Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - O doc

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PuriandGanjamdistricts,withhousesalmostinacontinuouschainonbothsides of theinterveningvillagepathandwithkitchengardensattheback of thehouses.Cultivatedfieldssurroundthesettlement.Intheclusterpatterneachhousehasacompoundwithfruittreesandakitchengarden.TheScheduledCastesliveinlin.earorclusterhamletsslightlyawayfromthemain-settlement,withtheirownwatertanksor,today,theirownwells.Inthefloodedcoastalareasonefindssomedispersedhouses,eachsurroundedbyfieldsforcultivation.IntraditionalOrissa,twostyles of houses(ghara)werecommon.Theagriculturistsandhighercasteshadhouses of arectangulargroundplanwithroomsalongallthesides(khanja-ghara),leavinganopenspace(agana)inthecenter.Mudwallswithagabledroof of thatchmade of paddystalksorjunglegrass(moredurable)werecommon.Themoreaffluenthaddouble-ceilinghouses(atughara)withtheinnerceiling of mudplastersupportedbywoodenorbambooplanks.Thisconstructionmadeitfire-proofandinsulatedagainstthesummerheatandwinterchill.Theentranceroomwasusuallyacowshed,ascattlewerethewealth of thepeople.Menmetvillagersandguestsonthewidefrontveranda.Poorerpeoplehadhouseswithmudwallsandstraw-thatchedgableroofs,withoutenclosedcourtyardsordoubleceilings.Thesmokefromthekitchenescapedunderthegabledroof.TheOriyahad,incommonwitheast-ernIndia,awoodenhuskinglever(dhenki)inthecourtyardfordehuskingpaddyriceormakingriceflour.Nowadayshouseswithlargewindowsanddoors,roofs of concrete(tiledorwithcorrugatedironorasbestossheets),walls of brickandmortar,andcementfloorsarebecomingcommoneveninre-motevillages.Inthetraditionalhouse,thenortheasterncor-ner of thekitchenformedthesacredsite of theancestralspir-its(ishana)forfamilyworship.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Subsistencecul-tivation of paddyisubiquitousasriceisthestaplefood.Double-cropping,sometimeseventriple-croppinginirrigatedfields,andsingle-croppingindrought-affectedorrain-fedareasareallcommon.Large-scalefarmingwithheavyagricul-turalmachineryisstilluncommon.Plowingwithtwobullocksortwobuffaloisusual,withawoodenplow.Onlyrecentlyhaveironplowsbeencomingintouse.Cashcropslikesugar-cane,jute,betelleavesonraisedmounds,coconutsandarecanuts(betelnuts)aregrownincoastalOrissa,andpulsesandoilseedsindrought-proneareas.Recentlycoffee,cocoa,car-damom,pineapples,andbananashavealsobeenraisedonacommercialscale.Fisharecaughtintrapsandnetsfromvil-lagetanks,streams,rivers,coastalswamps,andalsointhefloodedpaddyfields.Fishingboatswithoutboardmotorsandtrawlersarenowadaysusedatsea.Thedomesticanimalsin-cludecows,goats,cats,chickens,ducks,andwaterbuffaloamongthelowestcastes,aswellaspigsanddogsamongtheurbanmiddleclass.IndustrialArts.Mostlargevillageshadcastes of artisanswhoservedtheagriculturaleconomyinformertimes.Car-penters,wheelwrights,andblacksmithswereabsolutelynec-essary.Somevillageshadpotterswithpotterywheelsandweaverswithcottagelooms(cottonwasformerlygrownandyamspun).Today,industrialproductsaredisplacingthevil-lageproductsexceptforthewoodenplowandcartwheels.Somecottageindustries,especiallythehandloomedtextiles(includingtheweaving of ikat,cottontextilesthataretiedanddyed),areproducingforexport.Brassandbell-metalutensilsandstatuesandsilverandgoldfiligreeornamentshaveawideclientele.214OkkaligaOkkaligaETHNONYMS:GangadikiraOkkalu,thepeasantcaste,Vokkaliga,WokkaligaTheOkkaligasarethedominantlandowningandculti-vatingcasteinthemulticastepopulation of southernKarnatakaStateinsouthwesternpeninsularIndia.Amongthehundreds of villagesinwhichOkkaligasliveisRampura(population1,523,735 of whomareOkkaligas,ca.1955),whichisthefocus of thisentryandwhichdisplaysmany of thefeaturestypical of OkkaligavillagesinIndia.Thevillage of RampuraislocatedontheMysore-Hogurbusroadabout32kilometersfromMysore.Thevillageisacluster of housesandhutswiththatchedortiledroofs;nar-row,unevenwindingstreetsrunningbetweentherows of houses.Surroundingthevillagearenumerousplotsownedbyindividuallandowners.Rampuraisaninterdependentunit,largelyself-sufficient,havingitsownvillageassembly(panchayat),watch,ward,officials,andservants.Inthemulticastevillage of Rampuratherelationship of castesap-pearstobedeterminedmorebytheeconomicpositions of thevariousmembersthanbytradition.Asagricultureisthepri-maryway of lifethepeasantsarethedominantcaste.Thehe-reditaryheadman(patel)andhereditaryaccountant(shan-borg)arebothpeasants.Theheadman'sresponsibilityistorepresentthevillagetothegovernmentandviceversa.Theaccountantkeepsaregister of howmuchlandeachhead of afamilyorjointfamilyhasandtheamount of taxontheland.Theelders of thedominantcastearespokespersonsforthevillageandowetheirpowernottolegalrightsderivedfromthestatebuttothedominantlocalposition of theircaste.Theelders of thedominantpeasantcasteinRampuraadmin-isterjusticenotonlytomembers of theirowncastegroupbutalsotoallpersons of othercasteswhoseektheirintervention.Agriculturedominatesvillagelife.Thecultivation of riceisthemainactivityinthevillage.Meticulousattentiontoandirrigation of thericeisnecessarythroughouttheperiod of cul-tivation,therainyseasonfromJunetoJanuary.Theconclu-sion of theharvestismarkedbythefestival of Sankranti.Dur-ingthedryseasonothersocialactivitiessuchasweddingsoccur.Each of theseventeencasteslivinginRampurahasadis-tinctivetraditionwithstrongtieswiththesamecasteinvil-lagesnearby.Thevillagehasaverticalunity of manycasteswhereaseachcastehasahorizontalunitythroughalliancesbeyondthevillage.OthermajorcastesandtheirtraditionaloccupationsincludetheKuruba(shepherd),theMusalman(artisanandtrader),Holeya(servantandlaborer),andtheMadiga(Harijans).Althoughpaddyandmilletgrainwereprincipallyusedintrade,moneyisusedmorefrequentlytoday.Maintenance of casteseparationwasachievedthroughideas of purityandpollution.Beliefsandbehaviorsincludingdiet,occupation,andritualdistinguishhigherfromlowercastes.Twoexamples of thisaretherulesgoverningtheac-ceptance of waterorcookedfoodbetweencastesandtherule of casteendogamy.Atonetimeitwascustomaryfortwofamilies,onebe-longingtoanuppercasteandtheothertoanUntouchablecaste,tobelinkedinamaster-servantrelationship(jajmani).Independencehasbegunaprocess of socialchangeinwhichmany of thetraditionalformsandordershavebeenreplaced.TheregionallanguageisKannadaandtheprincipalreli-gionisHindu.TheprincipaltemplesinRampuraarethetem-ples of Rama,Basava,HattiMad,andKabbalaDurgadaMan.Theseareendowedwithagriculturalland.Thekingroupisagnaticwithpreferenceforcross-cousinmarriage.TraditionallytheOkkaligasliveinjointfamilieswiththewifejoiningthehome of herhusband'sfamily.SinceIndependencethejointfamilieshavetendedtobecomesmaller.Thereisafairlystrictsexualdivision of laborwithfewwomenworkingoutsidethehome.Boysworkonthelandearly,whilegirlsworkinandaroundthehouse.AnOkkaligaisburiedonhisorherancestralland;andthelandisanim-portantpart of one'slifefromanearlyage.BibliographyBanerjee,Bhavani(1966).MarriageandKinship of theGan-gadikaraVokkaligas of Mysore.DeccanCollegeDissertationSeries,no.27.Poona:DeccanCollege.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930).'GangadikiraOkkalu."TheMysoreTribesandCastes3:17 5- 185.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Srinivas,M.N.(1963)."TheSocialStructure of aMysoreVillage."InIndia'sVillages,editedbyM.N.Srinivas,2 1-3 5.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Srinivas,M.N.(1976).TheRememberedVillage.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.SARAJ.DICKOraonETHNONYMS:Dhangad,Dhangar,Dhanka("farmworker"),Kisan,Kuda,Kurukh,Kurunkh,Orao,UraonTheOraonsareone of thelargesttribesin South Asia, numbering1,702,663personsatthe1971census.Abouthalf of themliveinBihar,mainlyontheChotaNagpurPlateau;theremainderareinMadhyaPradesh,Orissa,andWestBengal.TheyspeakaDravidianlanguageknownasKurukh.OraonsarecloselyrelatedtotheneighboringMundatribe,andtheheadman of anOraonvillageiscalledmunda.AlthoughtherearenosubcastesamongtheOraons,theKudas('navvies")andKisans("cultivators"),havingtheirdistinctoccupations,tendtomarryamongthemselves.Be-yondthis,Oraonsobservevillageandclanexogamy.Thepat-rilinealextendedfamilyistheidealresidentialunit,butnu-clearfamiliesarenearlyascommon.Ontheaverageafamilycontainsfivetosevencoresidentmembers. ... PuriandGanjamdistricts,withhousesalmostinacontinuouschainonbothsides of theinterveningvillagepathandwithkitchengardensattheback of thehouses.Cultivatedfieldssurroundthesettlement.Intheclusterpatterneachhousehasacompoundwithfruittreesandakitchengarden.TheScheduledCastesliveinlin.earorclusterhamletsslightlyawayfromthemain-settlement,withtheirownwatertanksor,today,theirownwells.Inthefloodedcoastalareasonefindssomedispersedhouses,eachsurroundedbyfieldsforcultivation.IntraditionalOrissa,twostyles of houses(ghara)werecommon.Theagriculturistsandhighercasteshadhouses of arectangulargroundplanwithroomsalongallthesides(khanja-ghara),leavinganopenspace(agana)inthecenter.Mudwallswithagabledroof of thatchmade of paddystalksorjunglegrass(moredurable)werecommon.Themoreaffluenthaddouble-ceilinghouses(atughara)withtheinnerceiling of mudplastersupportedbywoodenorbambooplanks.Thisconstructionmadeitfire-proofandinsulatedagainstthesummerheatandwinterchill.Theentranceroomwasusuallyacowshed,ascattlewerethewealth of thepeople.Menmetvillagersandguestsonthewidefrontveranda.Poorerpeoplehadhouseswithmudwallsandstraw-thatchedgableroofs,withoutenclosedcourtyardsordoubleceilings.Thesmokefromthekitchenescapedunderthegabledroof.TheOriyahad,incommonwitheast-ernIndia,awoodenhuskinglever(dhenki)inthecourtyardfordehuskingpaddyriceormakingriceflour.Nowadayshouseswithlargewindowsanddoors,roofs of concrete(tiledorwithcorrugatedironorasbestossheets),walls of brickandmortar,andcementfloorsarebecomingcommoneveninre-motevillages.Inthetraditionalhouse,thenortheasterncor-ner of thekitchenformedthesacredsite of theancestralspir-its(ishana)forfamilyworship.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Subsistencecul-tivation of paddyisubiquitousasriceisthestaplefood.Double-cropping,sometimeseventriple-croppinginirrigatedfields,andsingle-croppingindrought-affectedorrain-fedareasareallcommon.Large-scalefarmingwithheavyagricul-turalmachineryisstilluncommon.Plowingwithtwobullocksortwobuffaloisusual,withawoodenplow.Onlyrecentlyhaveironplowsbeencomingintouse.Cashcropslikesugar-cane,jute,betelleavesonraisedmounds,coconutsandarecanuts(betelnuts)aregrownincoastalOrissa,andpulsesandoilseedsindrought-proneareas.Recentlycoffee,cocoa,car-damom,pineapples,andbananashavealsobeenraisedonacommercialscale.Fisharecaughtintrapsandnetsfromvil-lagetanks,streams,rivers,coastalswamps,andalsointhefloodedpaddyfields.Fishingboatswithoutboardmotorsandtrawlersarenowadaysusedatsea.Thedomesticanimalsin-cludecows,goats,cats,chickens,ducks,andwaterbuffaloamongthelowestcastes,aswellaspigsanddogsamongtheurbanmiddleclass.IndustrialArts.Mostlargevillageshadcastes of artisanswhoservedtheagriculturaleconomyinformertimes.Car-penters,wheelwrights,andblacksmithswereabsolutelynec-essary.Somevillageshadpotterswithpotterywheelsandweaverswithcottagelooms(cottonwasformerlygrownandyamspun).Today,industrialproductsaredisplacingthevil-lageproductsexceptforthewoodenplowandcartwheels.Somecottageindustries,especiallythehandloomedtextiles(includingtheweaving of ikat,cottontextilesthataretiedanddyed),areproducingforexport.Brassandbell-metalutensilsandstatuesandsilverandgoldfiligreeornamentshaveawideclientele.214OkkaligaOkkaligaETHNONYMS:GangadikiraOkkalu,thepeasantcaste,Vokkaliga,WokkaligaTheOkkaligasarethedominantlandowningandculti-vatingcasteinthemulticastepopulation of southernKarnatakaStateinsouthwesternpeninsularIndia.Amongthehundreds of villagesinwhichOkkaligasliveisRampura(population1,523,735 of whomareOkkaligas,ca.1955),whichisthefocus of thisentryandwhichdisplaysmany of thefeaturestypical of OkkaligavillagesinIndia.Thevillage of RampuraislocatedontheMysore-Hogurbusroadabout32kilometersfromMysore.Thevillageisacluster of housesandhutswiththatchedortiledroofs;nar-row,unevenwindingstreetsrunningbetweentherows of houses.Surroundingthevillagearenumerousplotsownedbyindividuallandowners.Rampuraisaninterdependentunit,largelyself-sufficient,havingitsownvillageassembly(panchayat),watch,ward,officials,andservants.Inthemulticastevillage of Rampuratherelationship of castesap-pearstobedeterminedmorebytheeconomicpositions of thevariousmembersthanbytradition.Asagricultureisthepri-maryway of lifethepeasantsarethedominantcaste.Thehe-reditaryheadman(patel)andhereditaryaccountant(shan-borg)arebothpeasants.Theheadman'sresponsibilityistorepresentthevillagetothegovernmentandviceversa.Theaccountantkeepsaregister of howmuchlandeachhead of afamilyorjointfamilyhasandtheamount of taxontheland.Theelders of thedominantcastearespokespersonsforthevillageandowetheirpowernottolegalrightsderivedfromthestatebuttothedominantlocalposition of theircaste.Theelders of thedominantpeasantcasteinRampuraadmin-isterjusticenotonlytomembers of theirowncastegroupbutalsotoallpersons of othercasteswhoseektheirintervention.Agriculturedominatesvillagelife.Thecultivation of riceisthemainactivityinthevillage.Meticulousattentiontoandirrigation of thericeisnecessarythroughouttheperiod of cul-tivation,therainyseasonfromJunetoJanuary.Theconclu-sion of theharvestismarkedbythefestival of Sankranti.Dur-ingthedryseasonothersocialactivitiessuchasweddingsoccur.Each of theseventeencasteslivinginRampurahasadis-tinctivetraditionwithstrongtieswiththesamecasteinvil-lagesnearby.Thevillagehasaverticalunity of manycasteswhereaseachcastehasahorizontalunitythroughalliancesbeyondthevillage.OthermajorcastesandtheirtraditionaloccupationsincludetheKuruba(shepherd),theMusalman(artisanandtrader),Holeya(servantandlaborer),andtheMadiga(Harijans).Althoughpaddyandmilletgrainwereprincipallyusedintrade,moneyisusedmorefrequentlytoday.Maintenance of casteseparationwasachievedthroughideas of purityandpollution.Beliefsandbehaviorsincludingdiet,occupation,andritualdistinguishhigherfromlowercastes.Twoexamples of thisaretherulesgoverningtheac-ceptance of waterorcookedfoodbetweencastesandtherule of casteendogamy.Atonetimeitwascustomaryfortwofamilies,onebe-longingtoanuppercasteandtheothertoanUntouchablecaste,tobelinkedinamaster-servantrelationship(jajmani).Independencehasbegunaprocess of socialchangeinwhichmany of thetraditionalformsandordershavebeenreplaced.TheregionallanguageisKannadaandtheprincipalreli-gionisHindu.TheprincipaltemplesinRampuraarethetem-ples of Rama,Basava,HattiMad,andKabbalaDurgadaMan.Theseareendowedwithagriculturalland.Thekingroupisagnaticwithpreferenceforcross-cousinmarriage.TraditionallytheOkkaligasliveinjointfamilieswiththewifejoiningthehome of herhusband'sfamily.SinceIndependencethejointfamilieshavetendedtobecomesmaller.Thereisafairlystrictsexualdivision of laborwithfewwomenworkingoutsidethehome.Boysworkonthelandearly,whilegirlsworkinandaroundthehouse.AnOkkaligaisburiedonhisorherancestralland;andthelandisanim-portantpart of one'slifefromanearlyage.BibliographyBanerjee,Bhavani(1966).MarriageandKinship of theGan-gadikaraVokkaligas of Mysore.DeccanCollegeDissertationSeries,no.27.Poona:DeccanCollege.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930).'GangadikiraOkkalu."TheMysoreTribesandCastes3:17 5- 185.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Srinivas,M.N.(1963)."TheSocialStructure of aMysoreVillage."InIndia'sVillages,editedbyM.N.Srinivas,2 1-3 5.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Srinivas,M.N.(1976).TheRememberedVillage.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.SARAJ.DICKOraonETHNONYMS:Dhangad,Dhangar,Dhanka("farmworker"),Kisan,Kuda,Kurukh,Kurunkh,Orao,UraonTheOraonsareone of thelargesttribesin South Asia, numbering1,702,663personsatthe1971census.Abouthalf of themliveinBihar,mainlyontheChotaNagpurPlateau;theremainderareinMadhyaPradesh,Orissa,andWestBengal.TheyspeakaDravidianlanguageknownasKurukh.OraonsarecloselyrelatedtotheneighboringMundatribe,andtheheadman of anOraonvillageiscalledmunda.AlthoughtherearenosubcastesamongtheOraons,theKudas('navvies")andKisans("cultivators"),havingtheirdistinctoccupations,tendtomarryamongthemselves.Be-yondthis,Oraonsobservevillageandclanexogamy.Thepat-rilinealextendedfamilyistheidealresidentialunit,butnu-clearfamiliesarenearlyascommon.Ontheaverageafamilycontainsfivetosevencoresidentmembers. ... Oriya215Boysandgirlsmarryafterpuberty,boysusuallyat1 6-2 0years.Thisfollowsaperiodinwhichbothsexessleepinayouthdormitory(dhumkuria).Boysarebrandedonthearmbeforebeingadmittedtothisinstitution.Thedormitorypro-videsapool of agriculturallaborthatcanbehiredwhennec-essary.MostOraonsarefarmers,andinthepasttheyprac-ticedshiftingcultivation.Hunting,formerly of majorimportance,hasbeenreducedduringthepresentcenturytothestatus of aceremonialevent;thereisevenawomen'shuntingceremony,heldeverytwelveyears.Althoughasmallminority of thetribeareChristians,thegreatmajorityfollowaHinduform of worship.Theirmainde-itiesarelocal,non-Sanskriticones,suchasChandi,Chau-thia,DadgoBurhia,GaonDeoti,andJairBudhi,namesonedoesnotencounterelsewhereinIndia.Aremarkablefeature of Oraonsocietyisthatitisone of theveryfewonearth(alongwiththeneighboringMundasandMarias)thatpracticeshumansacrifice(calledotangaororkabyOraons).Althoughextremelyrare,evidencesuggeststhephenomenonismostprevalentinRanchiDistrict,Bihar.Duringthenineteenthcentury,Britishofficialsreportedamuchbroaderincidence,occurringamongtheMunda,Oraon,Gond,Kond,andSantaltribes.Policerecordsshowthatevenaslateasthe1980stherewereacouple of sacrificesayearamongtheMunda,Maria,andOraontribes,andperhapsslightlymoreifoneassumesthatnotallcasesreachedpoliceattention.Thesesacrificesare of courseillegalandaretreatedashomicideunderSection302 of theIndianPenalCode.Detection of culpritsismadeverydifficultbythefactthatsomevillagersbelievethesacri-ficesareessentialforthefertility of theirfields,andhencetheyarenotforthcomingwithanyinformation.Thehumansacrificesusuallyoccurinremoteplacesaroundthebegin-ning of thesowingseasonandtheassociatedfestival of Sar-hul.Thereasonspolicecandistinguishthesesacrificesfromotherforms of murderareseveral:(1)thetiming,tocoincidewiththesowingceremony;(2)thevictimisoftenanorphanorahomelessperson,someonewhowillnotbemissed;(3)usuallynopersonalanimositiescanaccountforthekill-ing;(4)thevictim'sthroatiscutwithaknife;(5)signs of puja(worship)arenormallyfoundnearthecorpse;and(6)part of onelittlefingerhasbeencutoffandismissing.Thislastitemispresumablyapart of thehumanofferingthatthesacrificer(otanga)willburyinhisfield.Sometimesblood of thesacrificialvictimismixedwithseedgrainbeforeitissown.Inearliercenturiestheentirebodywasprobablycutupandparceledouttothevariousfieldsaroundavillage.Thedanger of detectionnowmakesthistoodifficult.Thesacrificeisnor-mallyofferedtoavindictivegoddessthoughttocontrolthefertility of thesoil.Ifahumanvictimcannotbecaughtintimeforthesowingceremony,itissaidthathair,sputum,orsomeotherhumanbodilyleavingsaremixedwithhen'sbloodasatokenofferingtothisgoddess.SeealsoMundaBibliographyHermanns,Matthias(1973).DieOraon.Diereligios-magischeWeltanschanungderPrimitivstammeIndiens,no.3.Wiesbaden:FranzSteinerVerlag.Roy,SaratChandra(1915).TheOraon of ChotaNagpur.Calcutta:BrahmoMissionPress.Roy,SaratChandra(1928).OraonReligionandCustom.Ranchi:ManinIndiaOffice.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916).'Oraon."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India,editedbyRV.RussellandHiraLal.Vol.4,29 9-3 21.London:Macmillan.