbytheheadman.Usuallyitstrivestorestorehar-monybetweenthelitigantsratherthantoimplementcus-tomarylaw.Asettlementcommonlyinvolvesafine,orex-communicationinvaryingdegrees.Thosewhooffendagainsttherule of clanexogamyincursupernaturalsanctions.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligion of theGondsdoesnotdif-fermuchfromthat of thenumerousothertribesincentralIndia.Likethem,theGondsbelieveinahighgodwhomtheycalleitherbyhisHinduname,"Bhagwan,"orbyhistribalname,"BaraDeo,"the"GreatGod."Butheisanotiosedeityandisrarelyworshiped,thoughhisnameisofteninvoked.Heisapersonalgod-eternal,just,merciful,maker of thefertileearthand of man-thoughtheuniverseisconceivedascoex-istingwithhim.IntheGondbeliefsystem,besidesthishighgodtherealsoexistagreatnumber of maleandfemaledeitiesandspiritsthatpersonifyvariousnaturalfeatures.Everyhill,river,lake,tree,androckisinhabitedbyaspirit.Theearth,water,andairareruledbydeitiesthatmustbeveneratedandappeasedwithsacrificesandofferings.Thesedeitiesandspir-itsmaybebenevolent,butoftentheyarecapricious,malevo-lent,andpronetoharminghumanbeings,especiallyindivid-ualswhohavemadethemselvesvulnerablebybreakingarule of thetribalcode.Thedeitiesandspirits,especiallytheances-torspirits,watchoverthestrictobservance of thetribalrulesandpunishoffenders.ReligiousPractitioners.Gondsdistinguishbetweenpriestsandmagicians.Thevillagepriestisappointedbythevillagecouncil;however,hisappointmentisoftenhereditary.Hisresponsibilityistoperformallthesacrificesheldatcer-tainfeastsforthevillagecommunityforwhichhereceivesaspecialremuneration.Sacrificesandreligiousceremoniesonfamilyoccasionsareusuallyperformedbythehead of thefamily.Thedivinersandmagicians,ontheotherhand,areunofficialcharismaticintermediariesbetweenthesupernat-ural world andhumanbeings.TheGonds,liketheothertri-bals of centralIndia,believethatmostdiseasesandmisfor-tunesarecausedbythemachinations of evilspiritsandoffendeddeities.Itisthetask of thesoothsayersanddivinerstofindoutwhichsupernaturalagencieshavecausedthepres-entsicknessormisfortuneandhowtheycanbeappeased.Ifsoothsayersanddivinerscannothelp,magiciansandsha-mansmustbeemployed.Magiciansbelievethatbymagicfor-mulasanddevicestheycanforceaparticulardeityorspirittocarryouttheircommands.Shamansarepersonswhoeasilyfallintotrancesandarethenbelievedtobepossessedbydei-tiesorspiritsthatprophesythroughtheirmouths.Thesefre-quentecstasiesdonotseemtohaveanydetrimentalmentalorphysicaleffectsontheshamans,whomaybemaleorfe-male.Magicmaybe"white"or"black":itiswhiteifitcoun-teractsblackmagicoreffectsacurewhenasicknesshasbeenGaro83thebeginningsilentbarterwaspossiblebecauseeachpartyunderstoodfromlonginvolvementtherespectivevalues of theirgoods.Thisprocesshascontinuedtothepresent,withincreasinginvolvement of tradersfromneighboringareas,andhasnowbecomefullymonetized.Cotton,ginger,anddriedchiliesproducedbytheGarosaresoldtothetraders.TheGarosinturnpurchasepottery,metallictools,andotherindustrialgoodssuchasclothfromthetraders.