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.Sachchidananda(1963)."SomeRecentEvidence of HumanSacrifice."InAnthropologyontheMarch:RecentStudies of In-dianBeliefs,Attitudes,andSocialInstitutions,editedbyL.K.BalaRatnam,34 4-3 51.Madras:TheBookCentre.Sachchidananda(1964).CultureChangeinTribalBihar:MundaandOraon.Calcutta:BooklandPrivateLimited.PAULHOCKINGSOriyaETHNONYMS:Odia,Odiya;adjective:Odissi,Orissi(OrissaninEnglish)OrientationIdentification.InOrissaStateinIndia,theOriyaconsti-tutetheregionalethnicgroup,speakingtheOriyalanguageandprofessingtheHindureligion,tobedistinguishedfromanOriya-speakingagriculturalcastecalledOdiafoundincentralcoastalOrissa.SomeOriyaliveintheadjoiningstates.TheOriyalanguageandethnicgrouparepresumablyderivedfromthegreatUdraorOdrapeopleknownsinceBuddhistandpre-BuddhistMahabharataepictimes.Location.Thestate of Orissaislocatedbetween17°49'and22034'Nand81029'and87029'E,covering155,707squarekilometersalongthenortheasternseaboard of India.Thelargemajority of theOriyaliveinthecoastaldistrictsandalongtheMahanadiandBrahmanirivers.OrissafallsinthetropicalzonewithmonsoonrainsfromJune-JulytoSeptember-October.WesternOrissaisafflictedwithrecur-ringdrought.Demography.Thelastnationalcensusin1981recordsthepopulation of Orissaas26,370,271persons,withapopu-lationdensity of 169personspersquarekilometerascom-paredto216forIndiaasawhole. Of thetotalpopulation of Orissa,84.11percentspeakOriya.Althoughrural,Orissa'surbancenterswith5,000ormorepersonsrosefromcontain-ing8.4percent of thepopulationin1971(81towns)to11.79percentin1981(108towns).Most of theninety-threeScheduledCastes,whichconstitute15.1percent of Orissa'spopulation,speakOriya. Of the23.1percent of Orissa'spop-ulationcategorizedasScheduledTribes,manyspeakOriyaasOriya217Trade.Invillages,peddlingandweeklymarketsweretheusualcommercialchannels.Since World War11rationshopshavesoldscarceessentialcommodities.Division of Labor.Menplow,sow,andcarrygoodswithapolebalancedontheshoulder,whereaswomencarrythingsontheirhead,weed,andtransplantthefields.Harvestingisdonebybothsexes.Whilemenfishandhunt,womenper-formhouseholdchoresandtendbabies.Traditionally,amonghigher-casteandhigher-classfamilies,womendidnotworkoutsidehome.Nowadaysmenandsomewomenareen-gagedinsalariedservice,butonlylower-casteandlower-classwomenundertakewagelabor.LandTenure.BeforeIndependencelandunderagricul-turehadincreasedsubstantially.However,because of thehighrate of populationgrowthandsubdivision of landhold-ings,thenumber of marginalfarmersandthelandlessin,creasedsharplythereafter.FollowingIndependencesomelandabovethestatutoryceilingorfromthecommonpropertyresourceswasdistributedamongthelandless,weakersections of society.Large-scaleindustrialandirrigation-cum-powerprojectsdisplacedpeopleandaddedtotheranks of thelandless.All of thishasresultedinvariouscategories of ten-ancyandcontractualleaseoflandforsubsistencecultivation.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Traditionallyandcurrently,threepatterns of familyorganizationhaveobtained:(1)themultihouseholdcompoundswheretheseparatefamilies of thesons of thecommonfatherarehousedasanextendedfamily;(2)jointfamilieswithallthebrotherslivingtogether,withacommonkitchen,withorwithouttheparentsliving(morecommoninvillagesthantowns);(3)severalfamiliesbelongingtoapatrilineageamongwhomkinobligationscon-tinue,residinginneighboringvillages.Descentispatrilineal.KinshipTerminology.Thesocialemphasisonseniorityinageanddifferentiationbysexandgenerationareobserved.KinshipterminologyfollowstheHawaiiansystem.Fictiveorritualkintermsareusedwidelyandareexpressedinrespectandaffectionandalsoinmeetingappropriatekinobligations.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Althoughpolygynywaspracticedearlier,mostmarriagestodayaremonogamous.Mostmarriagesevennowarealsoarrangedbyparents,thoughsomearebasedonthemutualchoice of themarriagepartners.OnlyinwesternOrissaandsouthernOrissaiscousinmarriagepracticed.Marriagepartnersmustnotbelongtothesamegotra(mythi-calpatrilinealdescentgroup).Bride-priceamongthelowerandmiddlecasteshasbeenreplacedbyamorecostlydowryforthebridegroomamongallclassesandcastes.Aftermar-riage,residenceispatrilocal,withthebrideassumingthegotra of thehusband.Nowadaysresidencetendstobeneo-localneartheplace of work.TheHindumarriagewasideallyforthislifeandbeyond,butsince1956divorcehasbeenper-mittedunderlegalprocedures.DomesticUnit.Livinginafamilyisconsiderednormalandproper.Mostfamiliestodayinbothvillagesandtownsarenuclear,thoughsomearejointfamilies.Membersworkingandlivingoutsideusuallyvisittheresidualfamilyandshrinesoccasionally.Oftenlandiscultivatedjointlybysharingthefarmexpenses.Recentlytherehasbeenatendencytoreducethesize of theruralhouseholdthroughfamilyplanning.Inheritance.Traditionallyonlysonsinheritedlandandotherimmovableproperties.Theeldestsonwasgivenanad-ditionalshare(jyesthansha).Since1956thewidowanddaughtershavebeenlegalcosharersinallproperty.Socialization.Parents,grandparents,andsiblingscareforinfantsandchildrenandprovideinformal-and,recently,formal-educationbeforeschool.Education of girlsisstillnotcommonbeyondprimaryschool.Physicalpunishmenttodisciplineachildiscommon,thoughinfantsareusuallysparedandcuddled.Respectforseniorsinallsituationsandthevalue of educationareemphasized,especiallyamongthehigherclasses.SociopoliticalOrganizationOrissaisastateintheRepublic of India,whichhasanelectedpresident.Thegovernoristhehead of OrissaState,andthechiefministeristheelectedhead of thegovernment of Orissa.SocialOrganization.TraditionalOriyasocietyishierarchi-callyorganizedprimarilyonthebasis of caste(andsubcaste)andoccupationsandsecondarilyonthebasis of socialclass.Thehighestcastes,Brahman,arepriestsandteachers of theGreatTradition.Belowthemindescendingorder of statusare:theKshatriya,warriorsandrulers;theVaisya,ortraders;andtheSudra,orskilledandunskilledworkersandserviceholders.Theoccupationsinvolvingmanualandmenialworkarelowinstatus,andpollutingoccupationslikeskinningdeadanimalsormakingshoesareassociatedwiththelowestcastes,theUn-touchables.Ascriptivestatusinthecastesystemissometimescheckednowbyacquiredstatusintheclasssystem.InruralOrissapatron-clientrelationshipsarecommonandsocialmo-bilityisdifficultPoliticalOrganization.Orissaisdividedintothirteendis-tricts(tilla),andeachdistrictisdividedintosubdivisions(tahsils)foradministrativepurposes,intopolicestations(thana)forlaw-and-orderpurposes,andintocommunitydevelopmentblocs(blok)fordevelopmentpurposes.Therearevillage-clustercommittees(panchayatjwithelectedmem-bersandahead(sarpanch)forthelowestlevel of self.administrationanddevelopment.Thecommunitydevelop-mentblochasapanchayatsamitiorcouncil of panchayatsheadedbythechairman,withallthesarpanchasmembers.Eachcasteorpopuloussubcasteinagroup of adjacentvil-lagesalsohadajatipanchayatforenforcingvaluesandinsti-tutionaldiscipline.Thetraditionalgrampanchayat,consist-ing of theleaders of severalimportantcastesinavillage,wasformaintainingharmonyandtheritualcycle.SocialControlandConflict.WarfarebetweenadjacentprincedomsandvillagescametoastopunderBritishrule.Thepolicestations(thana)maintainlawandorderintheruralareas.ReligionandExpressiveCultureHinduism of varioussectsisacentralandunifyingforceinOriyasociety.TheoverwhelminglyimportantVaishnavasecthavetheirsupremedeity,Jagannatha,wholordsitoverthere-216ut...

... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,inalandwhereeach of theuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomain of theuyuwhowasthecause of death.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury,J.N.(1971).AComparativeStudy of AdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.Memoirs of theRoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPractices of theMinyongAbors of Assam,India."Anthropos49:58 8-6 04. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III SOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirareacaste of cowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwelloveramilliontoday:theynumbered750,000in ... orfivefamiliesstayinonecamp.Asthewetseasonends,eachfamilymovestoitsclan'straditionalhut,whichiscircularandhousesfromfifteentotwentysleepingplatforms.Aclan'shutisstationaryandismaintainedthroughouttheyearbythemen of theclan.Withtheexception of aclan'shut,allhousingistemporary.Aclan'shut,usually5to7me-tersindiameter,hasawoventhatchedroofandsidewalls.Permanentlyinstalledsleepingplatformsforeachnuclearfamilyarearrangedcircularlywithineachhut.Housing,intheforestandatthecoast,isusuallydismantledbeforeleav-ingacampsite.Ateachnewcampsite-selectedforitsprox-imitytofreshwaterandfirewood-anewsleepingplatform,about70centimetersabovetheground,isconstructedforeachhut.Eachfamilyretainsitssleepingmatsandloghead-restsandmovesthemtoeachnewcampsite.Thegovernment of Indiahasconstructedwoodenhousessituatedon2-meterstiltsfortheGreatAndamaneseandtheOngees.Somefami-liesusethese,butamongtheOngeestheyarenotverypopu-larandthestructuresareusedprimarilyforstorage.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Huntingandgathering,predicatedonaseasonaltranslocationarypattern,characterizeAndamaneseculture.TheJarwasandSenti-nelesearestillcompletelydependentonhuntingandgather-ingactivities.AmongtheOngees,however,plantationculti-vation of coconutshasbecomeimportantsinceitsintroduc-tionin1958.AlthoughtheOngeesgatherthecoconuts,theydonotwanttobeinvolvedwith,nordotheyparticipatein,anyform of agriculturalactivity.TheOngeesarepaidforgatheringcoconutsbythewelfareagencywithfoodrationsandindustrialproductsfrommainlandIndia.Consequently,theforestproductstheyconsumeincreasinglyarebeingre-placedbyimportedproducts.AmongtheGreatAndamanesehuntingisonlyanoccasionalactivity.Theyarepaidamonthlyallowancebythegovernmentandalsoreceivewagesfortakingcare of thecitrusfruitplantations.Fishingintheseaisusuallydonewithbowsandarrowswhilestandinginknee-deepwater,especiallyduringlowtide,anditisayear-roundactivity.Occasionallylinesandhooksareusedtofishinthesea.Hand-heldnetsareusedtofishandtogathercrabsandothershellfishfromtheisland'sinlandcreeks.Fishisanimportantpart of Andamaneseculture;inthedifferentdia-lectsthetermfor'food"isthesameasthatfor"fish."Tradi.tionallythenortherngroupscaughtseaturtlesinlargenets,butthisisnotdonebythesoutherngroups.Ongeespaddleouttoseaintheirdugoutoutriggercanoestohuntseaturtlesanddugongswithharpoons.DuringthewetseasontheAn-damanesehuntpigsintheforestwithbowsanddetachablearrowheads.Dogs,introducedtotheislandin1850andtheonlydomesticatedanimalsamongtheAndamanese,aresometimesusedtotrackdownthepigs.Throughouttheyearthereisastrongdependenceongatheringavariety of items,suchasturtleeggs,honey,yams,larvae,jackfruit,wildcitrusfruits,andwildberries.IndustrialArts.TraditionallytheAndamanesewerede-pendentontheforestandtheseaforallresourcesandrawmaterials.RawmaterialssuchasplasticandnyloncordshavenowbeenincorporatedintoAndamanesematerialculture:plasticcontainersareusedforstorage;nyloncordsareusedasstringtomakenets.Theseitemsareusuallydiscardedbypassingshipsandfishingboatsandarethenwashedupontotheislands.TheIndiangovernmentdistributesasgiftstotheOngees,Jarwas,andSentinelesemetalpotsandpans,andasaconsequencemetalcookwarehasnearlyreplacedthetradi-tionalhand-moldedclaycookingpotsthatweresun-driedandpartiallyfire-baked.TheOngeescontinuetomakeclaypotsbutusethemprimarilyforceremonialoccasions.Ongeesgrindmetalscraps,foundontheshoreorreceivedfromthegovernment,onstonesandrockstofashiontheircuttingbladesandarrowheads.Priortotheintroduction of metalin1870bytheBritish,theOngeesmadeadzesandarrowheadsfromshells,bones,orhardwood.Althoughironishighlyval-uedbytheOngees,theydonotuseironnailstojoinobjects.Ongeesstilljoinobjectsbycarvingortyingrattanrope,canestrips,orstrands of nyloncord.Smokingpipes,outriggerca-noes,andcylindricalcontainersforholdinghoneyareamongthemanyitemscarvedbytheOngees.Trade.Traditionallytradewithinagroupwasconductedbetweenthebandsidentifiedaspighunters(forestdwellers)andturtlehunters(coastaldwellers).Thepighunterbandtradedclaypaint,clayformakingpots,honey,woodforbowsandarrows,trunks of smalltreesforcanoes,andbetelnutsinexchangeformetalgatheredfromtheshore,shellsfororna-ments,ropesandstringsmadefromplantfibersandnylon,andediblelimegatheredbytheturtlehunters.Thebandswouldtaketurnsservingashostfortheseorganizedevents of exchange.HistoricallytheAndamanesegatheredhoney,shells,andambergristotradewithoutsidersinreturnforclothes,metalimplements,orevencosmetics.Undertheim-perialadministrationtradewithoutsiderswasthemeans of entryforopiumandliquorintotheNorthernAndamaneseAborETHNONYMS:Abuit,Adi,TaniOrientationIdentification.Thename"Abor"isapplied,inageneralsense,toall of thehilltribesthatliveintheareasurroundingtheAssamValley.Inamorespecificsense,itreferstothosepeoplesinhabitingthesouthernreaches of theHimalayanrangeinA-runachalPradesh.TheAborlabelreferstofifteenrelatedgroups(Padam,Minyong,Pangis,Shimong,Ashing,Pasi,Karko,Bokar,Bori,Ramo,Pailibo,Milan,Tangam,Tangin,andGallong), of whichthePadam,Minyong,andShimongarethemostnumerous.AborsettlementsarealsofoundinTibetandChina.Theetymology of thewordhasbeenthesubject of considerabledebate.Twointerpretationsrepresenttherange of opinionabouttheorigin of theword.Thefirstholdsthataboris of Assameseoriginandisderivedfrombori,meaning"subject,dependent,"andthenegativeparticlea ... ProvincesandBerarin1911,rankingasthesixth-largestcasteinterms of numbers.Inmanycastesthereisaseparatedivision of Ahirs,suchastheAhirSunars,Sutars,Lohars,Shimpis,Salic,Guraos,andKolis.Thename"Ahir"isderivedfrom"Abhira,"atribementionedseveraltimesininscriptionsandtheHindusacredbooks."Goala,"meaningacowherdor'aprotector of cows,"istheBengalinameforthecaste,andtheterm"Gaoli"isnowusedinMadhyaPradeshStatetosignifyadairyworker.SomedialectsnamedaftertheAbhiraorAhirsarestillspoken.One,knownasAhirwati,isspokenintheRohtalsandGurgaondistricts,thePunjab,andnearDelhi.TheMalwi.dialect of RajasthaniisalsoknownasAhiri;thereisadialect of GujaraticalledKhandeshi,alsoknownasAhirani.TheselinguisticsurvivalsareanindicationthattheAhirswereearlysettlersintheDelhicountry of thePunjab,andinMalwaandKhandesh.TheAhirwereapparentlyone of theimmigranttribesfromcentral Asia whoenteredIndiaduringtheearlyChris-tianera.TheAhirhavebeenforcenturiesapurelyoccupa-tionalcaste,mainlyrecruitedfromtheindigenoustribes.Ascattlemustgrazeintheforestduringhotweather,thereisacloserelationshipbetweenAhirsandmany of theforesttribes.ManyAhirinMandla,forexample,arebarelyconsid-eredHindus,becausetheyliveinGondvillages(aforesttribe).Onlyabout30percent of theAhirsarestilloccupiedinbreedingcattleanddealinginmilkandbutter.About4per-centaredomesticservants,andnearlyalltheremainderwerecultivatorsandlaborersin1931.FormerlytheAhirshadtheexclusiverighttomilkcows,sothatonalloccasionsanAhirhadtobehiredforthispurposeevenbythelowestcaste.Thecastehasexogamoussections,whichare of theusuallow-castetype,withtitularortotemnisticnames.Themarriage of personsbelongingtothesamesectionand of firstcousinsisprohibited.Amanmaymarryhiswife'syoungersisterwhilehiswifeisliving.Thepractice of exchanginggirlsbetweenfamiliesispermissible.TheAhirhaveaspecialrelationtotheHindureligion,owingtotheirassociationwiththesacredcow,whichisitselfreveredasagoddess.Amongthespecialdeities of theAhirsisKharskDeo,whoisalwayslocatedattheplace of assembly of thecattle.MaterDeoisthegod of thepen.AfavoritesaintisHaridasBaba.ThemainfestivalistheDiwali,fallingaboutthebeginning of November.Allpeopleobservethisfeastbyilluminatingtheirhouseswithmanysmallsaucer-lampsandwithfireworks.BibliographyBlunt,E.A.H.(1931).TheCasteSystem of NorthernIndia.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Delhi:S.Chand.Darling,Malcolm(1947).ThePunjabPeasantinProsperityandDebt.4thEd.Bombay:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1977.NewDelhi:Manohar.Rose,H.A.(1911).AGlossary of theTribesandCastes of thePunjabandNorth-WestFrontierProvinces.Vol.1.Lahore:Su-perintendent,GovernmentPrinting.Reprint.1970.Patiala:LanguagesDepartment,Punjab.Russell,R.V.,andHimLal(1916)."Ahir."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India,byR.V.RussellandHimLal.Vol.2,1 8-3 8.Nagpur.GovernmentPrintingPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.SirajulHassan,Syed(1920)."Ahir."CastesandTribes of H.E.H.theNizam'sDominions.Vol.1, 1-7 .Bombay:Reprint.1990.NewDelhi:VintageBooks.JAYDiMAGGIOAnavilBrahimanETHNONYM:GrhasthaBrahmanAnavilBrahmansaregrhasthaor"homeowner"Brah-mans,whichmeanstheycannotperformpriestlyfunctions.Theyaretraditionallylandowners.TherearealsobhikshukaormendicantpriestsamongAnavilBrahmans.Thereseemstobeacleardistinctionbetweenthesetwokinds of AnavilBrahmans,alongwithacertainamount of ambivalencethatresultsfromthecontrastbetweentheindependence of theAnavilBrahmansasself-supportinglandownersandthevil-lagepriest's"obligation"tobeg.TheAnavilBrahmanshavebeenlargelandownersforatleastthreecenturies.ItisnotclearfromhistoricalsourceswhentheAnavilBrahmanssettledinGujarat.Inthenine-teenthcenturysomeAnavilBrahmansleftthecentralpart of thestateandmovedtothesparselypopulatedhillsintheeast(Mahuva,Vyara)wheretheyemployedtheaboriginal,tribalpopulation of theareaaslaborers.Therearetwotypes of agriculturalland:irrigatedandnonirrigated.Inthesouthernpart of theSuratDistrictinGu-jarat,thelandiswellirrigated,andhencethisisthetradi-tionalrice-growingregion.Anothercultivatedcashcropfromthedistrictisginger,aswellasvariousotherspices.Inthenorthcottonisthemaincashcrop.Withintheendogamousunit,thejati,aretwodistin-guishablegroups of unequalsocialstatus:theDesaidescen-dants of taxfarmers,andthenon-Desai.Non-Desaifarmers12AndamaneseBibliographyCipriani,Lidio(1966).TheAndamanIslanders.NewYork:Praeger.Man,E.H.(1885).OntheAboriginalInhabitants of theAn-damanIslands.London:AnthropologicalInstitute.Pandya,Vishvajit(1897)."AbovetheForest:AStudy of An-damaneseEthnoanemology,Cosmology,andthePower of Ritual."Ph.D.dissertation,University of Chicago.Portman,M.V.(1859).History of OurRelationswiththeAn-damanese.Calcutta:GovernmentPrintingPress.Radcliffe-Brown,A.R(1922).TheAndamanIslanders.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.VISHVAJITPANDYAAnglo-IndianETHNONYMS:Castee,EastIndian,Eurasian,Goan,Goanese,MusteeFromthenuntilnow,theseAnglo-Indianshavebeencharacterizedby(1)Christianreligion,(2)Englishmothertongue,(3)Europeanlife-styleathome,(4)Westerndress,and(5)employmentinparticularadministrativeandserviceprofessionsthattypicallyrequirefluencyinEnglishandahigh-schooleducation(e.g.,thepostoffice,railways,teach-ing,police,andnursingprofessions).ThepopularsingerEn-gelbertHumperdinckisanAnglo-Indian.InGoaandotherPortugueseenclaveswithintheIndiansubcontinent,therewasfromthesixteenthuntilthetwenti-ethcenturyfreeandregularintermarriage of settlerswithlocalKonkani-speakingwomen.Thehistory of theirdescen-dantsparalleledthat of otherEurasiansinIndia.PortuguesebornonIndiansoilwerecalled"Castees"(fromthePortu-guesecastico,atermnolongerused);whereasCreoleswerecalled"Mustees"or"Mestiz"(fromthePortuguesemistices).InrecentdecadestheseGoanese of partialEuropeanancestryhavebeenassimilatedintotheAnglo-Indiancommunity,thoughnotwithoutsomeresentmentonthepart of color-consciousAnglo-Indians.GoanesespeakEnglish,liveincit-ies,andareRomanCatholics.ItisoftennotrecalledthattheGoanesehadanotherkind of linkwithAnglo-Indians:untiltheearlynineteenthcenturyonecouldbuyslavegirlsinGoa,andsomeBritishresidents of Indiadidjustthat.BibliographyGaikwad,VijaySinghRameshwarRao(1967).TheAnglo-Indians:AStudyintheProblemsandProcessesInvolvedinEmotionalandCulturalIntegration.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Thistermhasbeenusedintwodistinctsenses.Uptoabout1900itmeantaBritishperson(whether of English,Scottish,IrishorWelshancestry)whohadbeenborninIndia('countrybom")andresidedthere.Butsince1900theterm"Anglo-Indian"hasbeenappliedtothosepreviouslyknownasEurasianswhowere of mixedEuropeanandIndiandescent(theyhadbeenknowninearliertimesas"EastIndians").Anglo-Indiansinthislattersensearefoundtodayinallcities of India,aswellasinBritain,Canada,andAustralia.Thelastcensuscount of them,in1951,identified11,637intheRe-public of India.TheEnglishhavebeengoingtoIndiafor1,000years.PossiblythefirstEnglishvisitorwasSwithelmorSigelinus,anenvoysentbyKingAlfredtovisitthetomb of St.ThomasinA.D.884.Heissaidtohavereturnedhomesafely.Anequallydramaticjourneywasthat of ThomasCoryate,whosecele-bratedwalkfromSomersettoAjmeretookthreeyears.Butby1615,whenhereachedIndia,EnglishvisitorswerebecomingcommonplaceduetoexpandingtradewiththeMogulEm-pire.WhilethereisnoevidencethatSwithelmleftanyprog-enyinIndia,manylaterEuropeanvisitorsdid.Itwascustom-aryinIndianinnsintheMiddleAgestoprovideafemalecompanionforthepleasure of distinguishedtravelers.Bythenineteenthcentury,thenumber of Britishresidentswasintothethousands,andmostweremale.Until...

... averylargeproportion of thepopulation.IndustrialArtsandDivision of Labor.Amongtheagri-culturalJat,traditionallyonlythemenworkinthefields,Jain109primeresponsibilityfordiggingthegrave,buttheKurumbapresentalsoassists.Whenallisready,thebodyisplacedinthegravesothatitfacestowardthenorth.ThelocalIrulapriest(pujari)thengazesatalampandgoesintoatrance.Amember of thebereavedfamilyaskshimifthedeathwasnat-uralortheresult of sorcery.Ifnatural,thegraveisfilledinrightaway.Ifsorcerywasthecause of death,elaborateritualusedtobeperformed;today,however,thepriestsaysasimpleandhastyprayertoeaseanytorment of thespiritandtoen-ableittodepartpeaceably.Allthemournersthenleave.Ahighlightintheending of thesevendays of ritualpollutionamongthecloserelatives of thedeceasedisthedistribution of newclothingbytheKurumbatotheserelatives.Assoonaspossibleafterthefuneral,preferablywithinamonth,astone(oftenwaterwornandfromastreambed,butsometimessculptedbynon-Irulas)isplacedintheancestraltempletogivethedeceasedaplacetostay.Because of thebeliefthat,withoutastone,thespirit of thedeceasedwandersaroundandmaybecometroublesomeifitdoessofortoolong,thetimeissueisunderstandable.Afterpouringalittleoilonthestoneaspart of aprayerritualandleavingfoodanddrinkforthespirit of thedeparted,therelativesleave.Onceayear,allthosewhohadarelativewhodiedwithintheyearparticipateinafinalceremony.Eachfamilypurchasesanewclothandricegruelisprepared.Atthenearbyriverorstream,thegruelispouredoverthecloths,whicharethensetadrift.Inaddi-tiontohonoringthespirits of thosewhodiedwithintheyear,theIrulatherebyhonoralltheancestralspirits of therelatedpatricians.Aftergroupfeasting,dancingcontinuesintothenight.SeealsoBadaga;Kota;KurumbasBibliographyBuchanan,Francis(later,Buchanan-Hamilton)(1807).AJourneyfromMadrasthroughtheCountries of Mysore,Canara,andMalabar.Vol.2.London:W.Bulmer&Co.Jebadhas,A.William,andWilliamA.Noble(1989).'TheIrulas."InBlueMountains:TheEthnographyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,28 1-3 03.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Nambiar,P.K.,andT.B.Bharathi(1965).Census of India,1961.Vol.9,Madras,pt.6.VillageSurveyMonographs,no.20,Hallimoyar.Delhi:Manager of Publications,Government of India.Nambiar,P.K.,andT.B.Bharathi(1966).Census of India,1961.Vol.9,Madras,pt.6.VillageSurveyMonographs,no.23,Nellithorai.Delhi:Manager of Publications.Zvelebil,KamilV.(197 3-1 982).TheIrulaLanguage.3vols.Wiesbaden:OttoHarrassowitz.Zvelebil,KamilV.(1988).TheIrulas of theBlueMountains.ForeignandComparativeStudies /South AsianSeries,no.13.Syracuse,N.Y.:MaxwellSchool of CitizenshipandPublicAffairs,SyracuseUniversity.WILLIAMA.NOBLEANDA.WILLIAMJEBADHASJainETHNONYMS:nonePossiblytheoldestasceticreligioustraditiononEarth,Jainismisfollowedtodaybyabout3.5millionpeople,especiallyinRajasthan,MadhyaPradesh,Gujarat,Maharashtra,andKarnataka.AlongwithBuddhism,Jainismwasone of severalre-nunciatorymovements-theSramanaschools-thatgrewupinmodem-dayBiharandsouthernNepalinthesixthcenturyB.C.TheotherSrarnanamovements(includingBuddhism)gradu-allydiedoutinIndia,leavingJainismastheonlyonewithanunbrokensuccession of Indianfollowersdowntothepresentday.TheSramanaschools,indudingJainism,reactedagainstthecontemporaryform of Hinduism(knownasBrahmanism)andpositedthatworldlylifeisinherentlyunhappy-anendlesscycle of deathandrebirth-andthatliberationfromitisachievednotthroughsacrificesorpropitiatingthegodsbutthroughinnermeditationanddiscipline.ThuswhileJamsinIndiatodaysharemanysocialpracticeswiththeirHinduneigh-bors(indeed,severalcasteshavebothHinduandJainmem-bers),theirreligioustraditionisinmanywaysphilosophicallyclosertoBuddhism,thoughdistinctlymorerigidinitsasceti-cismthanBuddhismhasbeen.The"founder" of JainismistakenbymodernscholarstobeMahavira("greathero"),otherwiseknownasVardhamana(c.59 9-5 27B.C.);butthereisevidencethatJainpracticeswereinexistenceforsometimebeforehim.TheJaintextsspeak of asuccession of prophets(tirthankaras)stretchingbackintomythologicaltime, of whomMahavirawasthetwenty-fourthandlast.Thetirthankarasaredistinguishedbythefactthattheyarethoughttohaveachievedliberation of theirsoulsthroughmeditationandausteritiesandthenpreachedthemessage of salvationbeforefinallyleavingtheirmortalbodies.Jainstodayworshipalltwenty-fourtirthan-karas,notinthesense of askingthemforboonsorfavors,butinmemory of thepaththeytaught.One of themostpopular of theJaintextsistheKalpaSutra,atleastpart of whichisca-nonicalandmaydatebacktothefourthcenturyB.C.,andwhichdescribes,amongotherthings,thelives of alltwenty-fourtirthankaras.Theessentialprinciple of Jainphilosophyisthatallliv-ingthings,eventhetiniestinsects,haveanimmortalsoul(iva),whichcontinuestobereincarnatedasitisboundandconstrainedbykarma-aform of matterthatisattractedtothesoulthroughgoodandbaddesiresinthisandinpastlives.Thustofreethesoulonemustperformausteritiestostripawaythekarma-matterandcultivateinoneselfadetach-mentordesirelessnessthatwillnotattractfurtherkarma.Theprinciplemeanstothisendisthepractice of ahimsa,thelack of desiretocauseharmtoanylivingthing.Fromthisprinci-plearisesthemostcharacteristicfeatures of Jainlife:insis-tenceonastrictvegetariandiet,filteringdrinkingwater,run-ninganimalsheltersandhospitals,neverlyingorcausinghurttoothers,temporarilyorpermanentlywearingagauzemasktopreventinsectsfromenteringthebody,andsweepingthegroundinfront of one'severystep.ForsomeJains,theirdevotiontoahimsaleadsthemtobeordainedasmonksandnunswholivethelife of wanderingascetics.MostJainstoday,however,arelaity,livingworldlyJatav113stillobserveHindumarriageritesandtillrecentlyfollowedHindufuneralcustoms;themajorityalsoemployedBrah-mansasfamilypriests.InmostvillagesinhabitedbySikhJatthereistheshrine of aSikhmartyr of oldthatactsasanan-cestralfocusfortheminimallineage.VarioussupernaturalbeingsplayaroleinJatlifeandarecommontomostjatirre-spective of creed;beliefinmany of themiswidespreadintheregionasawhole.Arts.Thewomen of thenomadicJatareveryskilledinneedleworkandembroidervarioustextilesusingthreads of manycolorsinthedeltaregionbutmainlyblackandredinthenorth;tinypieces of mirrorarealsousedtodecoratethesetextiles.DeathandAfterlife.Jatholdconflictingviewsonlifeafterdeath.SomebelieveinthetraditionalHinduconcept of rebirth,othersbelieveingoingtoHellorHeaven,butmanybelievethatthereisnoexistenceafterdeathandthatthereisnoform of lifebesidesthepresentoneonEarth.SeealsoAhir;Baluchi;Gujar,Pathan;Punjabi;Rajput;SikhBibliographyHershman,Paul(1981).PunjabiKinshipandMarriage.Delhi:Hindustan.Kessinger,TomG.(1974).Vilayatpur,184 8-1 968:SocialandEconomicChangeinaNorthIndianVillage.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Lewis,Oscar(1958).VillageLifeinNorthernIndia.NewYork:RandomHouse.Pettigrew,Joyce(1975).RobberNoblemen:AStudy of thePo-liticalSystem of theSikhJats.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Pradhan,M.C.(1966).ThePoliticalSystem of theJats of NorthernIndia.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Rao,Aparna(1986)."PeripateticMinoritiesinAfghanis-tan-ImageandIdentity."InDieethnischenGruppenAfghanistans,editedbyE.Orywal.Wiesbaden:L.Reichert.Westphal-Hellbusch,Sigrid,andHeinzWestphal(1968).ZurGeschichteundKulturderJat.Berlin:Duncker&Humblot.APARNARAOJatavETHNONYMS:Jadav,Jatava,Jatua;alsoknownasChamar,Harijan,ScheduledCaste,UntouchableOrientationIdentification.TheJatavsareanendogamouscaste of theChamar,orleatherworker,category of castesinIndia.Be-cause of thepollutingoccupation of leatherworkertheyrankamongtheUntouchablecastesclosetothebottom of India'scastehierarchy.Somesaythename"Jatav"isderivedfromthewordjat(cameldriver),whileotherssayitisderivedfrom"Jat,"thename of anon-Untouchablefarmingcaste.Manyjatavsthemselvessayitisderivedfromtheterm"Yadav,"thelineage of LordKrishna.TheyarealsoknownasaScheduledCastebecause,asUntouchables,theyareincludedonaschedule of casteseligibleforgovernmentaid.MahatmaGandhigavetoUntouchablesthename"Harijans"or"chil-dren of god,"butJatavsrejectthetermanditsconnotations of Untouchablechildlikenessandupper-castepaternalism.Location.Jatavslivemostlyinthestates of UttarPradesh,Rajasthan,Haryana,andPunjab,aswellasintheUnionTer-ritory of DelhiinnorthwestIndia.Thisisasemiaridareawithrainfallmostlyinthemonsoonseason of JunetoAugustandlesserrainsinJanuary-February.Temperaturesrangefrom5.9°CinJanuary-Februaryto41.5°CinMay-June.Demography.Jatavsarenotlistedseparatelyinthecensus of IndiabutalongwithotherChamars.InthefourstatesmentionedaboveChamarsnumbered27,868,146,about9.9percent of thethosestates'population(1981).linguisticAffiliation.Jatavsspeakrelatedlanguages of theIndo-AryanFamily of languagesincludingHindi,Rajas-thani,andBrajBhasha,allusingtheDevanagariscript,aswellasPunjabiusingtheGurmukhiscript.Chamarsinotherparts of Indiaspeakotherlanguages of theIndo-AryanFam-ilyandlanguages of theunrelatedDravidianFamily,suchasTamilandTelugu.HistoryandCulturalRelationsOrigins of theJatavs,aswellasmostotherChamarandUn-touchablecastes,aremythical.SomesaytheJatavsaretheproduct of marriage of upper-casteJatswithChamarwomen.Jatavsthemselvesdenysuchorigins.InpreindependentIndiatheyclaimedupper-casteKshatriyaorwarriororigin.Inpost-independentIndiamanyhaveclaimedtobedescendants of India'sancientBuddhists.Thisclaimisinpartarejection of Untouchablestatusandinpartanassertion of apoliticalidentity of equalityrejectingthecastesystem.SettlementsInvillages,where90percent of India'sUntouchableslive,Jatavsliveinhamletsseparatefromnon-Untouchablecastes,whileincitiestheyliveinsegregatedneighborhoods.Inlargersettlementsincitiesthesemaybebrokendownintosubsec-tionswithseparateleadership.Housesaredenselygroupedinanucleatedpattern.Housingstyleis of twotypes:kaccaandpakka.Kaccahomesaregenerallyoneroommade of mud, ... aremakingthemselvesfeltasadistinctivepresencewithinthewider South Asianmigrantcommunityoverseas.SeealsoBaniaBibliographyBanks,Marcus(1992).OrganizingJainisminIndiaandEng-land.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Carrithers,Michael,andCarolineHumphrey,eds.(1991).TheAssembly of Listeners:JainsinSociety.Cambridge:Cam-bridgeUniversityPress.Dundas,Paul(1992).TheJains.London:Routledge.Fischer,Eberhard,andJyotindrajain(1977).ArtandRituals:2,500Years of JainisminIndia.Delhi:SterlingPublishersPri-vateLtd.Jaini,PadmanabhS.(1979).TheJainaPath of Purification.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Mathias,Marie-Claude(1985).DIlivranceetconviviality:LesystemeculinairedesJaina.Paris:EditionsdelaMaisondesSciencesdel'Homme.Pande,G.C.,ed.(1978).SramanaTradition:ItsContributiontoIndianCulture.Ahmedabad:L.D.Institute of Indology.Sangave,VilasA.(1959).JainaCommunity:ASocialSurvey.Reprint.1980.Bombay:PopularBookDepotVinayasagar,Mahopadhyaya,andMukundLath,eds.andtrans.(1977).KalpaSutra.Jaipur:D.R.Mehta,PrakritBharati.MARCUSBANKSJatETHNONYMS:Jt,JatOrientationIdentificationandLocation.Primarilyendogamouscom-munitiescallingthemselvesandknownasJatlivepredomi-nantlyinlargeparts of northernandnorthwesternIndiaandinsouthernandeasternPakistan,assedentaryfarmersand/ormobilepastoralists.Incertainareastheytendtocallthem-selvesBaluch,Pathan,orRajput,ratherthanJat.Most of thesecommunitiesareintegratedasacasteintothelocallyprevalentcastesystem.Inthepastthreedecadesincreasingpopulationpressureonlandhasledtolarge-scaleemigration of thepeasantJat,especiallyfromIndia,toNorthAmerica,theUnitedKingdom,Malaysia,andmorerecentlytheMid-dleEast.SomemaintainthatthesedentaryfarmingJatandthenomadicpastoralJatare of entirelydifferentorigins;oth-ersbelievethatthetwogroupsare of thesamestockbutthattheydevelopeddifferentlife-stylesoverthecenturies.Neitherthefarmersnorthepastoralistsare,however,tobeconfusedwithotherdistinctcommunities of peripateticpeddlers,arti-sans,andentertainersdesignatedinAfghanistanbytheblan-ketterms"Jat"orJat;thelattertermsareconsideredpejora-tive,andtheyarerejectedasethnonymsbytheseperipateticcommunities.InPakistanalso,amongtheBaluchi-andPashto-speakingpopulations,thetermswere,andtoacertainextentstillare,usedtoindicatecontemptandlowersocialstatus.Demography.Noreliablefiguresareavailableforrecentyears.In1931thepopulation of allsedentaryandfarmingJatwasestimatedat8,377,819;intheearly1960s8,000,000wastheestimateforPakistanalone.TodaytheentireJatpopula-tionconsists of severalmillionmorethanthat.linguisticAffiliation.AllJatspeaklanguagesanddialectsthatarecloselyconnectedwithotherlocallyspokenlan-guages of theIndo-IranianGroup.Threealphabetsareused,dependingprimarilyonreligionbutpartlyonlocality:theArabic-derivedUrduoneisusedbyMuslims,whileSikhsandHindususetheGurmukhi(Punjabi)andtheDevanagari(Hindi)scripts,respectively.Jatav115ciallytobedependentuponthemother,whomayinturnbe-comedependentupontheminoldage.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InIndia'svillagesthecastesystemisanorganicdivision of labor,eachcastehavingatraditionallyassignedanddistinctoccupationandduty.BecauseJatavs,asChamars,dothepollutingandpollutedtasks of removingdeadcattlefromthevillageand of workingwithleather,theyarerankedasUntouchablesatthebottom of thesystem.Tra-ditionally,theirmajoroccupationinthevillagewasagricul-turalandothermeniallaborforlandowners.Incities,wherethetraditionalinterdependencies of thecastesystemarevir-tuallynonexistent,Jatavsaremorelikeadistinctandde-spisedethnicgroup.PoliticalOrganization.InpreindependentIndiaJatavsgainedconsiderablepoliticalexpertisebyformingassocia-tionsandbydevelopingaliteratecadre of leaders.Theytriedtochangetheirpositioninthecastesystemthrough'Sanskri-tization,"theemulation of upper-castebehavior.JatavsclaimedKshatriyaorwarrior-classoriginandrank,andtheyorganizedcasteassociationstoreformcastebehaviorandlobbyfortheirclaims.AfterindependenceIndialegallyabol-ishedthepractice of untouchability,establishedtheuniversalfranchise,anddevelopedthepolicy of "protectivediscrimina-tion."ThatpolicyreserveselectoralconstituenciesforSched-uledCastecandidatesaccordingtotheirpercentages of pop-ulationinthenationandthestates;itdoeslikewiseforjobsinthenationalandstatecivilservices;anditofferseducationalbenefitstothem.Jatavshavetakenadvantage of thatpolicyandturnedtoactiveparticipationinIndia'sparliamentarysystem of government.Attimestheyhaveelectedmembers of theircastetovariousstateandnationallegislatures.Invil-lagestheyhavebeenlesssuccessfulatinfluencinglocalpoliti-calinstitutionsandcapturingfundsmeantfordevelopmentalprojects.AmajorinfluenceuponJatavswastheUntouchableleaderDr.B.RAmbedkar(d.1956)whoencouragedUn-touchablestofightfortheirrights,and,asfirstministerforlawinIndia,providedapowerfulrolemodel.Throughtheirpoliticaleffortshisstatueandpicturemaybefoundinpublicparksandbusstations,symbolicallyassertingtheirquestforequalcitizenshipinthenation.SocialControl.Everydaycontrolandleadership of localcommunitieswastraditionallyinthehands of hereditaryheadmen(chaudhari).Seriouscases of conflict,breaches of casterules,andothercaste-relatedproblemsweredecidedbycouncils of adultmen(panchayat)ineachlocality.Inthepast,higher-levelcouncilsexistedformoreseriouscasesorforappeals.Thecouncilsystemandthepowers of hereditaryheadmenhavegraduallyeroded,especiallyincitieswherethecourtsandthemoreeducatedandpoliticallyinvolvedleadersandbusinessmenhavebecomemoreprominentandin-fluential.Conflict.Conflictsarisewithinandbetweenfamiliesandindividualsovermoney,children,inheritanceclaims,drink-ing,insults,andthelike.Inrecentyearsconflicts,bothincit-iesandvillages,havetakenapoliticalturnasJatavs,andotherUntouchables,havetriedtoasserttheirrights.Non-Untouchablecasteshavereactednegatively.Seriousriotsbe-tweenJatavsanduppercasteshaveoccurredincities,suchasAgra,anddangerousconflictshavealsooccurredinvillages.Jatavsfeelthatthepace of changeismuchtooslow,whileuppercasteshaverejecteditastoofast,unjustified,andcon-trarytoorthodoxHinduteaching.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Ingeneral,JatavsandotherChamarsareHindus.Theyreject,however,theHinduteachingthatmakesthemUntouchables,aswellastheBrahmanpriestswhowrotethesacredtextssodefiningthem.MostmajorHindufestivals,particularlyHoli,areobserved,asaremajorlife-cycleceremonies.InpostindependentIndiaJatavsmayentermajorHindutemplesandvisitpilgrimagespots.SomeChamarsaredevotees of theChamarsaintRaviDas.Anum-ber of JatavshavefollowedDr.AmbedkarandconvertedtoBuddhismasarejection of thecastesystemandasanasser-tion of theequality of allindividuals.Buddhismforthemisapoliticalideologyinreligiousform.Ambedkarhimselfhasbeenapotheosizedasabodhisattva;hisbirthdayisthemajorpublicJatavfestival.Beliefisinthemajordeities of Hindu-ism,especiallyintheirlocalizedforms.TheBuddhaandDr.Ambedkarhavebecomepart of thepantheon.Ghosts of thosewhodiedbeforetheirtime(bhut)andotherspiritsarebelievedtobeabletopossessorharmlivingpeople;fear of theevileyeisalsowidespread.ReligiousPractitioners.BrahmanprieststraditionallyhavenotservedJatavsandotherUntouchables.Insteadlocalheadmenhaveofficiatedatrituals.Shamans(bhagat),whoaresometimesJatavs,havebeenknowntobeconsultedincases of spiritpossessionandotherillnesses.Ceremonies.Life-cycleceremoniesatbirth,firsthaircut-ting,marriage,anddeatharethemajorpublicceremonies.Marriageisthemostimportantritualasitinvolvespublicfeasts,thehonor of thegirl'sfamily,cooperation of neighborsandspecifickin,andgiftgivingoveryearstothefamilies of marrieddaughters.Deathritualsalsorequireparticipation of agnatesandmaleneighborstocrematethecorpseimmedi-atelyand of womentokeenritually.Verysmallchildrenareburied.Memorialfeastsormealsforthedeadaregivenoveraperiod of ayear.Arts.Theverbalarts,particularlythecomposition of vari-ousforms of poetry,arecultivated,asistheskillinsingingvariousforms of song.Medicine.Folkremediesareusedandpractitioners of Ayurvedic,Unani,andhomeopathicmedicinesarecon-sulted.Modemmedicinesandphysiciansareusedwhenaffordable.DeathandAfterlife.Beliefintransmigration of soulsiswidespread,andsomebelieveinanafterlifeinHeaven(Svarg)orHell(Narak).Asontoperformthefuneralobse-quiesisessential.Thedeadsoullingersafterdeathbutpassesonafteranumber of days.SeealsoNeo-Buddhist;UntouchablesBibliographyBriggs,GeorgeW.(1920).TheChamars.Calcutta:Associa-tionPress.Cohn,Bernard(1954)."TheCamars of Senapur:AStudy of Jat111HistoryandCulturalRelationsLittleisknownabouttheearlyhistory of theJat,althoughseveraltheorieswereadvancedbyvariousscholarsoverthelast100years.Whilesomeauthorsarguethattheyarede-scendants of thefirstIndo-Aryans,otherssuggestthattheyare of Indo-ScythianstockandenteredIndiatowardthebe-ginning of theChristianera.TheseauthorsalsopointtosomeculturalsimilaritiesbetweentheJatandcertainothermajorcommunities of thearea,suchastheGujar,theAhir,andtheRajput,aboutwhoseoriginssimilartheorieshavebeensuggested.Infact,amongbothMuslimsandSikhstheJatandtheRajputcastesenjoyalmostequalstatus-partlybecause of thebasicegalitarianideologyenjoinedbybothre-ligions,butmainlybecause of thesimilarpoliticalandeco-nomicpowerheldbybothcommunities.AlsoHinduJatcon-sidertheGujarandAhirasalliedcastes;exceptfortherule of casteendogamy,therearenocasterestrictionsbetweenthesethreecommunities.Inotherscholarlydebatesabouttheori-gins of theJat,attemptshavebeenmadetoidentifythemwiththeJarttika,referredtointheHinduepictheMahabharata.SomestillmaintainthatthepeopleArabhisto-riansreferredtoastheZutt,andwhoweretakenasprisonersintheeighthcenturyfromSindhinpresent-daysouthernPa-kistantosouthernIraq,wereactuallybuffalo-herdingJat,orwereatleastknownassuchintheirplace of origin.Inthesev-enteenthcenturya(Hindu)kingdomwasestablishedinthearea of BharatpurandDholpur(Rajasthan)innorthernIndia;itwastheoutcome of manycenturies of rebellionagainsttheMogulEmpire,anditlastedtill1826,whenitwasdefeatedbytheforces of theBritishEastIndiaCompany.Farthernorth,inthePunjab,intheearlyyears of theeight-eenthcentury,Jat(mainlySikh)organizedpeasantuprisingsagainstthepredominantlyMuslimlandedgentry;subse-quently,withtheinvasion of thearea-firstbythePersianKingNadirShahandthenbytheAfghanAhmadShahAbdali-theycontrolledamajorpart of theareathroughclose-knitbands of armedmaraudersoperatingundertheleadership of thelandowningchiefs of well-definedterritor-ies.Because of theirmartialtraditions,theJat,togetherwithcertainothercommunities,wereclassifiedbyBritishadminis-trators of imperialIndiaasa'martialrace,"andthistermhadcertainlong-lastingeffects.Onewastheirlarge-scalerecruit-mentintotheBritish-Indianarmy,andtothisdayaverylargenumber of JataresoldiersintheIndianarmy.ManySikhJatintheIndianpart of Punjabareinvolvedinthecurrentmove-mentforthecreation of anautonomousKhalistan.SettlementsTheJatasawholearepredominantlyrural.Dependingonwhethertheyaresedentaryornomadic,theJat of variousre-gionsliveinpermanentvillagesortemporarycamps.Overthelast200yearstherehasbeenincreasingsedentarization of no-madicJat;thistrendbeganinthelastdecades of theeight-eenthcenturywhenmanypastoralistssettledinthecentralPunjabundertheauspices of Sikhrulethere,anditcontin-uedoveraverylargeareawiththeexpansion of irrigationinBritishimperialtimes.Withtheconsequentexpansion of cul-tivationallthesepastoralistsarefacingincreasingdifficultiesinfindinggrazinglandsfortheirherds.Thebuffalobreedersfacethemaximumdifficultiesinthisrespect,sincetheirani-malsneedtobegrazedin ... averylargeproportion of thepopulation.IndustrialArtsandDivision of Labor.Amongtheagri-culturalJat,traditionallyonlythemenworkinthefields,Jain109primeresponsibilityfordiggingthegrave,buttheKurumbapresentalsoassists.Whenallisready,thebodyisplacedinthegravesothatitfacestowardthenorth.ThelocalIrulapriest(pujari)thengazesatalampandgoesintoatrance.Amember of thebereavedfamilyaskshimifthedeathwasnat-uralortheresult of sorcery.Ifnatural,thegraveisfilledinrightaway.Ifsorcerywasthecause of death,elaborateritualusedtobeperformed;today,however,thepriestsaysasimpleandhastyprayertoeaseanytorment of thespiritandtoen-ableittodepartpeaceably.Allthemournersthenleave.Ahighlightintheending of thesevendays of ritualpollutionamongthecloserelatives of thedeceasedisthedistribution of newclothingbytheKurumbatotheserelatives.Assoonaspossibleafterthefuneral,preferablywithinamonth,astone(oftenwaterwornandfromastreambed,butsometimessculptedbynon-Irulas)isplacedintheancestraltempletogivethedeceasedaplacetostay.Because of thebeliefthat,withoutastone,thespirit of thedeceasedwandersaroundandmaybecometroublesomeifitdoessofortoolong,thetimeissueisunderstandable.Afterpouringalittleoilonthestoneaspart of aprayerritualandleavingfoodanddrinkforthespirit of thedeparted,therelativesleave.Onceayear,allthosewhohadarelativewhodiedwithintheyearparticipateinafinalceremony.Eachfamilypurchasesanewclothandricegruelisprepared.Atthenearbyriverorstream,thegruelispouredoverthecloths,whicharethensetadrift.Inaddi-tiontohonoringthespirits of thosewhodiedwithintheyear,theIrulatherebyhonoralltheancestralspirits of therelatedpatricians.Aftergroupfeasting,dancingcontinuesintothenight.SeealsoBadaga;Kota;KurumbasBibliographyBuchanan,Francis(later,Buchanan-Hamilton)(1807).AJourneyfromMadrasthroughtheCountries of Mysore,Canara,andMalabar.Vol.2.London:W.Bulmer&Co.Jebadhas,A.William,andWilliamA.Noble(1989).'TheIrulas."InBlueMountains:TheEthnographyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,28 1-3 03.