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbetweenmembers of thehouseholdisasfollows:themalesareresponsibleforclearingjungleandsettingfiretothedebrisforshiftingculti-vation,whilewomenareresponsibleforplanting,weeding,andharvesting.Duringthepeak of theagriculturalopera-tionsthemensometimeshelpthewomen.Constructionandrepair of thehousearemaleduties.Menmakebaskets,whilewomencarrycropsfromthefieldandfirewoodfromjungle.Womenlookafterthekitchenandpreparebeer,andmenservethebeertoguests.Womenrearthechildrenandkeepthedomesticanimals.Bothmenandwomensellfirewoodandvegetablesinthemarket.LandTenure.Landforshiftingcultivationisownedbytheclan.Eachvillagehasatraditionallydemarcatedarea of itsowntermedadok.Thisareaissubdividedintoplotsthatareusedforcultivationinacyclicorder.Theplotsaredistrib-utedtothefamilies.Allotment of thegeneralplotsisdonebycommonconsensus of thevillageelders,buttheflatareaforpermanentwetcultivationisownedbyindividuals.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGarosreckontheirkinshipthroughthemother.Individualsmeasurethedegree of theirrelationshiptooneanotherbythedistance of theirmatrilin-eages.Formen,children of theirsistersorsisters'daughtersareveryimportantkin.Forwomen,children of theirsisters'daughtersareequivalenttothose of theirowndaughters.KinshipTerminology.ThekinshiptermsusedbytheGarosformaset,whichisbroadenoughsothateachGarocanbeassignedaterm.Thetermsarearrangedinasystemthatclassifiesthekin.Thisclassificationisbasedonnineprinciples,asfollows:(1)sex,(2)generation,(3)relativeage,(4)moietymembership,(5)collaterality,(6)inheritance,(7)type of wife,(8)intimacy of relationship,(9)speaker'ssex.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Descentismatrilineal,residenceuxorilocal.Themother'sbrother'sdaughtertype of cross-cousinmar-riageisthemostwidelyacceptedandprevalentamongthepeople.Itisarigidcustomthatamanmustmarryawomanfromtheoppositechatchi(moiety).Therule of chatchiexogamystipulatesthataman'smother'sfatherwillbeintheoppositechatchiandaman'swife'spotentialhusbandswillbeinhisownchatchi.Aftermarriageamankeepsuphisrela-tionwithhismachong(clan).Hisrelationwithreferencetohiswife'smachongisdesignatedasgachi.Marriageestab-lishesapermanentrelationbetweentwomachong,knownasakim.Aftermarriage,amalemovestotheresidence of hiswife.Inthecase of anokrom(husband of theheiress of prop-erty),marriagedoesnotcreateanewhouseholdbutratheraddsanewleaseonlifetoanoldhousehold.Evenafterthedeathordivorce of aspousetheakimrelationcontinues.Itistheresponsibility of thedeceased'smachongtoprovideare-placementspousetothesurvivingpartner.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdistheprimaryproductionandconsumptionunit.AGarohouseholdcomprisesparents,unmarriedsonsanddaughters,amarrieddaughter(heiress),andherhusbandandtheirchildren.Inprincipleamarriedgranddaughterandherchildrenshouldbeincluded,butinre.alitygrandparentsrarelysurvivetoseetheirgrandchildrenmarried.Somehouseholdsmay-forshortperiodsonly-includedistantrelativesornonrelatedpersonsforvariousreasons.Inheritance.PropertyamongtheGarosisinheritedinthefemaleline.One of thedaughtersisselectedbytheparentstobetheheiress.Ifthecouplehavenofemalechild,agirlbe-longingtothemachong of thewife(preferablythedaughter of hersister,whetherrealorclassificatory)isadoptedtobeanheiress.Sheisnotconsideredtobetheabsoluteowner of theproperty.Decisionaboutthedisposal of propertyistakenbyherhusband,whoisconsideredtobethehouseholdauthority(nokniskotong).Afterthedeath of thefather-in-lawresponsi-bilitytransferstotheson-in-law.Ifadeadmanissurvivedbyawidow,shestaysinthefamily of herdaughterandissome-timesreferredtoasanadditionalwife(Uk) of herdaughter'shusband.Socialization.Childrenstarthelpingtheirmothertolookaftertheinfantswhentheirmotherisbusywithwork.Todaytherearedifferenteducationalinstitutions-namely,themis-sionschoolsandotherIndianestablishments-thatactasmajoragents of education.