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Nambiar,P.K.,andT.B.Bharathi(1965).Census of India,1961.Vol.9,Madras,pt.6.VillageSurveyMonographs,no.20,Hallimoyar.Delhi:Manager of Publications,Government of India.Nambiar,P.K.,andT.B.Bharathi(1966).Census of India,1961.Vol.9,Madras,pt.6.VillageSurveyMonographs,no.23,Nellithorai.Delhi:Manager of Publications.Zvelebil,KamilV.(197 3-1 982).TheIrulaLanguage.3vols.Wiesbaden:OttoHarrassowitz.Zvelebil,KamilV.(1988).TheIrulas of theBlueMountains.ForeignandComparativeStudies /South AsianSeries,no.13.Syracuse,N.Y.:MaxwellSchool of CitizenshipandPublicAffairs,SyracuseUniversity.WILLIAMA.NOBLEANDA.WILLIAMJEBADHASJainETHNONYMS:nonePossiblytheoldestasceticreligioustraditiononEarth,Jainismisfollowedtodaybyabout3.5millionpeople,especiallyinRajasthan,MadhyaPradesh,Gujarat,Maharashtra,andKarnataka.AlongwithBuddhism,Jainismwasone of severalre-nunciatorymovements-theSramanaschools-thatgrewupinmodem-dayBiharandsouthernNepalinthesixthcenturyB.C.TheotherSrarnanamovements(includingBuddhism)gradu-allydiedoutinIndia,leavingJainismastheonlyonewithanunbrokensuccession of Indianfollowersdowntothepresentday.TheSramanaschools,indudingJainism,reactedagainstthecontemporaryform of Hinduism(knownasBrahmanism)andpositedthatworldlylifeisinherentlyunhappy-anendlesscycle of deathandrebirth-andthatliberationfromitisachievednotthroughsacrificesorpropitiatingthegodsbutthroughinnermeditationanddiscipline.ThuswhileJamsinIndiatodaysharemanysocialpracticeswiththeirHinduneigh-bors(indeed,severalcasteshavebothHinduandJainmem-bers),theirreligioustraditionisinmanywaysphilosophicallyclosertoBuddhism,thoughdistinctlymorerigidinitsasceti-cismthanBuddhismhasbeen.The"founder" of JainismistakenbymodernscholarstobeMahavira("greathero"),otherwiseknownasVardhamana(c.59 9-5 27B.C.);butthereisevidencethatJainpracticeswereinexistenceforsometimebeforehim.TheJaintextsspeak of asuccession of prophets(tirthankaras)stretchingbackintomythologicaltime, of whomMahavirawasthetwenty-fourthandlast.Thetirthankarasaredistinguishedbythefactthattheyarethoughttohaveachievedliberation of theirsoulsthroughmeditationandausteritiesandthenpreachedthemessage of salvationbeforefinallyleavingtheirmortalbodies.Jainstodayworshipalltwenty-fourtirthan-karas,notinthesense of askingthemforboonsorfavors,butinmemory of thepaththeytaught.One of themostpopular of theJaintextsistheKalpaSutra,atleastpart of whichisca-nonicalandmaydatebacktothefourthcenturyB.C.,andwhichdescribes,amongotherthings,thelives of alltwenty-fourtirthankaras.Theessentialprinciple of Jainphilosophyisthatallliv-ingthings,eventhetiniestinsects,haveanimmortalsoul(iva),whichcontinuestobereincarnatedasitisboundandconstrainedbykarma-aform of matterthatisattractedtothesoulthroughgoodandbaddesiresinthisandinpastlives.Thustofreethesoulonemustperformausteritiestostripawaythekarma-matterandcultivateinoneselfadetach-mentordesirelessnessthatwillnotattractfurtherkarma.Theprinciplemeanstothisendisthepractice of ahimsa,thelack of desiretocauseharmtoanylivingthing.Fromthisprinci-plearisesthemostcharacteristicfeatures of Jainlife:insis-tenceonastrictvegetariandiet,filteringdrinkingwater,run-ninganimalsheltersandhospitals,neverlyingorcausinghurttoothers,temporarilyorpermanentlywearingagauzemasktopreventinsectsfromenteringthebody,andsweepingthegroundinfront of one'severystep.ForsomeJains,theirdevotiontoahimsaleadsthemtobeordainedasmonksandnunswholivethelife of wanderingascetics.MostJainstoday,however,arelaity,livingworldlyJatav113stillobserveHindumarriageritesandtillrecentlyfollowedHindufuneralcustoms;themajorityalsoemployedBrah-mansasfamilypriests.InmostvillagesinhabitedbySikhJatthereistheshrine of aSikhmartyr of oldthatactsasanan-cestralfocusfortheminimallineage.VarioussupernaturalbeingsplayaroleinJatlifeandarecommontomostjatirre-spective of creed;beliefinmany of themiswidespreadintheregionasawhole.Arts.Thewomen of thenomadicJatareveryskilledinneedleworkandembroidervarioustextilesusingthreads of manycolorsinthedeltaregionbutmainlyblackandredinthenorth;tinypieces of mirrorarealsousedtodecoratethesetextiles.DeathandAfterlife.Jatholdconflictingviewsonlifeafterdeath.SomebelieveinthetraditionalHinduconcept of rebirth,othersbelieveingoingtoHellorHeaven,butmanybelievethatthereisnoexistenceafterdeathandthatthereisnoform of lifebesidesthepresentoneonEarth.SeealsoAhir;Baluchi;Gujar,Pathan;Punjabi;Rajput;SikhBibliographyHershman,Paul(1981).PunjabiKinshipandMarriage.Delhi:Hindustan.Kessinger,TomG.(1974).Vilayatpur,184 8-1 968:SocialandEconomicChangeinaNorthIndianVillage.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Lewis,Oscar(1958).VillageLifeinNorthernIndia.NewYork:RandomHouse.Pettigrew,Joyce(1975).RobberNoblemen:AStudy of thePo-liticalSystem of theSikhJats.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Pradhan,M.C.(1966).ThePoliticalSystem of theJats of NorthernIndia.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Rao,Aparna(1986)."PeripateticMinoritiesinAfghanis-tan-ImageandIdentity."InDieethnischenGruppenAfghanistans,editedbyE.Orywal.Wiesbaden:L.Reichert.Westphal-Hellbusch,Sigrid,andHeinzWestphal(1968).ZurGeschichteundKulturderJat.Berlin:Duncker&Humblot.APARNARAOJatavETHNONYMS:Jadav,Jatava,Jatua;alsoknownasChamar,Harijan,ScheduledCaste,UntouchableOrientationIdentification.TheJatavsareanendogamouscaste of theChamar,orleatherworker,category of castesinIndia.Be-cause of thepollutingoccupation of leatherworkertheyrankamongtheUntouchablecastesclosetothebottom of India'scastehierarchy.Somesaythename"Jatav"isderivedfromthewordjat(cameldriver),whileotherssayitisderivedfrom"Jat,"thename of anon-Untouchablefarmingcaste.Manyjatavsthemselvessayitisderivedfromtheterm"Yadav,"thelineage of LordKrishna.TheyarealsoknownasaScheduledCastebecause,asUntouchables,theyareincludedonaschedule of casteseligibleforgovernmentaid.MahatmaGandhigavetoUntouchablesthename"Harijans"or"chil-dren of god,"butJatavsrejectthetermanditsconnotations of Untouchablechildlikenessandupper-castepaternalism.Location.Jatavslivemostlyinthestates of UttarPradesh,Rajasthan,Haryana,andPunjab,aswellasintheUnionTer-ritory of DelhiinnorthwestIndia.Thisisasemiaridareawithrainfallmostlyinthemonsoonseason of JunetoAugustandlesserrainsinJanuary-February.Temperaturesrangefrom5.9°CinJanuary-Februaryto41.5°CinMay-June.Demography.Jatavsarenotlistedseparatelyinthecensus of IndiabutalongwithotherChamars.InthefourstatesmentionedaboveChamarsnumbered27,868,146,about9.9percent of thethosestates'population(1981).linguisticAffiliation.Jatavsspeakrelatedlanguages of theIndo-AryanFamily of languagesincludingHindi,Rajas-thani,andBrajBhasha,allusingtheDevanagariscript,aswellasPunjabiusingtheGurmukhiscript.Chamarsinotherparts of Indiaspeakotherlanguages of theIndo-AryanFam-ilyandlanguages of theunrelatedDravidianFamily,suchasTamilandTelugu.HistoryandCulturalRelationsOrigins of theJatavs,aswellasmostotherChamarandUn-touchablecastes,aremythical.SomesaytheJatavsaretheproduct of marriage of upper-casteJatswithChamarwomen.Jatavsthemselvesdenysuchorigins.InpreindependentIndiatheyclaimedupper-casteKshatriyaorwarriororigin.Inpost-independentIndiamanyhaveclaimedtobedescendants of India'sancientBuddhists.Thisclaimisinpartarejection of Untouchablestatusandinpartanassertion of apoliticalidentity of equalityrejectingthecastesystem.SettlementsInvillages,where90percent of India'sUntouchableslive,Jatavsliveinhamletsseparatefromnon-Untouchablecastes,whileincitiestheyliveinsegregatedneighborhoods.Inlargersettlementsincitiesthesemaybebrokendownintosubsec-tionswithseparateleadership.Housesaredenselygroupedinanucleatedpattern.Housingstyleis of twotypes:kaccaandpakka.Kaccahomesaregenerallyoneroommade of mud,...

... Crooke.1920.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Numerousreprints.PAULHOCKINGSTyler,StephenA.(1972)."FieldsAreforPlanting:NotesonKoyaAgriculture."InProceedings of theSeminaronTribalStudies,editedbyD.P.Sinha.NewDelhi:Government of IndiaPress.STEPHENA.TYLERKurumbasKshatriyaETHNONYMS:Alu-Kurumbas,Betta-Kurumbas,Jenu-Ku-rumbas,Kurubas,Mudugas,Mulla-Kurumbas,Palu-Kurum-bas,Urali-KurumbasETHNONYMS:noneTheKshatriyasarealargeblock of Hinducastes,mainlylocatedinthenorthernhalf of India.TheSanskrittermKshatrimeans"warrior,ruler,"andidentifiesthesecondvarna,rankingimmediatelybelowtheBrahmans.Nodoubt,most of themanycastesthatclaimtobeKshatriyaaresome-howdescendedfromwarriorswhowereintheservice of princesandrulersorwhowere of royalfamilies.Conversely,numerousrulershavelegitimizedtheirstatus,especiallyifusurpers,byclaimingthattheirlineagewasindeedKshatriya.Mosttypicalandbestknown of thesegroupsaretheRajputs,whoonceformedthemanyprincelyhouses of Rajasthan(for-merRajputana)andneighboringareas. Of course,todaymostKshatriyasarelandownersorfollowurbanprofessions.Althoughtheyrankhighinthevarnasystem,Kshatriyasmayandcommonlydoeatmeat(thoughneverbeef),andmanyalsotakealcoholicdrinks;both of thesecharacteristicssetthemapartfromtheBrahmans.PeopleidentifiedasKurumbashavebeenreportedacrossawideareain south India.Majorsettlements,however,arefoundintheNilgiriarealocatedbetween11010'and11°30'Nandbetween76°25'and77°00'E,atthejunction of theEasternGhatsandtheWesternGhats.TheretheKurumbasoccupythethicklyforestedslopes,glens,andfoothills of theNilgiriPlateau.TheNilgirigroupsareseveninnumber:theAlu-(milk),Palu-(milk),Betta-(hill),Jenu,(honey),Mulla-(net),andUrali-(village)Kurumbas,aswellastheMudugas(noetymology).Eachisadistinctethnicgroupdif-feringfromtheothersindialect,religiousbeliefs,andotherculturalattributes.The1971Indiancensuscounted12,930Kurumbas.In1981theNilgiriDistrictcensusreported4,874Kurumbas,most of whomareMuduga.TogethertheKurumbagroupscomposethesmallestproportion of thepla-teaupopulationthere,andthepoorest. Of thefourtribesthatoccupytheNilgiriPlateau,legendsaysthattheToda,Kurumba,andKotatribeswerebroughtintobeingsimultaneouslybyaparentcreator.Therewerethreebrotherswhoeithertransgressedagainsttheparentsorquarreledamongthemselves.Asaresulttheirfather,asuper-Kanjar121throughreceipt of bride-priceand/orthroughachievement of amoredesirablealliancewithotherfamilies.Divorcemaybeinstigatedbyeitherspouse;however,reconciliationisalwayssoughtbecauseotherwisebride-pricemustbereturned.Dis-putesaboutmaritaltensionsandbride-pricearecommonsources of conflict.DomesticUnit.Thesameterm(puki)isusedfortentandforthebasicsocialunit of Kanjarsociety.Pukiconnotesthecommensalgroup of afemale,herspouse,andtheirunmar-riedchildren.Marriagecreatesanewtentandresidenceisei-therneolocalorwithsiblingsorparentalsiblingstravelinginothergroups.Eachtentiseconomicallyindependent.Inheritance.Allmaterialandanimalresourcesareownedcorporatelybythetentorfamilyunit.Whenamemberdies,hisorherportion of thetent'sresourcesisequallydividedamongsurvivingmembers.Individualdebtsalsobecometheresponsibility of thebereavedtentifnotsettledbeforedeath.Socialization.Thereisnoseparate world forchildrenandadultsandKanjarbelievethatchildrenlearnbestthroughacombination of exampleandspecifictraining.Broadlyspeak-ing,malesareenculturatedtobecooperativeandsupportive,whereasfemalesareencouragedtobemoreaggressive,self-reliant,andindependent.Exceptionallyattractiveandtal-entedgirlsareraisedwithexpectationthattheywillbesoldintoprofessionalentertainmentestablishments.Musicallytalentedboysmaybeencouragedtoleavetheirtentsandworkindependentlyasprofessionalmusicians.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Whereeachtentisanindependenteconomicunit,familiesusuallyformtemporaryallianceswithothertentsformingad&ra.DEratypicallyconsist of twotofourtentswithabalanceamongskilledperformersandjhula(carnivalrides).Whileeconomicconsiderationsarealwaysamediatingfactor,mostd&raincludetentsinvolvedinengage-mentormarriagenegotiations.PoliticalOrganization.Whilefemalestendtodominate,bothtentsanddEraareacephalous.Decisionsaffectingthegrouparereachedthroughconsensus,deferencewiselybeingpaidtoolderand/ormoreexperiencedindividuals.SocialControl.Kanjarrecognizethattheindependence of tentsandfreedom(azadi)tomovearethemostimportantforms of socialcontrol.Tentsunwillingtoabidewithd&raconsensusareencouragedtoorsimplymoveawayinordertoavoidseriousconflictorviolence.AmongKanjar,loss of mo-bilityisloss of socialcontrol.Conflict.Tensionanddisputesarisefrombickeringbe-tweenspousesorentertainersworkingtogetheraboutshareanddistribution of earnings,adulteryorexcessivesexualjok-ing,disagreementsabouttravelroutesandtenureinanarea,andbride-pricenegotiations,aswellasindividualtransgres-sionssuchasdrunkenness,excessiveabuse,theft,physicalat-tacks,seriousinjury,andmurder.Whengrouppressureandnegotiatedcompromisesfail,Kanjarhaveaformallegalsys-temforhearingandresolvingseriousdisputes.Sincetheylackinstitutionsorformalrolesforenforcinggroupsanc-tions,settlement of disputesultimatelydevolvesonthecon-flictingparties,theirfamilies,andtheirallies.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.AsnomadsKanjararefamiliarwithabroadspectrum of religiousbeliefsandpracticesamongthecommunitiestheyservice,andtheydonanysacredmantlethatmomentarilymeetstheirpracticalneeds.Whiletheyareessentiallyagnostic,theydoprotectthemselvesfromspirits(jinn)bywearingamulets(tabiz)purchasedfromholymen(fakirs).Arts.Asprofessionalartisansandhighlyskilledentertain-ers,theireverydaysubsistenceactivitiesareaform of expres-siveandcreativeart.Medicine.Kanjarseektreatmentfromhomeopathicprac-titioners,druggistsorpharmacists,andfakirs(holymen)forseriousillness.Chronicmalariaisendemicandmostsufferfromseasonalboutswithtyphoidandcholera.Greaterenergyandresourcesarespentonsickfemalesthanonsickmales,especiallyasinfantsandyoungchildren.Malesareconstantlyremindedthat'roti(bread)foryourstomach"comeslargelyfromthefemalesintheirlives.DeathandAfterlife.Kanjararestoicaboutdeathandac-ceptitasfateandanormalaspect of life.Individualsprefertodieinthecompany of familyandsiblings;however,theyreal-izethattheirperipateticlife-styleoftenprohibitsdispersedkinfrombeingpresent.Ideally,parentsand/orsiblingswashthebody,wrapitinanewwhitecloth,sprinkleitwithscentedwater,andburyitonitssidefacingeasttowardwarmthandtherisingsun.Burialtakesplaceassoonaspossible-thenextdayduringthehotseason,andaftertwoorthreedaysinwinter,thusincoolerweatherallowinganysiblingswhomightbeinthesameareatimetotravelandbeinvolvedintheburialprocess.Thebodyisconsideredpollutingtofe-malesandthereforemalesprepareitforburial.Kanjargener-allyfearincapacitatingdiseasesorlongfinalillnessesmorethantheactualdeathitself.Whileafamilywillcarryasickin-dividualontheircartsand/orstoptravelingwhenanindivid-ualbecomesextremelyillorcrippled,Kanjarfearloss of mo-bilitymorethandeath.AmongKanjar,freedomandmobilityrepresentlife.SeealsoPeripatetics;QalandarBibliographyBerland,JosephC.(1982).NoFiveFingersAreAlike:Cogni-tiveAmplifiersinSocialContext.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress.Berland,JosephC.(1987)."KanjarSocialOrganization."InTheOtherNomads:PeripateticMinoritiesinCrossCulturalPerspective,editedbyAparnaRao,24 7-2 65.Cologne:BohlauVerlag.Berland,JosephC.,andMatt.T.Salo,eds.(1986).'Peripa-teticPeoples."NomadicPeoples(Toronto)21/22(specialissue).Hayden,Robert(1979)."TheCulturalEcology of ServiceNomads."EasternAnthropologist32:29 7-3 09.Misra,P.K,andRajalakshmiMisra(1982)."NomadismintheLand of theTamilsbetween1A.D.and600A.D."InNo-Khasi125theinheritance of theirmother,butthelargestsharegoestotheyoungestdaughter.Whenthemotherhasnodaughters,theinheritancegoestohersister'syoungestdaughter.Ifthesisterhasnodaughters,thenthemother'ssistersandtheirfe-malekinreceivetheinheritance.Menareprohibitedfromin-heritingrealproperty.Allpropertyacquiredbyamanbeforemarriagebelongstohismother.Propertyacquiredbyhimaftermarriagebelongstohiswifeandchildren. Of thesechil-dren,theyoungestdaughterwillreceivethelargestshare of theinheritanceuponthedeath of theman'swife.Ifthemanhasnodaughters,thenhissonsreceivehispropertyuponthedeath of theirmother.Christianconversion ... Kol129Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSKolETHNONYMS:noneOrientationIdentification.Theword"Kol"appearstohavebeende-rivedfromtheMundariwordko,meaning"they,"orfromhoro,hara,har,ho,orkoro-"themen"-bywhichtheKolsidentifythemselves.TheKollenttheirnametothelanguagegroupformerlyknownastheKolarian,andnowbetterknownastheMundariorAustroasiaticLanguageFamily.TheKolbelongedtotheProto-Australoidethnicstratum.TheSantal,Munda,Ho,Bhumij,Kharia,Khairwar,andKorwawhoareakintotheKolweretermedKolariantribes.TheKolsarementionedasagenericcategory of peopleineasternIndiainmedievaltexts.Intheimperialperiod,theword"Kol"acquiredapejorativemeaningasitbecameasynonymforthesavage,thelowly,thoseperformingmenialjobs,themilitant,andtheaggressive.The"Larka"(fighting)KolwasanappellationgivenbytheBritishadministrationtotheHoandtheMunda-botharerelatedgroups-wholedtheinsurrection of 183 1-1 832inChotaNagpur.Afterthisuprising,theword'Kol"appearstohavefadedout of theearlyethnography of ChotaNagpurandwasreplacedbythenames of theconstituenttribes,suchasHo,Munda,etc.TheHoinOrissastillcarrythename'Kolha,"withalargepopulation(326,522in1981),becausetheycamefromKolhaninSingbhumDistrict.TherearealsoKolhaLoharwhopracticeblacksmithinginOrissa.Location.ThetribethattodaybearsthenameKolisre-strictedtoapart of MadhyaPradeshandUttarPradesh.Ear-liertheKolsweredescribedasone of themostwidelyspreadandwell-knowntribes of thecentraluplands,extendingfromKolhantowest of theChittorHillsinRajasthan.ButnowtheyareidentifiedwiththeKoltribeonly,distributedintwenty-threedistricts of MadhyaPradeshandnineadjoiningdistricts of UttarPradesh.InMaharashtratheKolarefoundinNagpurDistrict,insmallnumbers,wheretheyhavesettleddownasmigrantlaborers.Thehabitat of theKolisaverywarmorquitecoldclimatewithlowhumidityandmediumrainfall.Demography.In1971therewere489,875Kolslistedinthecensus(probablyanundercount).linguisticAffiliation.TheKolnolongerusetheirancientlanguageandhaveadoptedHindiandtheDevanagariscript.TheKolLoharinOrissaspeakOriyabutarebilingualinKolaswell.Thespeakers of thislanguage(as of 1961)numberonly64,465persons, of whom10,267(15.93percent)arebi-lingual.Amongthebilinguals7,937persons(77.31percent)knowtheOriyalanguageand2,330persons(22.69percent)speakotherlanguages.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheKolsconsiderthemselvestobethedescendants of SaharaMata,amember of theSavaras of epicfame;sheisknownasthe"mother of theKol."TheKols of theJabalpur-Katniarea (of MadhyaPradesh)believethattheywereearlierinMewar(Rajasthan)andoccupieditshills.Theyhavein-heritedamartialcharacterandbelievethatonlywiththehelp of theKolandtheBhilpeoplescouldRanaPratapfighttheMoguls.Nevertheless,whilehistoryhasrecordedtherole of theBhils,theKolsarenotmentioned.TheKolsareanexample of atribethathaschangedcon-siderablyovertime.Theearliestreferencesrelatetolarger,ge-nericconglomeratesonthefringe of aSanskriticcultureandcivilization.Theirmentionintheethnography of theBritishimperialperiodwasnotveryspecific.TodaythegreatKolshavedisappeared,buttheirnameclingstoasmalltribalpop-ulation,whichin1946wasdescribedasbeingveryclosetobecomingacasteandtobeingHinduized.Neitherpossibilityhasentirelymaterialized.TheKolshavesurvivedasacommu-nity,withanidentity of theirownandanadaptabilitythatwasunderestimatedbyearlyethnographers.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheKolswereonceadeptatunirrigatedhillcultivation.Later,whentheymovedintothevalleys,theycouldnoteasilyadapttowetricecultivation.ThereforetheKolarenotknowntodayasagricul-turists.Theyworkmoreoftenasdailywagelaborers,collec-tors of forestproduce,andgatherers of woodfuel.Theysellbundles of woodtotheirneighborsandatmarkets.Themostimportantforestproducecollectedbythemisthewood-apple,whichisusedforpreparation of dyesandherbalmedi-cine;itisdriedandsoldatagoodprice.In1946,W.G.GriffithsidentifiedthreestrataamongtheKol:thefactoryworkerswhowerefairlywell-off;theforestpeopleandagricul-turistswhohadenoughtoeatbutnocash;andthewoodandgrasscutterswhowerethepoorest of thelot.Theirconditionhasnotmarkedlychangedsince.LandTenure.AfewKolsownland,butmostarelandless.Thosewhohavelandenjoyfreeownershiprightsoverapatchoflandforthreeyears,andafterthelapse of thisperiodtheybecomebhumiswami(lord of thepatch of land).Asaresulttheycannotselltheirlandwithouttheexpresspermission of thedistrictcollector.Theforestwheretheycollectwoodfuelorwood-applesbelongstothegovernmentbuttheydonotpayanytaxes.Theyalsograzetheircattleongovernmentlandforwhichnotaxispaid.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyKinGroupsandDescent.TheKolsaredividedintoanumber of subdivisionssuchastheRautia,Rautel,Dassao,Dahait,Kathotia,Birtiya,andThakuria.InJabalpurtheKolmainlybelongtotheRautiaandThakuriasubdivisions,whereasinNagpurtheyaremainlyRautia.Thesesubdivi-sionsareendogamousunits(baenk)thatregulatemarriage.Griffiths(1946)listedabouttwenty-twokulhi(baenk);WilliamCrooke(1896)gavealist of ninesepts,butnowonly18KanbiSettlementsCastesareassignedrespectivelivingareaswithinatypicalKanbivillage,each of whichhasindividualaccesstoagricul-turalfields.Villagesdonotadheretoanestablishedurbanplan.Avillagesquare(containingtemples,shrines,and of- ficesforgovernmentofficials)islocatednearthevillageen.trance.Atalav(tank)containingthewatersupplyislocatednearthesquare.Atypicalhouseisconstructed of mud,wood,andthatch.Thehome of amoreaffluentlandownerissimi-larlyconstructed,butasuperiorgrade of woodisused.Brickandironarealsousedintheconstruction of homesforwealthyKanbi.EconomySomeKanbiownlandasshareholderswhileothersworkastenantfarmers.Agricultureisthemajorsubsistenceactivity.Cropsgrownincludeseveralvarieties of millet(includingspikedmillet),pigeonpeas,rice,clusterbeans,sesame,cas-tor,chilies,andspices.Othervegetablesarepurchasedfromvendorslocallyandbeyondthevillageconfines.Cottonandtobaccoarealsocultivated.ThemorewealthyKanbisupple-menttheirincomethroughinvestment,trade,industry,andcommercialactivities.TheKanbihaveacasheconomyandproducefewimplements.WealthyKanbifamiliesengageinavariety of professional,industrial,andtrade-relatedactivities(foreignanddomestic).Inexchangeforservicesrenderedbyseveralservantandspecializedcastes,theKanbisettletheiraccountsincashorbymeans of barter(e.g.,withgrain).Oc-cupationalspecializationobtainsinKanbivillages.Special-izedcastes(e.g.,Brahmans,barbers,washers,potters,carpen-ters,tailors,andshopkeepers)provideimportantservices.Menworkagriculturalfieldsandwomenpreparemeals,han-dlehouseholdchores,andcarefordomesticanimals.KinshipThevillage,villagedivision,andnatalgrouparethemostbasicsocialunitsinKanbisociety.InleadingKanbivillages,theKanbiaredescendants of oneman(afoundingancestor);insomevillages,aminoritylineagethatpredatesthefound-ingancestormayalsoexist.Inlargevillages,thedescendants of acommonancestorbuildacompound(chokorkhadaki)together.Inwealthyvillages,allmembers of thecompoundareagnaticallyrelated.Atonetime,thesecompoundsmayhaveservedashometoseveralgenerations.By1972,theyhousedlittlemorethanjointfamilies of twogenerations'depth.Secession(andlinealsegmentation)maytakeplace;however,thisisarareoccurrence.Compounds of thissortarenotusuallyfoundinsmallerKanbivillages.Thebhayat(smalldivisionconsisting of fourorfivegenerations)alsofiguresprominentlyinKanbisocialstructure.Itistheclosestgroup of mutualcooperationoutsidethefamily.PatrilinealdescentistheKanbinorm.ablesocialstanding.Postmaritalresidenceispatrilocal.Thejointfamily,consisting of eitheracoupletogetherwiththeirchildrenoralargegroupextendingfiveormoregenerations,isthebasicdomesticunit.Malechildreninherittheparentalestate.Duringhislifetime,afatheristhemanager of the ... H.(1872)."OntheStoneMonuments of theKhasiHillTribes,andonSomePeculiarRitesandCustoms of thePeople."Journal of theAnthropologicalInsti-tute of GreatBritainandIreland1:12 2-1 43.Gurdon,P.RT.(1904)."NoteontheKhasis,Syntengs,andAlliedTribes,InhabitingtheKhasiandJaintiaHillsDistrictinAssam."Journal of theAsiaticSociety of Bengal73,pt.3:5 7-7 4.Gurdon,P.R.T.(1907).TheKhasis.London:D.Nutt.2nded.1914.Reprint.1975.Delhi:CosmoPubli-cations.Hunter,WilliamW.(1879)."StatisticalAccount of theKhasiandJaintiaHills."InStatisticalAccount of Assam.Vol.2,20 1-2 55.London:Tribner.McCormack,AnnaP.(1964)."Khasis."InEthnicGroups of MainlandSoutheast Asia, editedbyFrankM.Lebaretal.,10 5-1 12.NewHaven,Conn.:HRAFPress.Nakane,Chie(1967).GaroandKhasi:AComparativeStudyinMatrilinealSystems.Paris:Mouton.Roy,David(1938)."ThePlace of theKhasiinthe World. "ManinIndia18:12 2-1 34.Stegmiller,F.(1921)."AusdemReligi6senLebenderKhasi."Anthropos1 6-1 7:40 7-4 41.124Khasifamily(byworkingthefieldsforhiswife)whileatthesametimekeepinghissister'smercantileaccounts.Awoman'suncle,brother,orsonmayfunctioninasimilarcapacityonherbehalf,thoughthisismorelikelytobethecaseifthewoman'sbusinessisonalargescale.LandTenure.Therearefourkinds of publicland:kariraj(Crownlands);karilyngdoh(priestlylands);kishong(villagelandsfortheproduction of thatchinggrass,firewood,etc.);andki'lawkyntang(sacredgroves).Therearetwotypes of pri-vateland:ri-kur(landownedbyaclan)andri-kynti(landownedbyfamiliesoracquired;itisinheritedbyawomanfromhermotherorisacquiredbyamanorawoman).Ancestrallandmustalwaysbeownedbyawoman.Menmaycultivatetheland,buttheproducemustbecarriedtothehouse of themotherwhodividesitamongthemembers of herfamily.Usu-ally,ifamanobtainsland,uponhisdeathitisinheritedbyhismother(i.e.,ifheisunmarried).Thereis,however,apro-visionmadeforamantowilllandacquiredaftermarriagetohischildren.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheKhasiareawell-knownin-stance of matriliny.Themaximalmatrilineageamongthemistheclan(calledkurorjaid).TheKhasispeak of afamily of great-grandchildren of onegreat-grandmother(thus,fourgenerations)asshikpoh(onewomb).Clanstracedescentfromancestressesorkiaw(grandmothers)whoarecalledkilawbei-tynrai(grandmothers of theroot,i.e., of theclantree).Insomeinstancestheactualname of theancestresssurvives.Sheisreveredgreatlyandherdescendantsarecalledshikur(oneclan).Belowthisdivisionarethesubclanorkpoh(asal-readymentioned,descendants of onegreat-grandmother)andtheiing(houseorfamily),usuallymadeup of agrand-mother,herdaughters,andherdaughters'children.Togetherthesearesaidtobeshiiing(onehouse).KinshipTerminology.KinshipterminologyemployedforfirstcousinsfollowstheIroquoispattern.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.TheKhasiare,forthemostpart,monogamous.Theirsocialorganizationdoesnotfavorotherforms of mar-riage;therefore,deviationfromthisnormisquiterare.Mar-riageisapurelycivilcontract.Theceremonyconsists of abe-trothal,thepouring of alibationtotheclan'sfirstmaternalancestor,thetaking of foodfromthesameplate,andthetak-ing of thebridetothehouse of thegroom'smotherwherearingisplacedonthebride'sfingerbyhermother-in-law.Malesarebetweentheages of 18and35whentheymarry,whilewomen'sagesrangefrom13to18.Althoughparentallyarrangedmarriagesdooccur,thisdoesnotappeartobethepreferredform.Youngmenandwomenarepermittedconsid-erablefreedominthechoice of matesandinpremaritalsex-ualrelations.Potentialmarriagepartnersarelikelytohavebeenacquaintedbeforebetrothal.Onceamanhasselectedhisdesiredspouse,hereportshischoicetohisparents.Theythensecuretheservices of amalerelative(orothermaleun-relatedtothefamily)tomakethearrangementswiththefe-male'sfamily(providedthattheman'sparent'sagreewithhischoice).Theparents of thewomanascertainherwishesandifsheagreestothearrangementherparentschecktomakecer-tainthatthemantobewedisnotamember of theirclan(sinceKhasiclansareexogamous,maritalpartnersmaynotbefromthesameclan).Ifthisissatisfactory,thenomensaretaken.Iftheomensarefavorable,thenaweddingdateisset,butiftheomensarenegative,theweddingplansareaban-doned.Divorceisfrequent(withcausesrangingfromincom-patibilitytolack of offspring)andeasilyobtainable.Thiscer-emonyconsists of thehusbandhandingthewife5cowriesorpaisawhichthewifethenhandsbacktoherhusbandalongwith5 of herown.Thehusbandthenthrowstheseawayorgivesthemtoavillageelderwhothrowsthemaway.Accord-ingtoGurdon,postmaritalresidenceismatrilocal,withthehusbandandwifeleavingthewife'smother'sresidenceafterthebirth of oneortwochildren.C.Nakanemakesafurtherdistinctionbetweentwotypes of marriages,thefirstbeingmarriagetoanheiress,thesecondmarriagetoanonheiress.Thetype of marriageis,forNakane,thedeterminingfactorinmaritalresidence.Thispracticeistheresult of rulesandregu-lationsgoverninginheritanceandpropertyownership.Theserulesarethemselvesrelatedtothestructure of theKhasiiing.Inshort,postmaritalresidencewhenanheiressisinvolvedmustbeuxorilocal,whilepostmaritalresidencewhenanonheiressisinvolvedisneolocal.Khasimenprefertomarryanonheiressbecauseitwillallowthemtoformindependentfamilyunitssomewhatimmunetopressuresfromthewife'skin.AKhasimanreturnstohisiinguponthedeath of hisspouse(ifsheisanheiress).Ifsheisnotanheiress,hemayre-mainwithhischildreniftheyarenottooyoungandifheplanstomarryhiswife'syoungersister.Marriagetoade-ceasedwife'seldersisterisprohibited.Thisistheonlyform of thesororatefoundamongtheKhasi.TheleviratedoesnotobtaininKhasisociety.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthein-creasingmonetization of theKhasieconomyandavailability of jobsformenbeyondvillageconfinesmayhavealteredpostmaritalresidencepatterns.DomesticUnit.Aroundtheturnof...

... ownpaddyland,marriage(sidrung)maybearrangedandabride-pricepaidinbuffaloorlabor.Butmostmarriagesarebyfreechoice(dari)withnopayment.Awomanandamansimplysetuphousetogether,thoughthisoftenprovokesdifficultieswiththeirfamilies.Girlshaveconsiderablefreedomtoinitiaterelationships.Marriagesareunstableintheearlyyearsanddivorceiscom-mon.Marriagebecomesmorestableaschildrenarebornandgrowup.Somewealthiermenhavemorethanonewifeandthesecondwifeisoftentheyoungersister of thefirst(aliboj).Ifawoman'shusbanddies,shemaymarryhisyoungerbrother(erisij).Thereisnopolyandry.DomesticUnit.Thebasichouseholdcontainsamarriedcoupleandtheirchildren.Manyhousesalsocontainunmar-riedsiblings,agedparents,andsometimesotherpeople'schil-drenwhohavedecidedtolivetheretemporarily.Whereamanhasseveralwivestheylivetogetherunlesstheyquarrel,inwhichcasehebuildsthemseparatehousesanddivideshistimebetweenthem.Neighborsareusuallyverycloselyrelatedandmakequitefreewitheachother'shouses.Duringthesea-sonwhentheylivein"babyhouses"inthejungle,familiesaremoreisolatedandlivemoreintimately.Inheritance.Aseachsonmarrieshebuildshisownhouse.Theyoungestsonstaysbehindwiththeparentsandinheritsthehouse.Aman'sirrigatedfields,ortherighttoreturntoashiftingcultivationplot,aresharedequallyamonghissons.Asanancestorspirit,hewilleventuallyresideinone of thesesites.Wheretherearenosons,theymaybeinheritedbycous-insintheclosestbranch of thelineage.Alternatively,theymaybeclaimedbythelineage of hiswife'sbrotherifitisde-cidedthatthedeadpersonhasgonetoresideinone of theirplots.Personalpossessionsarelikewisesharedoutequally.Awomanmayalsohaveherownfields,providedbyherown272SyrianChristian of KeralaArabianSeaforadistance of about576kilometers.Itisarel-ativelynarrowstrip of landvaryingfrom120kilometersatitsbroadesttoaround32kilometersatcertainpointsinthenorthand south. Keralaisonly38,863squarekilometersinarea,formingdistinctregionsseparatedfromtheadjoiningstatesbytheWesternGhats,mountainsthatrunparalleltothesea.Theaverageelevationis909meters,withpeakssoar-ingupto1,800to2,400metersincertainplaces.Theplainsareveryhumidandwarmwithanaveragetemperature of 850C.Therearetwomonsoonsprovidingadequateprecipitation:thesouthwestmonsoonfrommid-JunetoearlySeptemberandthenortheastmonsoonfrommid-Octobertotheend of November.Therest of ... of thePathanstoIslamwerealsocalled"Sayyids"iftheycamefromthewest,and'Sheikhs"iftheycamefromtheeast;hence,doubtless,manyPathansfalselyclaimSayyidorigin.InAfghanistantheSayyidscontrolmuch of thecommerce,astheirholycharac-ETHNONYMS:Adivasis,BackwardClassesTheIndianconstitution(1949)createdbroadcategories of underprivilegedgroupsintheRepublic of Indiathatweretobetheobject of specialadministrativeandwelfareefforts.Threecategorieswerenamed,thoughnotclearlydefined:ScheduledCastes,ScheduledTribes,andotherBackwardClasses.Veryroughly,thesewerecomprisedrespectively of (1)UntouchablesorHarijans;(2)virtuallyallAdivasisortribes;and(3)othereconomicallydisadvantagedgroupsnotincludedin(1)or(2).In1981Indiahadanestimated105millionScheduledCastemembersand52millionpeopleinScheduledTribes.Thecategory of otherBackwardClasses,alwaysnebulousandfluctuating,isdifficulttoenumerate.Butwhichcastesandtribesweretobesingledoutforthisspecialattention,attheexpense(literallyandfiguratively) of theremainder of thepopulation?Thisburningandeconomi-callyimportantquestionwassolvedformillions of concernedpeoplebythepublication of listsorschedules(whichhavebeenrevisedseveraltimes)thatlistedbynamethosecastesandtribesthatweretobeeligible.TheselistswerecreatedatthenationallevelforScheduledTribesandCastes,andattheprovinciallevelforotherBackwardClasses.TribalandHarijanwelfaredepartmentsweresetupineachstatetoad-ministerthebenefitsthatweremadeavailable.Overthefirstfortyyears of operationtheyhavenodoubtdonemuchtooutlawthepractice of Untouchability,raiseeducationalstan-dards,andprovidepublichealthfacilities.Theframers of theIndianconstitutionthoughtthatthesebenefitsshouldbeprovidedfortwentyyears;but,asitturnedout,thoseeligiblehavefoughttenaciouslytoretaintheirspecialbenefits-andhencetheir"backwardstatus"-rightuptothepresent.Thegreatweaknessinthewholeconcept of specialprivilegesforselectcategories of thepopulation,especiallytoday,isthatnomeanstestisrequired of anindividualbeneficiary.Thus,aScheduledCasteyouth,forexample,whosefatherisaverywealthytimbermerchant,willstillbeeligibleforfreeuniver-.Sadhu251SadhuSYNONYMS:Baba,Jogi,Mahatma,Muni,Sant,Sanyasi,Swami,Tapasi,Tapsawi,Yati,YogiOrientationIdentification.Thetermsadhuisappliedindividuallytoanyone of themillions of mendicantasceticsinformallyaffil-iatedwiththedisparateHindureligiousorders of India.Most of thesewanderingholypersonsaremale,butwomen(calledsadhvin,feminine of sadhu)arealsorepresentedintheirranks.AtonetimeonlyBrahmanswereabletobeadmittedtotheseasceticorders.Later,admissionwasgrantedtomem-bers of anycaste.Sadhusareexpectedtoadoptasceticprac-tices,observecertainreligiousregulations,andteachorren-derservicetothoseinneed.Theirasceticpracticesincludethedeparturefromfamilyandhome,theapplication of bod-ilymarkingsoftenassociatedwithaparticularsect,thewear-ing of attireassociatedwithaparticularsect(orbeingpar-tiallyortotallynaked),thegrowth of haironlyonfiveimportantbodilyparts(thehead,upperjaw,chin,armpits,andpubicregion)orthecompleteshaving of thebody,theadoption of amendicantorsedentarylife-style,andthede-pendenceonthegoodness of othersfordailysurvival.Theirreligiousdutiesincludeacts of self-purification,worship,par-ticipationinreligiousdiscourses,thestudy of sacredlitera-ture,andthemaking of pilgrimages.Theconsolation of thoseindistress,preachingandteaching of religioustenets,thegranting of assistancetothepoor,andtheopening of schoolsandhospitalsareexamples of theservicesthatsadhusareex-pectedtorendertothelargersociety.SadhusarefoundthroughoutIndiaandNepalandarenotconfinedtoanypar-ticulargeographicallocale.Itisbelievedthattherearesome5millionormoreasceticsaffiliatedwithseveralthousand"schools"orsects of sadhuslivinginvariousparts of South Asia. Asmendicants,theydonotformdistinctcommunities.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTherearethreemajorHindureligiousorders:theVaishnava,theShaiva,andtheShakta. Of these,theShaivasectseemstohavethelargestnumber of devotees.Thesehavespawnednumeroussubdivisions.ItisbelievedbysomethatShaivismrepresentstheoriginalreligiousfaith of India,alreadyinplacebeforethearrival of theAryans.Theordersaremuchsplin-tered,theresultbeingthecurrentexistence of numerous.sects."Someareorthodoxwhileothersarereformistorradi-cal.Theroots of Hinduasceticismmaybetracedtothefour-folddivision of lifeoutlinedinVedicliterature.Thesestagesare:brahmacarin(thelife of thepupil);grhastha(thelife of thehouseholder,whichincludesmarriage,procreation,andthepractice of acraft);vanaprastha(thelife of theforesther-mit,resortedtowhenthetransitorynature of worldlypleas-uresisrealized);andsannyasin(thelife of thewanderingbeg-garwhohasrenouncedallworldlyties).Onemayclaimtobeanasceticwithouthavingpassedthroughall of theaforemen-tionedstages of life.Inmoderntimessomeasceticshavecho-sentocontinueinthemaritalstate.Thisrepresentsadepar-turefromearlierpractice.SettlementsSadhusliveeitherinmonasteries(calledasrama,matha,ormandira),iftheyhaveelectedtoleadasedentarylife-style,oratpilgrimageshrinesastemporaryresidents.Eachsectusu-allymaintainsatleastone of thesereligiouscenters.Themo-nasticlife-styleisaustere,emphasisbeingplacedontheculti-vation of self-controlanddiscipline.Thedailyroutineincludesexercisesintendedtopurifythephysicalbody,ele-vatementalcapacity(e.g.,throughthereading of sacredliter-ature),andenhanceecstaticexperiences(e.g.,throughcor-porateprayer).Provisionisalsomadesothatthelaypatrons of themonastery(whoprovideitschiefmeans of supportthroughbhetapuja,"honorificofferings")mayreceivethebenefit of thespiritualcounsel of theresidentascetics(bymeans of preachingandteaching).Monasterieshaveastheirorganizingconceptthetradition(sampradaya)associatedwithaparticularteacher(acarya)whofirstcodifiedthebeliefsystem of theorder.Monasticaffiliationisusuallyindicatedbythesymbolsappliedtospecificbodilyparts,clothingcolor,andadditionalitemsintheascetic'spossession(e.g.,rosary,waterpot,andstaff).EconomySadhusarealmosttotallydependentonthealms of othersforsubsistence.Inaddition,theymayalsosupportthemselvesbyengaginginany of thefollowingactivities:begging,servingasspiritualmentorstopersonaldisciples,interpretingdreams,tellingfortunes,readingpalms,astrology,manufacturingam-ulets,performingexorcisms,castingspells,singing,conjuring,juggling,tattooing,orsellingmedicinalherbsandpotions.Sadhusareparticularlywellknownforthemanufacture of thekavacha(talismanoramulet),whichprovidesthebearerwithprotectionfromevilforcesorguaranteesthepresence of ben-eficentones.MarriageandFamilyTherenunciation of familylifeandthemarriedstatearechar-acteristic of theasceticlife.Ithasbeensuggestedthatmaritalbreakdownis,infact,one of themotivatingfactorsintheadoption of mendicantlifebysomesadhus.Somemayneverhavebeenmarried.Anindividualasceticmay,athisdiscre-tion,choosediscipleswhoserveapprenticeshipsunderhim.Alternately,youngchildren(orphans,runaways,andothers)maybededicatedtotheservice of anorder.Afteraperiod of training(whichmaylastweeks,months,oryears),theyaresentouttofulfilltheirsocioreligiousdutieswithinthecon-text of thelargersociety.YetathirdroutetosocializationasasadhuinvolvesfollowingtheVedicprogression of lifestages.Animportantpart of theinitiationprocessisthechanging of thenatalname.Thismayinvolvetheaddition of suffixestoitorthecompletealteration of thename.Ingeneral,thenewnameidentifiestheplace of theinitiatewithintheorderandasavotary of aparticulargod.ReligionandExpressiveCultureGeneralizationswithregardtothereligiousbeliefs of sadhusarenoteasilymadeduetotheheterogeneouscharacter of Hinduasceticism.Theirworshipisdirectedtodiversegods of primaryandsecondaryimportanceintheHindupantheon. Of thevarioussadhureligiousrituals,that of thedhuni(sa-262SikhBibliographyBarrier,N.Gerald(1970).TheSikhsandTheirLiterature.NewDelhi:Manohar.Barrier,N.Gerald,andVanDusenbery,eds.(1990).TheSikhDiaspora.NewDelhi:Chanakya.McLeod,W.H.(1990).TheSikhs.NewYork:ColumbiaUni-versityPress.McLeod,W.H.(1990).WhoIsaSikh.Oxford:OxfordUni-versityPress. O& apos;Connell,Joseph,etal.,eds.