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InGarosocietythemostimportantsocialgroupisthemachong(clan).Amachongisanexoga-mousmatrilinealdescentgroupwhereinaGaroisautomati-callyassignedbybirthtotheunilinealgroup of hismother.Achatchi(moiety)isdividedintomanymachong.Eachmar-riedcouplechoosesonedaughter-or,iftheyhavenone,theyadoptacloserelative of themother-tobeheiress(noknadongipikamechik) of thefamily.Herhusbandtradi-tionallyisselectedfromthelineagegroup of thefatherandisacceptedasthenokrom of thehouse.Heresideswithhiswifeinherparents'house.Hehastotakeontheresponsibility of lookingafterhisparents-in-lawduringtheiroldage,andhiswifeinheritstheproperty.PoliticalOrganization.Traditionally,theGaroswerenotapoliticallyorganizedsociety,andeventodaythereexistsnoclear-cutpoliticalstructure.Chieftainshipinvolvesreligiousfunctionsonly.SocialControl.Thekinshipsystem,thekinshipbond,andtherelatedvaluesystemactasaneffectivemeans of socialcontrol.Formerlythebachelors'dormitorieswereimportantagents of socialcontrol.Conflict.AmongtheGarosmostdisputesariseovertheis-sues of property,inheritance,anddomesticquarrelswithinthefamily.Suchproblemsaretoalargeextentsettledbythemahari(lineage) of theoffendedandtheoffender.Anewsit-uationdevelopswhensomeone'scattlecausedamagetoan-other'scrops.Insuchasituationthenokma(villagehead-man)actsasanintermediaryonly.IfhefailstosettletheGurung95PoliticalOrganization.Until1962theGurungvillagesweregovernedbyhereditaryclanleadersandvillagehead-men.In1962thenationalgovernmentinstitutedanelectoralsystemwherebyvillagesaregroupedtogetherinunits of five,calledpanchayats,anddividedintoneighborhoodsorwardsfromwhichlocalcouncillorsareelected.Theelectoratealsochoosesapradhanpancheanduperpradhan(likeamayorandvicemayor,respectively)toleadthepanchayat.SocialControl.Gossipandfear of witchattackarecom-monmeans of socialcontrol.Thelocalcouncilisabletolevyfinesagainstpanchayatresidents,andforseriouscrimesgov-ernmentpolicemaybecalledin.Conflict.Disputesareoftenresolvedbyelderstrustedbythepartiesinvolved.Ifthisdoesnotprovideasolutionthentheymaybebroughtbeforethevillagecouncilor,asalastre-sort,tothedistrictcourt.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGurungspracticeaform of TibetanBuddhismstronglyinfluencedbythepre-Buddhistreligion of Tibet,andtheyalsoobservemajorHindufestivals,suchasDasain.Theybelieveinsometenets of BuddhismandHindu-ism,suchaskarma,yettheyhaveaset of beliefsaboutanaf-terlifeintheLand of theAncestorsandinlocaldeitiesthatarepeculiarlyGurung.Gurungsbelievetheirlocaletobein-habitedbysupernaturalforestcreaturesandbyavariety of formlesswraithsandspirits.Some of theseexistinand of themselves,whileothersarebelievedtobethespirits of hu-manswhohavediedviolentdeaths.GurungsbelieveinthemajorHindudeitiesandintheBuddhaandbodhisattvas.Particularvillageshavetheirowndeities,whicharefelttobeespeciallypowerfulintheirimmediatesurroundings.ReligiousPractitioners.Practitioners