(1988).SikhHistoryandReli-gionintheTwentiethCentury. South Asia Series.Toronto:University of TorontoPress.N.GERALDBARRIERmasses of snowandicemovedownwardslowlyintheform of glaciersandgreatavalanches.Theavalanchesareanever-presentsource of dangerinnorthernSikkim.Thecontinuouscreakingandgroaning of themovingiceandtheroar of ava-lanchescombinetocreateasense of instabilityandappre-hension.TheSikkimesetribesregardKanchenjungaastheseat of anall-powerfulgod.Theoutstandingfeature of thephysicallandscapeintheSikkimHimalayasisthevariety of temperaturezonesandvegetation.Onthelowestlevel,lessthan300metersabovesealevel,tropicalgrowthflourishes.Fromthebottomvalleys,onemovesnorthtothesubtropicalzonethatfinallyleadstothealpineregion.TheofficiallanguageisEnglish,thoughcomparativelyfewspeakit;SikkimeseandGurkhaliaretheprimarylan-guages.Existinglanguagedivisionsdonotaffecttheoverallpoliticalstability of Sikkimbecausethepeoplearebondedto-getherbywhattheycall"afeeling of kinship."SettlementsNearly50,000peopleareconcentratednearthekingdom'sprincipalurbancenterandcapital,Gangtok.Thecapitalisimportantcommerciallyaswellasadministratively.Gangtokisthecenterpoint of thestate'spoliticalandeconomiccore.SikkimeseETHNONYMS:noneOrientationTheSikkimeseliveintheHimalayankingdom of Sikkim,withapopulation of 316,385in1981.Tibet,Nepal,India,andBhutanalltouchtheborders of thiskingdom.TheSikki-meseliveinvillages of woodenbuildingsthathugtheHima-layanslopes.TheSikkimeseeasilytraversepassesthatgiveac-cesstotheTibetanChumbiValley.ThecountryoccupiesacommandingpositionoverthehistoricKalimpong-Lhasatraderoute.IndiaandTibethavefrequentlyintervenedinSikkim'sinternalaffairs.TheBritishIndiangovernmentpar-ticularlyputpressureupontheSikkimeseforaccesstocentral Asia. Sikkimisthepoliticalcore of thelargerformerking-dom,andmorerecentlytheSikkimesefeelverystronglyaboutkeepingtheLhasaroutebetweenIndiaandChinaundertheircontrol.Sikkim'slocationfavorsadynamicroleininternationalrelationsbetweenthetwogreatpowers of Asia, IndiaandChina.Themountainousenvironment of Sikkimisgenerallyin-hospitable.Thereareadversesurfacefeaturesthatseriouslyimpedehumandevelopmentoverlargeareas;cultivatedlandamountstoonlyasmallproportion of thetotalarea of thekingdom.Theharshclimatedamageseconomicdevelop-ment.TheSikkimeseliveinanenclosedbasinnearly65ki-lometerswide,placedbetweentwodeeplydissectednorth- south transverseridgesstretchingfor125kilometers.Ahugemountainmasssome19kilometers south of themainchain of theHimalayascalledtheKanchenjungarangeconstitutesadistinctivephysicalunit of Sikkim.Therangereceivesheavydischargesfromthemonsoon,anditiscoveredwithsnowandiceasmuchasahundredormoremetersthick.TheseEconomyAgriculturehastraditionallybeenthemajorfeature of Sik-kim'seconomy.Farminghasbeeninfluencedbythenature of theterrainandbythediversity of climaticconditions.InSikkimeseagricultureattentionisdividedamongstaplecerealcrops,commercialspecialtycrops,animals,andanimalprod-ucts.Riceandcornleadinhectaresplanted,butcardamom,citrusfruits,apples,andpineapplesentertradechannelsandsoarebetterknown.Potatoesarethemajorcashcrop.Sheep,goats,cattle,yaks,andmulesareabundant.Theanimalssupportthepopulationinthehighmountainvalleys.Thepastoralindustriesfurnishwool,skins,hides,andsurpluscommodities.Aboutone-third of Sikkim's7,096squarekilometers of mountainousterritoryisforested.Forestsareconsideredone of thekingdom'sgreatestassets.Therearevaluableplanta-tions of sal(Shorearobusta,acommontimbertreethatisasource of inexpensivebuildingmaterials),sisal(asource of cordage),andbamboo.Sincethe1960sSikkim'sminingcor-porationhasbeeninstrumentalinsponsoringsystematicmineraldevelopment.Copper,lead,andzincareminedinlargequantities.InSikkim'sforeststherearerawmaterialsformanufacture of paperpulp,matches,furniture,packingboxes,andteachests.Sikkim'sdevelopmenthasbeense-verelysloweddownbythelack of powersupplies.AmajorstrategicroadwasbuiltbytheIndianarmyengi-neersandIndia'sBorderRoadDevelopmentBoard.Thisroadis240kilometerslongandiscalledtheNorthSikkimHighway.ThehighwaythatconnectsGangtokwiththenorthernborderareaswascompletedin1962byIndia.Con-structionworkontheroadstartedin1958,butseveralfactorsslowedtheproject.Besidestheengineeringproblems,one of themaindifficultieswassupplyingfoodforsuchalargelaborforce:therewereabout6,000workersduringpeakperiods.Sora269bringsSoraintoconflictwiththeForestryDepartrm.ent,inwhomownership of nonirrigatedlandisvested.Sora-atmostkinds of animals,eitherdomesticanimalssacrificedforritesorhuntedwildanimals.TheSoradietisbasedonawaterygruelorporridge,withagarnish of vegetablesormeatwhenavailable.Theyusefewspicesandnooil,sincecookingisdoneonlybyboiling.Theydrinkpalmwineandnevermilk.TeaisusedbyChristians,whohavegivenupalcohol.IndustrialArts.Soramanufacturemosteverydayarticlesthemselvesout of trees,leaves,stones,andearth.Housesarebuiltentirelybyworkparties of friendsandrelatives.Peoplemaketheirowntools,bowsandarrows,andotherobjects.Al.thoughSorausestore-boughtaluminumdishesinthehouse,theystitchtogetherlargeleaveswithsplinters of bambootoformbowlsforuseoutdoors.Trade.Othernecessitiesareboughtinneighboringtownsorinweeklymarkets(hat)heldatsiteswheretheplainsmeetthehills.Here,merchantsfromtheplainssellclothing,ironaxeheadsandplowtips,salt,chilies,andjewelry.RecentlytheSorahavegivenupmakingtheirownpotteryandmatsandsonowtheybuythesetoo.ThelocalPanopopulationalsotravelsaroundSoravillagessellingsoap,tobacco,andothersmallarticles.Individualtradersbuilduplong-termre-lationswithparticularSoravillagesandcustomers.Themostimportantcommoditiessoldinthiswayarebuffaloforsacri-fice,sincethesecansupposedlynotbebredintheSorahills.Inreturn,theSorasellvariousmilletsandforestproduceliketamarind,whichisingreatdemandamongcasteHindusforcurries.Thequantitiessoldareenormousandthepricesre-ceivedarelow.Theneedtokeepsellingcontributestotheec-ologicaldegradation of theSorahills,sincecultivationisnotsimplyforsubsistence.Division of Labor.Poorerpeopleworkforhireinthefields,buttheegalitarianethos of reciprocalworkparties(onsir)isstrong.Themostimportantspecializedoccupationisthat of theshaman.Therearealsohereditarylineages of vil-lageheads,deputyheads,pyrelighters,andpriests of thevil-lagedeity(kidtung).All of thesearemaleexceptfortheocca-sionalvillagehead.Thespecialistlineages of potters,basketweavers,andblacksmithshavelargelyabandonedtheircraftandtheircustomersnowbuyinthemarket.Buttherelationsbetweentheselineagesandtherest of thepopulationarestillstronglyexpressedduringrites.Althoughtheyperformcon-ventionaltasks,men'sandwomen'srolesarenotasstrictlydividedasinmanyIndiansocietiesandthereisnotask ... of thePathanstoIslamwerealsocalled"Sayyids"iftheycamefromthewest,and'Sheikhs"iftheycamefromtheeast;hence,doubtless,manyPathansfalselyclaimSayyidorigin.InAfghanistantheSayyidscontrolmuch of thecommerce,astheirholycharac-ETHNONYMS:Adivasis,BackwardClassesTheIndianconstitution(1949)createdbroadcategories of underprivilegedgroupsintheRepublic of Indiathatweretobetheobject of specialadministrativeandwelfareefforts.Threecategorieswerenamed,thoughnotclearlydefined:ScheduledCastes,ScheduledTribes,andotherBackwardClasses.Veryroughly,thesewerecomprisedrespectively of (1)UntouchablesorHarijans;(2)virtuallyallAdivasisortribes;and(3)othereconomicallydisadvantagedgroupsnotincludedin(1)or(2).In1981Indiahadanestimated105millionScheduledCastemembersand52millionpeopleinScheduledTribes.Thecategory of otherBackwardClasses,alwaysnebulousandfluctuating,isdifficulttoenumerate.Butwhichcastesandtribesweretobesingledoutforthisspecialattention,attheexpense(literallyandfiguratively) of theremainder of thepopulation?Thisburningandeconomi-callyimportantquestionwassolvedformillions of concernedpeoplebythepublication of listsorschedules(whichhavebeenrevisedseveraltimes)thatlistedbynamethosecastesandtribesthatweretobeeligible.TheselistswerecreatedatthenationallevelforScheduledTribesandCastes,andattheprovinciallevelforotherBackwardClasses.TribalandHarijanwelfaredepartmentsweresetupineachstatetoad-ministerthebenefitsthatweremadeavailable.Overthefirstfortyyears of operationtheyhavenodoubtdonemuchtooutlawthepractice of Untouchability,raiseeducationalstan-dards,andprovidepublichealthfacilities.Theframers of theIndianconstitutionthoughtthatthesebenefitsshouldbeprovidedfortwentyyears;but,asitturnedout,thoseeligiblehavefoughttenaciouslytoretaintheirspecialbenefits-andhencetheir"backwardstatus"-rightuptothepresent.Thegreatweaknessinthewholeconcept of specialprivilegesforselectcategories of thepopulation,especiallytoday,isthatnomeanstestisrequired of anindividualbeneficiary.Thus,aScheduledCasteyouth,forexample,whosefatherisaverywealthytimbermerchant,willstillbeeligibleforfreeuniver-.Sadhu251SadhuSYNONYMS:Baba,Jogi,Mahatma,Muni,Sant,Sanyasi,Swami,Tapasi,Tapsawi,Yati,YogiOrientationIdentification.Thetermsadhuisappliedindividuallytoanyone of themillions of mendicantasceticsinformallyaffil-iatedwiththedisparateHindureligiousorders of India.Most of thesewanderingholypersonsaremale,butwomen(calledsadhvin,feminine of sadhu)arealsorepresentedintheirranks.AtonetimeonlyBrahmanswereabletobeadmittedtotheseasceticorders.Later,admissionwasgrantedtomem-bers of anycaste.Sadhusareexpectedtoadoptasceticprac-tices,observecertainreligiousregulations,andteachorren-derservicetothoseinneed.Theirasceticpracticesincludethedeparturefromfamilyandhome,theapplication of bod-ilymarkingsoftenassociatedwithaparticularsect,thewear-ing of attireassociatedwithaparticularsect(orbeingpar-tiallyortotallynaked),thegrowth of haironlyonfiveimportantbodilyparts(thehead,upperjaw,chin,armpits,andpubicregion)orthecompleteshaving of thebody,theadoption of amendicantorsedentarylife-style,andthede-pendenceonthegoodness of othersfordailysurvival.Theirreligiousdutiesincludeacts of self-purification,worship,par-ticipationinreligiousdiscourses,thestudy of sacredlitera-ture,andthemaking of pilgrimages.Theconsolation of thoseindistress,preachingandteaching of religioustenets,thegranting of assistancetothepoor,andtheopening of schoolsandhospitalsareexamples of theservicesthatsadhusareex-pectedtorendertothelargersociety.SadhusarefoundthroughoutIndiaandNepalandarenotconfinedtoanypar-ticulargeographicallocale.Itisbelievedthattherearesome5millionormoreasceticsaffiliatedwithseveralthousand"schools"orsects of sadhuslivinginvariousparts of South Asia. Asmendicants,theydonotformdistinctcommunities.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTherearethreemajorHindureligiousorders:theVaishnava,theShaiva,andtheShakta. Of these,theShaivasectseemstohavethelargestnumber of devotees.Thesehavespawnednumeroussubdivisions.ItisbelievedbysomethatShaivismrepresentstheoriginalreligiousfaith of India,alreadyinplacebeforethearrival of theAryans.Theordersaremuchsplin-tered,theresultbeingthecurrentexistence of numerous.sects."Someareorthodoxwhileothersarereformistorradi-cal.Theroots of Hinduasceticismmaybetracedtothefour-folddivision of lifeoutlinedinVedicliterature.Thesestagesare:brahmacarin(thelife of thepupil);grhastha(thelife of thehouseholder,whichincludesmarriage,procreation,andthepractice of acraft);vanaprastha(thelife of theforesther-mit,resortedtowhenthetransitorynature of worldlypleas-uresisrealized);andsannyasin(thelife of thewanderingbeg-garwhohasrenouncedallworldlyties).Onemayclaimtobeanasceticwithouthavingpassedthroughall of theaforemen-tionedstages of life.Inmoderntimessomeasceticshavecho-sentocontinueinthemaritalstate.Thisrepresentsadepar-turefromearlierpractice.SettlementsSadhusliveeitherinmonasteries(calledasrama,matha,ormandira),iftheyhaveelectedtoleadasedentarylife-style,oratpilgrimageshrinesastemporaryresidents.Eachsectusu-allymaintainsatleastone of thesereligiouscenters.Themo-nasticlife-styleisaustere,emphasisbeingplacedontheculti-vation of self-controlanddiscipline.Thedailyroutineincludesexercisesintendedtopurifythephysicalbody,ele-vatementalcapacity(e.g.,throughthereading of sacredliter-ature),andenhanceecstaticexperiences(e.g.,throughcor-porateprayer).Provisionisalsomadesothatthelaypatrons of themonastery(whoprovideitschiefmeans of supportthroughbhetapuja,"honorificofferings")mayreceivethebenefit of thespiritualcounsel of theresidentascetics(bymeans of preachingandteaching).Monasterieshaveastheirorganizingconceptthetradition(sampradaya)associatedwithaparticularteacher(acarya)whofirstcodifiedthebeliefsystem of theorder.Monasticaffiliationisusuallyindicatedbythesymbolsappliedtospecificbodilyparts,clothingcolor,andadditionalitemsintheascetic'spossession(e.g.,rosary,waterpot,andstaff).EconomySadhusarealmosttotallydependentonthealms of othersforsubsistence.Inaddition,theymayalsosupportthemselvesbyengaginginany of thefollowingactivities:begging,servingasspiritualmentorstopersonaldisciples,interpretingdreams,tellingfortunes,readingpalms,astrology,manufacturingam-ulets,performingexorcisms,castingspells,singing,conjuring,juggling,tattooing,orsellingmedicinalherbsandpotions.Sadhusareparticularlywellknownforthemanufacture of thekavacha(talismanoramulet),whichprovidesthebearerwithprotectionfromevilforcesorguaranteesthepresence of ben-eficentones.MarriageandFamilyTherenunciation of familylifeandthemarriedstatearechar-acteristic of theasceticlife.Ithasbeensuggestedthatmaritalbreakdownis,infact,one of themotivatingfactorsintheadoption of mendicantlifebysomesadhus.Somemayneverhavebeenmarried.Anindividualasceticmay,athisdiscre-tion,choosediscipleswhoserveapprenticeshipsunderhim.Alternately,youngchildren(orphans,runaways,andothers)maybededicatedtotheservice of anorder.Afteraperiod of training(whichmaylastweeks,months,oryears),theyaresentouttofulfilltheirsocioreligiousdutieswithinthecon-text of thelargersociety.YetathirdroutetosocializationasasadhuinvolvesfollowingtheVedicprogression of lifestages.Animportantpart of theinitiationprocessisthechanging of thenatalname.Thismayinvolvetheaddition of suffixestoitorthecompletealteration of thename.Ingeneral,thenewnameidentifiestheplace of theinitiatewithintheorderandasavotary of aparticulargod.ReligionandExpressiveCultureGeneralizationswithregardtothereligiousbeliefs of sadhusarenoteasilymadeduetotheheterogeneouscharacter of Hinduasceticism.Theirworshipisdirectedtodiversegods of primaryandsecondaryimportanceintheHindupantheon. Of thevarioussadhureligiousrituals,that of thedhuni(sa-262SikhBibliographyBarrier,N.Gerald(1970).TheSikhsandTheirLiterature.NewDelhi:Manohar.Barrier,N.Gerald,andVanDusenbery,eds.(1990).TheSikhDiaspora.NewDelhi:Chanakya.McLeod,W.H.(1990).TheSikhs.NewYork:ColumbiaUni-versityPress.McLeod,W.H.(1990).WhoIsaSikh.Oxford:OxfordUni-versityPress. O& apos;Connell,Joseph,etal.,eds.(1988).SikhHistoryandReli-gionintheTwentiethCentury. South Asia Series.Toronto:University of TorontoPress.N.GERALDBARRIERmasses of snowandicemovedownwardslowlyintheform of glaciersandgreatavalanches.Theavalanchesareanever-presentsource of dangerinnorthernSikkim.Thecontinuouscreakingandgroaning of themovingiceandtheroar of ava-lanchescombinetocreateasense of instabilityandappre-hension.TheSikkimesetribesregardKanchenjungaastheseat of anall-powerfulgod.Theoutstandingfeature of thephysicallandscapeintheSikkimHimalayasisthevariety of temperaturezonesandvegetation.Onthelowestlevel,lessthan300metersabovesealevel,tropicalgrowthflourishes.Fromthebottomvalleys,onemovesnorthtothesubtropicalzonethatfinallyleadstothealpineregion.TheofficiallanguageisEnglish,thoughcomparativelyfewspeakit;SikkimeseandGurkhaliaretheprimarylan-guages.Existinglanguagedivisionsdonotaffecttheoverallpoliticalstability of Sikkimbecausethepeoplearebondedto-getherbywhattheycall"afeeling of kinship."SettlementsNearly50,000peopleareconcentratednearthekingdom'sprincipalurbancenterandcapital,Gangtok.Thecapitalisimportantcommerciallyaswellasadministratively.Gangtokisthecenterpoint of thestate'spoliticalandeconomiccore.SikkimeseETHNONYMS:noneOrientationTheSikkimeseliveintheHimalayankingdom of Sikkim,withapopulation of 316,385in1981.Tibet,Nepal,India,andBhutanalltouchtheborders of thiskingdom.TheSikki-meseliveinvillages of woodenbuildingsthathugtheHima-layanslopes.TheSikkimeseeasilytraversepassesthatgiveac-cesstotheTibetanChumbiValley.ThecountryoccupiesacommandingpositionoverthehistoricKalimpong-Lhasatraderoute.IndiaandTibethavefrequentlyintervenedinSikkim'sinternalaffairs.TheBritishIndiangovernmentpar-ticularlyputpressureupontheSikkimeseforaccesstocentral Asia. Sikkimisthepoliticalcore of thelargerformerking-dom,andmorerecentlytheSikkimesefeelverystronglyaboutkeepingtheLhasaroutebetweenIndiaandChinaundertheircontrol.Sikkim'slocationfavorsadynamicroleininternationalrelationsbetweenthetwogreatpowers of Asia, IndiaandChina.Themountainousenvironment of Sikkimisgenerallyin-hospitable.Thereareadversesurfacefeaturesthatseriouslyimpedehumandevelopmentoverlargeareas;cultivatedlandamountstoonlyasmallproportion of thetotalarea of thekingdom.Theharshclimatedamageseconomicdevelop-ment.TheSikkimeseliveinanenclosedbasinnearly65ki-lometerswide,placedbetweentwodeeplydissectednorth- south transverseridgesstretchingfor125kilometers.Ahugemountainmasssome19kilometers south of themainchain of theHimalayascalledtheKanchenjungarangeconstitutesadistinctivephysicalunit of Sikkim.Therangereceivesheavydischargesfromthemonsoon,anditiscoveredwithsnowandiceasmuchasahundredormoremetersthick.TheseEconomyAgriculturehastraditionallybeenthemajorfeature of Sik-kim'seconomy.Farminghasbeeninfluencedbythenature of theterrainandbythediversity of climaticconditions.InSikkimeseagricultureattentionisdividedamongstaplecerealcrops,commercialspecialtycrops,animals,andanimalprod-ucts.Riceandcornleadinhectaresplanted,butcardamom,citrusfruits,apples,andpineapplesentertradechannelsandsoarebetterknown.Potatoesarethemajorcashcrop.Sheep,goats,cattle,yaks,andmulesareabundant.Theanimalssupportthepopulationinthehighmountainvalleys.Thepastoralindustriesfurnishwool,skins,hides,andsurpluscommodities.Aboutone-third of Sikkim's7,096squarekilometers of mountainousterritoryisforested.Forestsareconsideredone of thekingdom'sgreatestassets.Therearevaluableplanta-tions of sal(Shorearobusta,acommontimbertreethatisasource of inexpensivebuildingmaterials),sisal(asource of cordage),andbamboo.Sincethe1960sSikkim'sminingcor-porationhasbeeninstrumentalinsponsoringsystematicmineraldevelopment.Copper,lead,andzincareminedinlargequantities.InSikkim'sforeststherearerawmaterialsformanufacture of paperpulp,matches,furniture,packingboxes,andteachests.Sikkim'sdevelopmenthasbeense-verelysloweddownbythelack of powersupplies.AmajorstrategicroadwasbuiltbytheIndianarmyengi-neersandIndia'sBorderRoadDevelopmentBoard.Thisroadis240kilometerslongandiscalledtheNorthSikkimHighway.ThehighwaythatconnectsGangtokwiththenorthernborderareaswascompletedin1962byIndia.Con-structionworkontheroadstartedin1958,butseveralfactorsslowedtheproject.Besidestheengineeringproblems,one of themaindifficultieswassupplyingfoodforsuchalargelaborforce:therewereabout6,000workersduringpeakperiods.Sora269bringsSoraintoconflictwiththeForestryDepartrm.ent,inwhomownership of nonirrigatedlandisvested.Sora-atmostkinds of animals,eitherdomesticanimalssacrificedforritesorhuntedwildanimals.TheSoradietisbasedonawaterygruelorporridge,withagarnish of vegetablesormeatwhenavailable.Theyusefewspicesandnooil,sincecookingisdoneonlybyboiling.Theydrinkpalmwineandnevermilk.TeaisusedbyChristians,whohavegivenupalcohol.IndustrialArts.Soramanufacturemosteverydayarticlesthemselvesout of trees,leaves,stones,andearth.Housesarebuiltentirelybyworkparties of friendsandrelatives.Peoplemaketheirowntools,bowsandarrows,andotherobjects.Al.thoughSorausestore-boughtaluminumdishesinthehouse,theystitchtogetherlargeleaveswithsplinters of bambootoformbowlsforuseoutdoors.Trade.Othernecessitiesareboughtinneighboringtownsorinweeklymarkets(hat)heldatsiteswheretheplainsmeetthehills.Here,merchantsfromtheplainssellclothing,ironaxeheadsandplowtips,salt,chilies,andjewelry.RecentlytheSorahavegivenupmakingtheirownpotteryandmatsandsonowtheybuythesetoo.ThelocalPanopopulationalsotravelsaroundSoravillagessellingsoap,tobacco,andothersmallarticles.Individualtradersbuilduplong-termre-lationswithparticularSoravillagesandcustomers.Themostimportantcommoditiessoldinthiswayarebuffaloforsacri-fice,sincethesecansupposedlynotbebredintheSorahills.Inreturn,theSorasellvariousmilletsandforestproduceliketamarind,whichisingreatdemandamongcasteHindusforcurries.Thequantitiessoldareenormousandthepricesre-ceivedarelow.Theneedtokeepsellingcontributestotheec-ologicaldegradation of theSorahills,sincecultivationisnotsimplyforsubsistence.Division of Labor.Poorerpeopleworkforhireinthefields,buttheegalitarianethos of reciprocalworkparties(onsir)isstrong.Themostimportantspecializedoccupationisthat of theshaman.Therearealsohereditarylineages of vil-lageheads,deputyheads,pyrelighters,andpriests of thevil-lagedeity(kidtung).All of thesearemaleexceptfortheocca-sionalvillagehead.Thespecialistlineages of potters,basketweavers,andblacksmithshavelargelyabandonedtheircraftandtheircustomersnowbuyinthemarket.Buttherelationsbetweentheselineagesandtherest of thepopulationarestillstronglyexpressedduringrites.Althoughtheyperformcon-ventionaltasks,men'sandwomen'srolesarenotasstrictlydividedasinmanyIndiansocietiesandthereisnotask...

... ContentsProjectStaffviContributorsviiPrefacexiiiIntroductionxixMaps1. South Asia xxviii2.CulturalRegions of South Asia xxix3.MajorLanguages of South Asia xxx4.DominantReligiousGroups of South Asia xxxi5.CulturalGroups of South Asia xxxii Cultures of South Asia 1Appendix:AdditionalCastes,CasteClusters,andTribes309Bibliography342EthnonymIndextoAppendix349Glossary363Filmography367Index372Bibliography373Directory of Distributors373EthnonymIndex375Introductionxxipopulationin1990 ... peoplefrom cultures differentfromourown."We"isusedhereinthebroadestsense,toincludenotjustscholarswhostudythecul-tures of the world andbusinesspeopleandgovernmentoffi-cialswhoworkinthe world communitybutalsotheaveragecitizenwhoreadsorhearsaboutmulticulturaleventsinthenewseverydayandyoungpeoplewhoaregrowingupinthiscomplexcultural world. Forall of thesepeople-whichmeansall of us-thereisapressingneedforinformationonthe cultures of the world. This encyclopedia providesthisin-formationintwoways.First,itsdescriptions of thetraditionalways of life of the world& apos;s cultures canserveasabaselineagainstwhichculturalchangecanbemeasuredandunder-stood.Second,itacquaintsthereaderwiththecontemporaryways of lifethroughoutthe world. Weareabletoprovidethisinformationlargelythroughtheefforts of the volume editorsandthenearlyonethousandcontributorswhowrotetheculturalsummariesthataretheheart of thebook.Thecontributorsaresocialscientists(an-thropologists,sociologists,historians,andgeographers)aswellaseducators,governmentofficials,andmissionarieswhousuallyhavefirsthandresearch-basedknowledge of thecul-turestheywriteabout.Inmanycasestheyarethemajorex-pertorone of theleadingexpertsontheculture,andsomearethemselvesmembers of the cultures. Asexperts,theyareabletoprovideaccurate,up-to-dateinformation.Thisiscrucialformanyparts of the world whereindigenous cultures maybeoverlookedbyofficialinformationseekerssuchasgovern-mentcensustakers.Theseexpertshaveoftenlivedamongthepeopletheywriteabout,conductingparticipant-observationswiththemandspeakingtheirlanguage.Thustheyareabletoprovideintegrated,holisticdescriptions of the cultures, notjustalist of facts.Theirportraits of the cultures leavethereaderwitharealsense of whatitmeanstobea"Taos"ora"Rom"ora"Sicilian."ThosesummariesnotwrittenbyanexpertontheculturehaveusuallybeenwrittenbyaresearcherattheHumanRela-tionsAreaFiles,Inc.,workingfromprimarysourcematerials.TheHumanRelationsAreaFiles,aninternationaleduca-xiii...

... thatinBilaspurtheyadoptedChhattisgarhi,inMandlaandJub-bulporetheyspokeamodifiedEasternHindi,inBalaghattheyspokeMarathi,Hindi,Gondi(oracombination of Marathi,Hindi,andGondi),andBaigani(alanguage of Indo-AryanStockbelongingtotheIndo-EuropeanPhylum).HistoryandCulturalRelationsBaigacontactwithotherpeoplesandknowledge of regionsbeyondtheirownhasbeenminimal.Manyhaveneverheard of majorurbanareasadjacenttotheirimmediateenvirons,suchasNagpur,Delhi,andBombay.RelationswiththeBrit.ishduringcolonialrulewerefavorableoverall;theonlysub-stantialpoint of contentionbetweenthetwopartieswaslimi-tationsplacedonbewar(shiftingagriculture)bytheBritish.AsIndiasoughtindependencefromBritishrule,mythologi-caltraditionsaboutMahatmaGandhibegantoemerge,su-perhumanstatusbeingascribedtohimbytheBaiga.Never-theless,Gandhi'sattitudetowardalcoholprohibitiondid48Bohraandpracticesandthose of regularMuslimsare:theDaudiBohraspayspecialattentiontoAli,tohissons,HassanandHussain,andtotheirhighpriest,theMullahSahib of Surat;theypayspecialattentiontocircumcision;theyrejecttheva-lidity of thethreecaliphs,AbuBakrSidik,Umar,andUsman;andatdeathaprayerforpityonthesoulandthebody of thedeceasedislaidinthedeadman'shand.TheJaafariBohrasareSunnisinfaith.Theyhavenoreligioushead,butmanytraditionallyhavefollowedspiritualguides.Many of themareknownasKabariasfrombeingdevotedtothekabarorgrave of PirMuhammadShahatAhmedabad.Asalreadystated,theNagoshis'founderheldthepeculiar doc- trinethatanimalfoodwassinful;otherwisetheirreligioussectisverymuchliketheAliasect.TheSulaimaniBohrasonlydifferfromtheDaudiintheirrecognition of thereligioushead of thesect.TheirhighpriesttraditionallylivesinNajramintheHifainArabia.TheAliaBohrasstronglyre-sembletheSulaimaniBohrasintheirreligiouspractices.ManySunniBohrastraditionallyhavespiritualguides,whoaregivenmuchrespect,andmanyalsostillkeeptocertainHindupractices.Theygivedeathandmarriagedinners;theysometimesgiveHindunamestotheirchildrenormodifyMuslimones.SomeSunniBohras,however,arefollowers of theGheit-Mukallidteachers of theWahabisect,whofollowstrictMuslimcustoms.BibliographyEngineer,AsgharAli(1980).TheBohras.Sahibabad:VikasPublishingHouse.Enthoven,ReginaldE.,ed.(1920)."Bohoras."TheTribesandCastes of Bombay.Vol.1,19 7-2 07.Bombay:GovernmentCen-tralPress.Reprint.1975.Delhi:CosmoPublications.groupsaredescendants of acommonancientAustroasiaticprogenitor.Theclassicethnographicaccount of Bondocul-tureisElwin's1950study.Location.Thelocus of Bondocultureextendsfromap-proximately18020'to18°30'Nand82°20'to82°30'E.TheBondohomeland(sometimesknownasBara-jangar-des)isahillyhabitatthatoverlookstheMachkundValleyandtheMalkangiriPlain.Theaverageannualrainfallisapproxi-mately150centimeters.Settlementsfallintothreegeo-graphicgroupings:theBara-jangargroup(alsoknownasMundlipadaorSerayen);theGadabagroup(northeast of Mundlipada);andthePlainsgroup.Thefirst of theseareasisthemostimportant.ItistheBondocapitalandisalsobe-lievedtohavebeentheancientBondohomeland.Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatthetwelvevillagesthatbringyearlytrib-utetotheruler of thisplacearetheoriginalBondosettle-ments(eachhavingbeenfoundedbyone of twelvebrothers).Demography.In1971therewere5,338Bondos,75,430Gadabas,and227,406Porojas.linguisticAffiliation.TheBondospeakalanguage of MundaStockbelongingtotheAustroasiaticPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheearlyprehistory of theBondoisunclearbecausethereexistnophysicalremainsuponwhichtobaseareconstruc-tion of theirorigin.Itisbelievedthattheiroriginalhomeisnortheast of theirpresenthabitat.ElwinconcurswithChristophvonFurer-Haimendorf'ssuggestionthattheBondobelongtothegroup of neolithicAustroasiaticpeopleswhocultivatedricebymeans of irrigationandterracing,do-mesticatedcattleforsacrificialanddietarypurposes,anderectedmegaliths(e.g.,dolmens,stonecircles,andmenhirs).Insaf,Saifuddin(1986).TheBohraControversy(AsReflectedthroughNewspapers)(inGujarati).Surat:CentralBoard of DawoodiBohraCommunityPublications.JAYDiMAGGIOBondoETHNONYMS:BondaGadaba,BondoPoroja,PorJa,RemoOrientationIdentification.TheBondoareanAustroasiaticpeoplewhoinhabittheareanorthwest of theMachkundRiverinthestate of Orissa,India.WhiletheculturalrelationshipbetweentheBondoandneighboringpeoples(e.g.,thePorojaandGadaba)hasbeendebated,largelybecause of substantialdif-ferencesinappearance,personaladornment,socialnorms,andreligiousbeliefs,VerrierElwinhasconcludedthatasuffi-cientdegree of culturalcommonalityexistsbetweentheBondosandGadabastowarrantthesuggestionthatbothSettlementsGeneralizationsregardingthenature of Bondovillagesarenoteasilymade.ThetypicalBondovillageisbuilteitheralongorascendingahillside,reasonablyclosetoaspring.Theplace-ment of individualdomicilesfollowsnosetpatternandtherearenoregularthoroughfareswithinvillageboundaries.Thegrouping of housesaccordingtoclanobtainsattimes,butforthemostpartsocialandotherdistinctionshavenoimpactonthearrangement of houses.Thesindibor(thestoneplatformthatisthelocus of villagesocialandreligiousceremonies)isplacedatsomeshadyspotwithinthevillage.Villagesarenotfortifiedandtendtobesurroundedbygardenscontaininganassortment of trees,spiceplants,andotherplants.Fieldsforcultivationarelocatedinthegeneralproximity of thevillage.Publicstructureswithinthevillageconfinesincludemanurepitsandmaleandfemaledormitories.ThetypicalBondohouse,composed of mud,wood,andthatchinggrass,containstwomainroomsandaveranda.Attachedtotheoutside of thehouseisaplaceforpigs.Cattle,goats,andchickensarealsohousedinthevicinity of the ... thatinBilaspurtheyadoptedChhattisgarhi,inMandlaandJub-bulporetheyspokeamodifiedEasternHindi,inBalaghattheyspokeMarathi,Hindi,Gondi(oracombination of Marathi,Hindi,andGondi),andBaigani(alanguage of Indo-AryanStockbelongingtotheIndo-EuropeanPhylum).HistoryandCulturalRelationsBaigacontactwithotherpeoplesandknowledge of regionsbeyondtheirownhasbeenminimal.Manyhaveneverheard of majorurbanareasadjacenttotheirimmediateenvirons,suchasNagpur,Delhi,andBombay.RelationswiththeBrit.ishduringcolonialrulewerefavorableoverall;theonlysub-stantialpoint of contentionbetweenthetwopartieswaslimi-tationsplacedonbewar(shiftingagriculture)bytheBritish.AsIndiasoughtindependencefromBritishrule,mythologi-caltraditionsaboutMahatmaGandhibegantoemerge,su-perhumanstatusbeingascribedtohimbytheBaiga.Never-theless,Gandhi'sattitudetowardalcoholprohibitiondid48Bohraandpracticesandthose of regularMuslimsare:theDaudiBohraspayspecialattentiontoAli,tohissons,HassanandHussain,andtotheirhighpriest,theMullahSahib of Surat;theypayspecialattentiontocircumcision;theyrejecttheva-lidity of thethreecaliphs,AbuBakrSidik,Umar,andUsman;andatdeathaprayerforpityonthesoulandthebody of thedeceasedislaidinthedeadman'shand.TheJaafariBohrasareSunnisinfaith.Theyhavenoreligioushead,butmanytraditionallyhavefollowedspiritualguides.Many of themareknownasKabariasfrombeingdevotedtothekabarorgrave of PirMuhammadShahatAhmedabad.Asalreadystated,theNagoshis'founderheldthepeculiar doc- trinethatanimalfoodwassinful;otherwisetheirreligioussectisverymuchliketheAliasect.TheSulaimaniBohrasonlydifferfromtheDaudiintheirrecognition of thereligioushead of thesect.TheirhighpriesttraditionallylivesinNajramintheHifainArabia.TheAliaBohrasstronglyre-sembletheSulaimaniBohrasintheirreligiouspractices.ManySunniBohrastraditionallyhavespiritualguides,whoaregivenmuchrespect,andmanyalsostillkeeptocertainHindupractices.Theygivedeathandmarriagedinners;theysometimesgiveHindunamestotheirchildrenormodifyMuslimones.SomeSunniBohras,however,arefollowers of theGheit-Mukallidteachers of theWahabisect,whofollowstrictMuslimcustoms.BibliographyEngineer,AsgharAli(1980).TheBohras.Sahibabad:VikasPublishingHouse.Enthoven,ReginaldE.,ed.(1920)."Bohoras."TheTribesandCastes of Bombay.Vol.1,19 7-2 07.Bombay:GovernmentCen-tralPress.Reprint.1975.Delhi:CosmoPublications.groupsaredescendants of acommonancientAustroasiaticprogenitor.Theclassicethnographicaccount of Bondocul-tureisElwin's1950study.Location.Thelocus of Bondocultureextendsfromap-proximately18020'to18°30'Nand82°20'to82°30'E.TheBondohomeland(sometimesknownasBara-jangar-des)isahillyhabitatthatoverlookstheMachkundValleyandtheMalkangiriPlain.Theaverageannualrainfallisapproxi-mately150centimeters.Settlementsfallintothreegeo-graphicgroupings:theBara-jangargroup(alsoknownasMundlipadaorSerayen);theGadabagroup(northeast of Mundlipada);andthePlainsgroup.Thefirst of theseareasisthemostimportant.ItistheBondocapitalandisalsobe-lievedtohavebeentheancientBondohomeland.Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatthetwelvevillagesthatbringyearlytrib-utetotheruler of thisplacearetheoriginalBondosettle-ments(eachhavingbeenfoundedbyone of twelvebrothers).Demography.In1971therewere5,338Bondos,75,430Gadabas,and227,406Porojas.linguisticAffiliation.TheBondospeakalanguage of MundaStockbelongingtotheAustroasiaticPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheearlyprehistory of theBondoisunclearbecausethereexistnophysicalremainsuponwhichtobaseareconstruc-tion of theirorigin.Itisbelievedthattheiroriginalhomeisnortheast of theirpresenthabitat.ElwinconcurswithChristophvonFurer-Haimendorf'ssuggestionthattheBondobelongtothegroup of neolithicAustroasiaticpeopleswhocultivatedricebymeans of irrigationandterracing,do-mesticatedcattleforsacrificialanddietarypurposes,anderectedmegaliths(e.g.,dolmens,stonecircles,andmenhirs).Insaf,Saifuddin(1986).TheBohraControversy(AsReflectedthroughNewspapers)(inGujarati).Surat:CentralBoard of DawoodiBohraCommunityPublications.JAYDiMAGGIOBondoETHNONYMS:BondaGadaba,BondoPoroja,PorJa,RemoOrientationIdentification.TheBondoareanAustroasiaticpeoplewhoinhabittheareanorthwest of theMachkundRiverinthestate of Orissa,India.WhiletheculturalrelationshipbetweentheBondoandneighboringpeoples(e.g.,thePorojaandGadaba)hasbeendebated,largelybecause of substantialdif-ferencesinappearance,personaladornment,socialnorms,andreligiousbeliefs,VerrierElwinhasconcludedthatasuffi-cientdegree of culturalcommonalityexistsbetweentheBondosandGadabastowarrantthesuggestionthatbothSettlementsGeneralizationsregardingthenature of Bondovillagesarenoteasilymade.ThetypicalBondovillageisbuilteitheralongorascendingahillside,reasonablyclosetoaspring.Theplace-ment of individualdomicilesfollowsnosetpatternandtherearenoregularthoroughfareswithinvillageboundaries.Thegrouping of housesaccordingtoclanobtainsattimes,butforthemostpartsocialandotherdistinctionshavenoimpactonthearrangement of houses.Thesindibor(thestoneplatformthatisthelocus of villagesocialandreligiousceremonies)isplacedatsomeshadyspotwithinthevillage.Villagesarenotfortifiedandtendtobesurroundedbygardenscontaininganassortment of trees,spiceplants,andotherplants.Fieldsforcultivationarelocatedinthegeneralproximity of thevillage.Publicstructureswithinthevillageconfinesincludemanurepitsandmaleandfemaledormitories.ThetypicalBondohouse,composed of mud,wood,andthatchinggrass,containstwomainroomsandaveranda.Attachedtotheoutside of thehouseisaplaceforpigs.Cattle,goats,andchickensarealsohousedinthevicinity of the ... openandfluidfromthepoint of view of socialmobility.Thevestigesarestillfound of atraditional South AsianMuslimsystem of socialrankthatdistinguishedbetween"noble"(ashraf)andlow-ranked(ajlafBaluchi23Wildfruitsandvegetablesalsoformapart of thehouseholdeconomy,andchickensmayberaisedaswell.Whenthelocaleconomycannotprovideadequateopportunities,youngmenmaymigrateoutinsearch of paidlabor.IndustrialArts.TheBaluchiareaself-sufficientlot,asawhole,andtheyrelyontheirownskillstoconstructtheirhousesandmany of thetoolsnecessaryintheirday-to-daylife.Rugsarewovenforhouseholduseandasitems of tradealso.Division of Labor.Theentirehouseholdparticipatesinthework of tendingthefamily'sherd,butinotheraspects of theeconomythereisadivision of laborbysex:womenworkingroupstothreshandwinnowthegrainharvest,whileplow-ingandplantingaremen'swork.Thegathering of wildfoods,water,andfirewoodisdonebygroups of women.LandTenure.Bytradition,landisnotprivatelyownedbutratherisvestedinthesubsection of thetribetowhichonebelongs.Itthereforeisinalienablebytheindividual.How-ever,duringtheBritishperiod,triballeadersoftenmanagedtohavetitletosomepropertyconveyedintheirownnames.KinshipBaluchikinshipispatrilineal,tracingdescentthroughone of severallineages,ultimatelybacktotheputativeapicalances-tor,AmirHamza.Clanmembershipisbasedonfamilialties,whiletribalmembershiphasamorespecificallyterritorialre-ferent.Forbothmalesandfemales,oneremainsamember of one'spatrilinealgroupforlife-evenaftermarriage,forex-ample,awoman's"real"homeisthat of herfather,andherpositioninherhusband'shousebringstoheronlyverylim-itedrights.MarriageandFamilyBaluchimarriagesarearrangedbetweenthebride'sfatherandtheprospectivegroomuponthepayment of abride-pricecon-sisting of livestockandcash.Onmarriage,awomanpassesfromthecontrol of herfathertothat of herhusband.Mar-riageismonogamousandisexpectedtobeforlife.Adulterywastraditionallypunishablebythedeath of bothpartiesin-volved.Marriagetoanon-Baluchiisrigidlyproscribed.Post-maritalresidenceispatrilocal.Inheritance.Allheritablepropertypassesfromfathertosons.Socialization.Baluchmayar,or"theBaluchiWay,"istheguidingprinciple of properconductfortheBaluchipeople.Itisasort of honorcode,entailingtheextension of hospitality,mercy,refuge,andhonestytoone'sfellows,anditisreaf-firmedintheoraltraditions of Baluchisongandpoetry.Chil-drenlearnproperbehaviorthroughobservingtheireldersandthroughbeingsubjecttotauntandgossipshouldtheybehavebadly.SociopoliticalOrganizationBaluchsocietyisorganizedbothintokin-basedclansandterritoriallydefinedtribes.Onecouldclaimaroughcorre-spondencebetweentheclanandthesocialhierarchyasdis-tinctfromthetribeandthemorespecificallypoliticalsphere,butthiscorrespondenceisnotabsolute.TheBaluchipeopleareanamalgam of manylargeunits,orchieftaincies,eachone of whichisitselfcomposed of anestedset of smalleror-ganizationalunits.Fromlargesttosmallest,theseconstituentunitscanbestbeunderstoodasclans,clansections,andsub-sections-withsmallersegments of thislastdivisionbeingthelevelthatmostcloselycorrespondstoactualsettlementunits.Ateachlevel of thishierarchy,leadershipisinthehands of amaleelder.Attheleastcomprehensivelevel,suchleadershipisaslikelytobeachievedasinherited,butovertimeauthorityatthemoreinclusivelevelshasdevolvedtotheelders of whathavebecomehereditary"chieflyclans"(Sar-darkel).Bythefifteenthcentury,theSardarkelformedtheor-ganizationalfoci of alooselyunderstoodfeudalsystem,whichhaddevelopedintoaset of semiautonomoussovereignprin-cipalitiesbytheeighteenthcentury.Duringtheimperialpe-riod,theSardarkelservedasmediatorsbetweenBritishandlocalinterests,losingagreatdeal of theiroriginalautonomyintheprocess.However,asaresult of theirparticipationinsecuringtheinterests of therulingpower,muchlandandwealthaccruedtothesegroups,establishinganewandmorepurelyeconomicbasisfortheirleadershiprole,aswellasal-lowingthemtodevelopsomething of amonopolyoveraccesstothelargerpoliticalsystemswithinwhichtheBaluchipeo-plenowfoundthemselves.Asa"stateless"people,theBaluchipoliticalpresenceistodaysomewhatattenuated.Inthe1970sand1980s,anumber of groupssprangupinthename of Baluchinationalism,buttheiractivitieshavebeenlargely of aguerrillanatureand,asyet,theyhavebeenunabletosecureinternationalsupportfortheircause.SocialControl.AlthoughMuslim,theBaluchidonotin-vokeSharia(Islamiclaw)todealwithsocialtransgressions.Rather,secularauthorityisvestedinthetraditionaltriballeaders(Sardars)andconductedaccordingtoRawaj,whichisbasedontheprinciples of Baluchmayar.Theultimatetradi-tionalsanctionwasprovidedbythemechanism of thebloodfeud,invokedbytheclantoavengethewrongfuldeath of one of itsmembers.Capitalpunishmentwasalsotraditionallyap-pliedincases of adulteryorthetheft of clanproperty.Refusaltocomplywiththesociallyprescribednorms of hospitalityispunishablebyfinesimposedbythelocalelders.Pardonformanysocialinfractionscanbeobtainedbytheintercession of femalerepresentatives of theoffender'sfamily.In...