of thepre-BuddhistGurungreligion,calledpanjuandklihbri,areactiveintheperformance of exorcismsandmortuaryrites.Buddhistlamasarealsoimportantinfuneraryrituals,aswellasperformingpurificationritesforinfantsandsomeseasonalagriculturalrituals.WealthierGurungsoccasionallycalllamasintoper-formhouse-blessingceremonies.Brahmanpriestsaresum-monedtocasthoroscopesandperformdivinationsattimes of misfortune.Dammisfromthelocalservicecastesarebelievedtobeparticularlypotentexorcistsandareoftencalledincases of illness.Arts.Gurungsmakenothingthattheywouldidentifyasart.Thegoodsthattheyproduce,suchasbasketsandblan-kets,areusefulandtendtobe of aconventionalplaindesign.Theartistry of Gurungsisexpressedintheirfolkmusicanddanceandespeciallyintheevanescentform of songex-changesbetweenyoungmenandwomen.Medicine.Gurungsoftenemployexorcistsaswellassci-entificdrugswhensufferingfromanillness.Scientificmedi-cineishighlyvalued,butitiscostlyandisnoteasilyavailableinruralareas.Herbsandplantsarealsousedintreatingill-nessandinjury.DeathandAfterlife.Deathis of centralsymbolicimpor-tanceforGurungs.Thefuneraryritual(pae)isthemaincere-monialoccasioninGurungsociety,involvingtwonightsandthreedays of ritualactivity.Itisattendedbykin,villagers,andalargenumber of peoplewhocomefortheconvivialityandspectacle.Buddhistlamasandthepanjuandklihbripriests of thepre-Buddhistreligionmayofficiateatthepae.Deathisbelievedtoinvolvethedissolution of elementsthatmakeupthebody,sothattheearthelementreturnstoearth,airtoair,firetofire,andwatertowater.Thisprocessleavestheplahorsouls(nineformenandsevenforwomen),whichmustbesentthroughtheperformance of thepaetotheLand of theAncestors.Therelifecontinuesmuchasitdoesinthepresent world, andfromtherethespiritcantakeotherrebirths.SeealsoGurkha;NepaliBibliographyMacfarlane,Alan(1976).ResourcesandPopulation:AStudy of theGurungs of Nepal.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Messerschmidt,DonaldA.(1976).TheGurungs of Nepal.Warminister:Aris&Phillips.Pignede,Bernard(1966).LesGurungs:UnePopulationhinalayenneduNepal.TheHague:Mouton.ERNESTINEL.McHUGH82GaroHajong,theKoch,theRabha,theDalau,andtheBanaiswhoresideontheadjacentplains of theneighboringdistrict.Thereremainsanobscurityabouttheorigin of theword"Garo."Theyareknownas"Garos"tooutsiders;buttheGarosalwaysdesignatethemselvesas"Achik"(hillmen).TheGarosaredividedintoninesubtribes:theAwe,Chisak,Matchi-Dual,Matabeng,Ambeng,Ruga-Chibox,Gara-Gan.ching,Atong,andtheMegam.Thesearegeographicsub-tribes,buttheyarealsodialectalandsubculturalgroups.Ac-cordingtotheirbeliefsandreligion,theGarosaredividedintothe"Songsarek"(thosewhofollowindigenousbeliefsandpractices)andtheChristians.Location.ThetwoGaroHillsdistrictsaresituatedbe-tween25°9'and26°1'Nand89°49'and91°2'E,coveringanarea of 8,000squarekilometers.ThedistrictsborderBangla-deshonthe south andwestandAssamonthenorth.Hillscovermost of thedistrict,withsomeadjacentfringes of plainsborderingthemonsoonarea,producingthickvegetationonthehills.Thereareanumber of hillystreamsandrivers;ex-ceptfortheSimsangRiver,whichformsawidefloodplain,noneisnavigable.Demography.Accordingtothecensus of Indiafor1971,Garosnumbered342,474.ChristianGaroswere54.3percent of thetotalGaropopulation;nowtheymaybemorethan60percent of thetotalGaropopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.AccordingtoSirGeorgeGrierson'sclassificationinTheLinguisticSurvey of India,GarobelongstotheBodoSubsection of theBodo-NagaSection,undertheAssam-BurmaGroup of theSino-TibetanorTibeto-BurmanLanguageFamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThereremainsnorecord of whentheGarosmigratedandset-tledintheirpresenthabitat.Theirtraditionallore,asre-cordedbyA.Playfair,indicatesthattheymigratedtotheareafromTibet.Thereisevidencethattheareawasinhabitedbystone-usingpeoples-PaleolithicandNeolithicgroups-inthepast.Aftersettlinginthehills,Garosinitiallyhadnocloseandconstantcontactwiththeinhabitants of thead-joiningplains.In177 5-1 776theZamindars of MechparaandKaraibari(atpresentintheGoalparaandDhuburidis.tricts of Assam)ledexpeditionsintotheGarohills.ThefirstcontactwithBritishcolonialistswasin1788,andtheareawasbroughtunderBritishadministrativecontrolintheyear1873.SettlementsThepopulationinaGarovillagemayrangefrom20to1,000persons.Thepopulationdensitytendstodecreaseasonemovestowardtheinteriorareasfromtheurbanareas of thedistricts.Villagesarescatteredanddistantfromoneanotherintheinteriorareas.Thesevillagesaregenerallysituatedonthetop of hillocks.Thehousesarebuilt,togetherwithgrana-ries,firewoodsheds,andpigsties,onpilesaroundtheslope of thehillock,usinglocallyavailablebamboo,wood,grass,etc.Theapproachtotherectangularhouseisalwaysbuiltfacingtheleveledsurface of thetop,whiletherearpart of thehouseremainshorizontaltotheslope.Nowadaysnewpile-typebuildingsusingwoodandironasmajorcomponentsarebeingmadeinsometraditionalvillagesalso.Inaddition,buildingssimilartothose of theneighboringplainsareconstructed.Thevillagesmayremaindistantfromagriculturalfields(hum).Inordertoguard ... theGujaratipopulationaretribalswhopredominantlyliveintheeasternhillybelt.Sixty-ninepercent of thepopulationliveinruralareasand31percentliveinurbanareas.Ahmadabad,Surat,Vadodara,andRajkotarelargecities.linguisticAffiliation.Gujaratiisconsideredbylinguiststobeamember of theoutercircle of Indo-Aryanlanguages:itispartlyPrakriticandpartlySanskriticinorigin.Anumber of Arabic,Persian,Urdu,andEuropean-particularlyPortu-gueseandEnglish-wordshavebecomepart of thelanguage.Thereareseveraldialects.Importantamongthem,basedonregion,areKathiawadi,Kachchh,Pattani,Charotari,andSurati.Therearealsocaste-orcommunity-baseddialects,suchasNagari,AnavlaorBhathala,Patidari,Kharwa,Musalmani,Parsi,etc.DifferenttribalgroupshavetheirowndialectsthatbearacloseaffinitytoGujarati.ThedistinctiveGujaratiscripthasthirty-fourconsonantsandelevenvowels.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheterritorywasknownas"GurjaraBhoomi,""GurjaraDesh,""Gurjaratta,"or"GurjarMandal"-meaningabode of theGurjarpeople-betweenthefifthandninthcenturiesA.D.Thename of theareaknownas"Gujarat"wasrecognizedfromthetenthcenturyduringtheSolankiperiod,whenMul-rajalaidthefoundation of hiskingdomwithitscapitalatAn-hilwadPatan.DuringBritishruletheareawasdividedintoanumber of nativestatesandestatesandBritishadministra-tivedistricts,whichwereapart of theBombaypresidency.Afterindependencein1947,thenativestatesmergedintotheIndianUnion.Agroup of statesformedSaurashtraState;themainlandGujaratbecameapart of BombayStateandKachchhwascentrallyadministered.Butasaresult of furtherreorganization of thestatesin1956,SaurashtraandKachchhweredissolvedasseparatestatesandbecameapart of BombayState.Then,because of demandsforaseparatelin-guisticstate,Gujarat,Saurashtra,andKachchhformedtheseparatestate of Gujaratin1960.SettlementsAmong18,114villages,8percentaresmallwithapopulation of lessthan200persons;and49(0.2percent)arelargewithmorethan10,000peopleineach.Thesettlementpattern of eachvillageiseitherclusteredordispersed.Clusteredvillagesaredividedintosubclustersconsisting of agroup of familiesbelongingtothesamecasteorcommunity.Thedominantcasteresidesinthecenter,andtraditionallyUntouchablecastesliveontheperiphery of thevillage.Inthedispersedpatternmainlyfoundamongtribals,eachfamily-nuclearorjoint-livesonitsownfarm.Atempleorpublicplatformunderalargetreeisacentralplacewheremalesfromupperandmiddlecastesmeetandspendtheirsparetime.Today,most of themiddle-sizedandbigvillageshaveprimaryschools,oneortwoshops,grazingland,andacremationground.Thereare255townsorurbanagglomerations.Allbuteleven of thesetownshaveapopulationunder100,000.Many of themareexpandedvillageswherecasteorcommu-nityclustersformneighborhoodlocalities.Twostyles of housingarecommoninurbanandruralGujarat.Thefirstisthesturdymodernkindmade of brickandconcrete,withmorethantworoomsandaseparatekitchen.Thesecondisatenement of mud,stone,andwood.Theroofsare of locallymadetilesorthatch.(Numericaldatafrom1981census.)EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Despiterapidindustrialdevelopment,agricultureoccupiesaprominentplaceintheeconomy of thestate.Itcontributesanaverage of 35to40percent of thestate'sdomesticproducts.Sixty-twopercent of theworkersengagedinagricultureareeitherculti-vatorsorlaborers.Althoughagricultureisnotfullymecha-nized,use of tractorshasincreasedconsiderablyinrecentyears.Themajorfoodcropsarebajri,jowar,rice,andwheat.Cotton,groundnut,tobacco,andsugarcanearemajorcom-mercialcrops:theyoccupyabout40percent of thetotalculti-vatedarea of thestate.Cattle,buffalo,sheep,goats,chickens,horses,camels,monkeys,donkeys,andpigsarethemaindo-mesticanimals.Bullocksareusedforagriculture,cowsandbuffaloformilk.Acooperativedairyindustryhasdeveloped.IndustrialArts.Artisansinruralareasareengagedinpot-tery,silver-andbrass-ornamentmaking,embroidery,hand-loomconstructionandfurnituremaking.Despitegovernmentsupport,thesecraftsarerapidlydisappearing.Gujaratisone of themosthighlyindustrializedstatesinIndia.Themajorindustriesaretextiles,plastics,chemicals,andengi-neering.Interms of incomegeneratedfrommanufacturing,Gujaratrankssecondinthecountry.Trade.Tradeisaprimaryoccupation of Gujaratis.TheHinduandJainBaniasarethetradingcastes.InthiscenturythePatidarshaveemergedasentrepreneurs.Inaddition,theParsisandMuslimBohrasarealsotraders.Gujarathasbeenwellconnectedbytraderouteswithinthecontinentandalsowithothercountries.Historically,theGujaratispossessed ... 90GujaratiGujaratandlowestinKachchh.Thepopulationisgrowingattherate of 2.7percentperyear.Gujarati-speakingpeopleconstitute91percent of thepopulation of Gujarat,whichalsoincludes1.5percentKachchh-speakingpeople.TherearethreemainreligiousgroupsinGujarat:Hindus(89.5per-cent),Muslims(8.5percent)andJains(1percent).Amajor-ity of theMuslimsspeakGujarati,thoughthereisasmallMuslimsectionthatspeaksUrdu.Around14percentof...