... tothegovernment.TheChakmarajatraditionallyreceivedasmallportion of taxonswiddenland.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Theparibar(family)isthebasickinshipunitinChakmasociety.Beyondtheparibarandbari(homestead),multihouseholdcompoundsarethenextwidestunit,themembers of whichmayformworkgroupsandhelpeachotherinotheractivities.Nextarethehamlets,com-prised of anumber of bari.Theyformworkgroupsforeco-nomicactivitiesrequiringtravel,suchasswiddencultivation,fishing,collecting,etc.Hamletpeopleareorganizedandledbyaleadercalledthekarbari.Thevillageisthenextlargergroupwhoarrangeafewritualstogether.DescentamongtheChakmaispatrilineal.Whenawomanmarries,sheleavesherownfamilyandisincorporatedintothat of herhusband.Propertyisinheritedinthemaleline.Despitethepatrilineal-ity,somerecognitionisgiventomaternalkin.Forexample,anindividual'smother'sfamilywillparticipateinhisorhercremationceremony.KinshipTerminology.Thepatrilinealnature of theChakmakinshipsystemispartiallyreflectedinthekinshipterminology.Thus,differenttermsareusedtoaddressafa-ther'sbrotherandamother'sbrotherandtoaddressafa-ther'ssisterandamother'ssister.Ontheotherhand,inthegrandparentalgenerationthedistinctionbetweenpaternalandmaternalkindisappears,withallgrandfathersbeingcalledajuandallgrandmothersnanu.Inthefirstdescendinggeneration,thereisagainnodistinctionbetweenpatrilinealandothertypes of kin.Thusfather'sbrother'schildren,fa-ther'ssister'schildren,mother'sbrother'schildren,andmother'ssister'schildrenarealltermedda(male)anddi(female).MarriageandFamilyMarriage.PolygynousmarriagesarepermissibleamongtheChakma,althoughtheyarelesscommontodaythaninthepast.Marriagesareusuallyarrangedbytheparents,butopinions of potentialspousesareconsidered.Ifaboyandgirlloveeachotherandwanttomarry,theparentsusuallygivetheirconsentprovidedtherules of marriageallowthemtodoso.Chakmarules of exogamyforbidmarriagebetweenpeoplebelongingtothesamegutti(orgusthi).Thisguttimaybede-finedasapatrilineagewhosememberstraditionallytraceddescentfromacommonancestorwithinsevengenerations.However,earlyinthepresentcenturyaChakmaprince,RamonyMohonRoy,tookforhiswifeawomanrelatedtohimwithinfivegenerations,bothbeingdescendants of thesamegreat-grandfather.Followingthisexample,ithasnowbecomecommonformarriagestobeallowedwithanyonenotpatrilineallyrelatedwithinfourgenerations.Theguttiseemstohavebeenredefinedaccordingly.Inmorerecenttimes,Chakmastillsaythatmarriageshouldnottakeplacewithinthegutti,andyetitsometimeshappensthatsecondcousins(thedescendants of thesamegreat-grandfather)arepermit-tedtomarry.Virilocalresidenceaftermarriageisthenormandpeopledonotlookfavorablyuponuxorilocalresidence;however,rareinstances of uxorilocalresidencehavebeenreported.DomesticUnit.Thefamily(paribar)usuallycomprisesahusbandandwife,togetherwiththeirunmarriedchildren.However,thereareinstances of marriedsonswiththeirwivesandchildrenlivingtogetherwiththeirparentsinoneparibar.Usuallyallmembers of theparibaroccupyasinglegharorhouse.However,ifaparibarexpandstothepointwhereitisimpossibleoruncomfortableforallmemberstoliveunderthesameroof,oneortwoannexesmaybeaddedattheside of themainbuilding.Butevenwhentheparibarmembersliveunderseparateroofs,theycontinuetocookandeattogether.Inheritance.Propertyisdividedequallyamongthesons.Thedaughtersusuallydonotinherit.Usuallyayoungersonwhocaresforhisparentsintheiroldagereceivesthehome-steadinadditiontohisshare.Socialization.Infantsandchildrenareraisedbybothpar-entsandsiblings.Inathree-generationfamily,grandparentsalsotakeactiverolesinsocializingandenculturatingthechil-58Castes,HinduMandelbaum,David.G.(1970).SocietyinIndia.2vols.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:University of CaliforniaPress.Raheja,GloriaG.(1988)."India:Caste,Kingship,andDom-inanceReconsidered."AnnualReview of Anthropology17:49 7-5 22.W.D.MERCHANTChakmaETHNONYM:ChangmaOrientationIdentification.TheChakmaspeakadialect of BengaliorBangla,liveinsoutheasternBangladesh,andarepredomi-nantly of theBuddhistfaith.AlthoughtheyaregenerallyknownintheanthropologicalliteratureasChakma-andareofficiallysotermedinBangladesh-theyusuallycallthem-selvesChangma.Location.Bangladeshislocatedbetween20034'and26038'Nand88001'and92041'E.Chakma(andanotherelevenethnicminoritypeoples)occupythreehillydistricts of Bangladesh-Rangamati,Bandarban,andKhagrachhari.Thishillregioniscutbyanumber of streams,canals,ponds,lakes,andeasternrivers;itcoversatotalarea of about13,000squarekilometers.SomeChakmaalsoliveinIndia.Demography.Accordingtothe1981censusthetotalChakmapopulationinBangladeshwas212,577,makingthemthelargesttribalgroupinBangladesh.In1971afurther54,378ChakmawereenumeratedinneighboringIndianter-ritory.Theyconstitute50percent of thetotaltribalpopula-tion of thesoutheasternhillregion,althoughtherearealsomanyBengali-speaking(nontribalororiginallyplains)peopleintheregionwhomigratedthereatvarioustimesinthepast.Asaresult,Chakmanowconstitutelessthan30percent of thetotalpopulation of thatregion.In1964,thisregionlostitsofficiallydesignatedtribalstatus,andasaresultmanypeo-plefromtheplainsmigratedthere.LinguisticAffiliation.TheChakmaspeakadialect of Bangla(Bengali),whichtheywriteinthestandardBanglascript.(Thisisthemothertongue of almost99percent of thetotalpopulationinBangladesh-i.e., of some110millionpeople.)However,itseemslikelythattheChakmaoncespokeanArakanese(Tibeto-Burman)language,whichtheylaterabandonedinfavor of theIndo-Europeantongue of theirBengalineighbors.TheChakmawriterBirajMohanDewangivesafigure of 80percentfortheBangla-derivedChakmavocabulary.HistoryandCulturalRelationsScholarsdifferontheoriginandhistory of Chakma.OnepopularviewamongtheChakmaisthattheirancestorsoncelivedinChampoknagar,althoughopinionsdifferastoitslo-cation.ItisalsoguessedthattheChakmaderivedtheirnamefromChampoknagar.AccordingtooralhistorytheChakmaleftChampoknagarforArakaninBurmawheretheylivedforabout100years.TheyhadtoleaveArakanforBangladeshinoraroundsixteenthcentury,whenBangladeshwasgovernedbyMuslimrulers,beforethearrival of theBritish.Evenifwedonotbelievethestory of theirorigininChampoknagar,wehavereasontobelievetheChakmalivedinArakanbeforetheymigratedtoBangladesh.Theywerethennomadicshift-ingcultivators.OntheirarrivalinBangladeshtheChakmachiefsmadeabusinesscontractwiththeMuslimrulers,promisingtopayrevenueortaxincotton.Inreturntheywereallowedtoliveinthehillregionandengageintradewiththelargersociety.Bythelateeighteenthcentury,Britishauthori-tieshadestablishedthemselvesinthesoutheasterndistricts of Bangladesh.TheBritishformallyrecognizedadefiniteter-ritory of theChakmaraja(theparamountchief).In1776,SherdoulatKhanbecametheChakmaraja.Hefoughtunsuc-cessfullyagainsttheBritish.FurtherfightingbetweentheChakmaandtheBritishtookplacebetween1783and1785.In1787,RajaJanbuxKhan,son of SherdoulatKhan,madeapeacetreatywiththeBritishgovernment,promisingtopaythelatter500maunds of cotton.TheBritishrecognizedtheoffice of Chakmarajathroughouttherest of theirrule.Differ-entChakmarajasmaintainedgoodrelationswiththeauthor-ities of centraladministrationandtheChakmaincreasinglycameincontactwiththeBengalipeopleandculture.SettlementsTraditionallytheChakmabuildtheirhousesabout1.8me-tersabovethegroundonwoodenandbamboopiles.Withtheincreasingscarcity of bambooandwood,theyhavestartedtobuildhousesdirectlyonthegroundintheBengalistyle.TheChakmahaveasettledvillagelife.Afamilymaybuildahouseonaseparateplot of land.Afewfamiliesalsobuildhousesonthesameplot of land.Theseunits(clusters of houses)areknownasbari(homestead).Anumber of bariconstituteahamlet(paraoradam).Anumber of hamletsmakeupagramorvillage.Thisisalsoknownasamouza,a"revenuevillage."Mosthousesarebuiltontheslopes of thehills,usuallynearstreamsorcanals.Bambooiswidelyusedinmakinghouses.Thepillarsaremade of bamboo(orwood);theplatform(abovetheground)andwallsarealso of bamboo.Theroofismadewithbambooandhemp.AveryfewChakmahavestartedusingtinformak-ingroofs.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theeconomyisbasedonagriculture.Chakmafarmersutilizethreedifferentmicroenvironments:flatlands,whichcanbeirrigated,slightlyhigherlands,whicharenotusuallyirrigated;andrela-tivelysteephighlands.Eachmicroenvironmentisutilizedforthecultivation of specificcrops.Intheirrigatedlowlands,theChakmagrowwetrice.Hereplowingisdonewithasinglemetal-bladewoodenplowdrawnbybullocksorwaterbuffalo.TheChakmawholearnedplowagriculturefromBengalisinthemid-nineteenthcenturygrowwetricetwiceayearonthesameland.Thecropisharvestedbyhandwiththehelp of sickles.OnslightlyhigherlandstheChakmacultivateavari-Chin67theresultingdangerousspiritsandmadeitpossibletosendthemasservantstotheLand of theDead.TheSouthernChinneverpracticedheadhunting.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheChin-Lushaitraditionalpantheoniscomplicated.Thereisgenerallyasomewhatremotecreatorgod,sometimeswithafemalecounterpart.SomesayhisrealmiscoextensivewiththeLand of theDead.Heisreveredasaremotefatherfigure,buthispowerconsistsonly of avagueabilitytoprotectoneagainstultimateadversity.Itisinthelight of thesecharacteristicsthatthetraditionalhighgodservedasasort of modeltowhichthe ... ChristianGod of themissionarieswasratherreadilyassimilated.TheChinbelievetheuniversetobepopulatedaswellbyallsorts of spirits;some of thembeinggreatanddeitylike;some of themresidinginother"worlds,"suchastheafterworld;some of themhav-ingdominionoverdomainslargeorsmall,locallyorelse-where;andsome of themappearingaswanderingghosts,de-mons,andlesspersonifiablebeings.Some of themostfearsome of thelastgrouparetheghosts of thosewhodiebyaccidentorviolence,fortheyareangryandvengeful(e.g.,theghosts of womenwhohavediedinchildbirthandcannotbemadetoleavefortheLand of theDead).Thecosmosisbasi-callydividedintotwoparts,thesky world (includingtheLand of theDead)andtheearth,butsincetherelationsbe-tweenthetwoareanasymmetricaldependency,therearetworoutesbetweenthem:oneupwardandonethroughthe"un-derworld"-thelatterambivalentlyassociatedwithdeathandalsowithprosperity,owingtothefactthatcropsgrowout of theground.Because of thisambiguity,Chinorigintalesoftensaythatthefirstpeoplecameatoneandthesametimeout of someholeorcaveandfromthesky world. ReligiousPractitioners.Mediums,generallywomen,whogointotrancesandfindoutwhichspiritsaredemandingwhatfromwhom,andforwhatoffense,andwhomayalsofindoutwherethesoul of anillorderangedpersonhaswandered,havebeenmentionedearlier.Thevillagepriestsandreciterswhoserveatprivatefeastsandcommunalsacrificeshavealsobeenmentioned.Theytendtobechieflyappointees,thoughonekindhastobefromacommonerlineage.Ceremonies.Feastsandcelebrationsoccurirregularly,wheneversomeonefindsitpossibleornecessarytogiveone:forinstance,whenonehaskilledamajorgameanimalorwhenonewishestomakeamoreelaboratehouse.Somevil-lageritestakeplaceonceineveryyearoronceeveryfewyears,dependinguponthearrangementwiththespiritinquestion.Othersuchritesareheldwhensomeplagueorcalamityseemstodemanditandamediumor ... sort of personiscalled,inLaiChin,mihraw-khrawlh,"onewhoisconstantlylookingforthemainchance."Socialization.Bothparentstakecare of infants,asdoeldersiblings of eithersex;itisnotraretoseeevenadistinguishedchiefwithababyinablanketonhisbackorachildcrawlingalloverhim,andachildcarryingababycarryinganevensmallerinfantisnotanunknownsight.MothersslapandCastes,Hindu57Castes,HinduThecastesystemisaform of hierarchical,kin-basedsocialor-ganization of greatantiquityfoundin South Asiansocieties.Theterm,fromthePortuguesecasta,isfrequentlycontrastedwithsuchothersocialcategoriesasrace,class,tribe,andeth-nicgroup.InIndia,caste-togetherwiththevillagecommu-nityandtheextendedfamily-formsthemainelement of so-cialstructure.Thissystemconsists of hierarchicallyarranged,in-marryinggroupsthatweretraditionallyassociatedwithaspecificoccupationalspecialization.Interrelationsbetweencastesaroseout of theneed of onecasteforthegoodsorserv-ices of another.Theserelationsaregovernedbycodes of pur-ityandpollution.Thewordcasteitselfishomologouswithany of threedif-ferentindigenousterms.Varna,whichwasanancient,all-Indiaclassificationsystemconsisting of afourfolddivision of society,perhapsaroseout of ablending of thenomadicwar-riorculture of Aryanswiththesettledurban,agrarianculture of theIndusValley.ThereligioustextRigVedaspellsoutandjustifiesthisstratificationsystem,puttingtheBrahmanorpriestatthetop,followedbytheKshatriyaorwarrior,Vaisyaorlandownerandtrader,andShudraorartisanandservant,inthatorder.Laterafifthvama of Untouchablesdeveloped,calledPanchama,toaccommodateintercasteoffspring.Thewordcastemayalsobecoterminouswiththewordjati,whichisahereditaryoccupationalunit.Hindutextssaythatjatis, of whichthereareseveralthousand,emergedout of intermar-riagesbetweenvamas.Modemtheoryholdsthatjatisdevel-opedasothersocialgroupsliketribesorthosepracticinganewcraftoroccupationalskillbecameintegratedintotheclassicvamasystem.Thisprocesscontinuestodayasgroupsonthefringes of Hindusocietybecomepart of itbyclaimingajatidesignation.Lastly,castemayrefertogotra,whichisanexogamousdescentgroupwithinajati.Itmaybeanchoredterritorially,anditsmembersmayholdpropertyincommon.Thecastesystemrestsonthefollowingprinciples.(1)Endogamy.Thestrictestrule of casteismarriagewithinthejati.Arrangedmarriageatadolescenceensuresthis.(2)Com-mensality.Castemembersarerestrictedtoeatinganddrink-ingonlywiththeirownkind.(3)Hereditarymembership.Oneisbornintothecaste of one'sparents.(4)Occupationalspecialization.Eachcastehasafixedandtraditionaloccupa-tion.Thismakesitaneconomicaswellasasocialsystem.Thisaspect of casteistheonethathasbeenaffectedmostbymodernizationandWesternization.(5)Hierarchy.Castesarearrangedinsomekind of order,eachcastebeingsuperiororinferiortoanother.Sincenotallcastesarefoundineveryvil-lageoreverypart of South Asia, andwhichoneissuperiortowhichothersvariesfromregiontoregion,hierarchyisthedy-namicelement of caste.Underpinningtheentiresystemarenotions of purityandpollution.WordsforthesetwoideasoccurineveryIndianlanguage.Eachtermhasacertainamount of semanticfluid-ity.Puremeans"clean,spirituallymeritorious,holy";impuremeans"unclean,defiled,"andeven'sinful."Thestructuraldistancebetweencastesismeasuredinterms of purityandpollution;highercastesarepureintheiroccupation,diet,andlife-style.Casterulesgovernintercasterelations,determiningthesocialandphysicaldistancethatpeople of differentcasteshavetomaintainfromeachotherandtheirrightsandobliga-tionstowardothers.Anequallyimportantfeature of casterankisthenotion of servingandbeingserved, of givingandreceiving.Castesmayberankedbythebalancebetweentheintercastetransactionsinwhichonecasteisagiverandthoseinwhichitisareceiver of goods,services,gifts,orpurelyspir-itualmerit.Theseemingcontradictionbetweenthepowerandposition of theBrahmanversusthat of thekingorthepo-liticallyandeconomicallydominantcastecanberesolvedinlight of thetransactionalaspect of caste,whichcreatesvariedrealms of differentiationandranking.Individualsaccepttheirpositioninthecastesystembe-cause of thedualconcepts of karmaanddharma.Itisone'skarmaoractionsinapreviouslifethatdetermineone'scastepositioninthislifetime.Theonlywaytoensureabetterposi-tioninsocietynexttimeistofollowone'sdharmaorcasteduty.Socloselyarenotions of salvationinHinduismtiedtocastedutythataHinduwithoutacasteisacontradictioninterms.Althoughanindividual'scasteisfixedbyhisorherbirth,theposition of acastewithinthesystemischangeable.Acasteasawholemayaccumulatewealththatwouldallowittogiveupmanuallaborandadopta"cleanerprofession,"therebyraisingtheircomparativepurity.Todaytheprocess of "Sanskritization,"inwhichalowercasteoratribalcommu-nityimitateshigh-castebehavior,isanattempttomoveupthecastehierarchy.Themostcommonchangesareswitchingtoavegetariandietandholdingpublicprayersusinghigh-casteformsandBrahmanpriests.IndailylifesecularizationandWesterneducationleadtoanundervaluing of casteiden-tityontheonehandandacompartmentalization of theselfontheother.Thelatterphenomenonoccurswhenanindi.vidualvaries...

... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M .O. I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M .O. I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M .O. I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryendof...

... isgovernedbyrepre-sentativeselectedbyuniversaladultfranchisewhoconstituteavidhansabha(legislativeassembly).Amajoritypartyformsthegovernment.Thehead of thestateisthegovernor,ap-pointedbythepresident of India.Thestategovernmenthasverywidepowersformaintaininglawandorder,levyingtaxes,andcarryingoutdevelopmentwork.Italsosharesresourceswiththeuniongovernment.Gandhinagaristhecapitalcity of thestate.Thestateisdividedinto19districts,whicharefurthersubdividedinto184talukas.Localself-governmentbyelectedrepresentativesfunctionsatvillage,taluka,anddis-trictlevelandalsointownsandcities.Thelocalgovernmentperformsfunctionsrelatedtopublicamenities,education,anddevelopment.Itraisesresourcesbylevyingtaxesandin.comefrompropertyandalsoreceivesaidgrantsfromthestategovernment.Industrialinvestmentisstronglyencouraged.SocialControl.Gujarattodayhastheusualinstitutions of astatepoliceforceandahierarchy of lawcourts,rangingfromthesubmagistrate'scourttothestatesupremecourt.InallcourtsthecentralwritistheIndianPenalCode.Butinaddi-tiontotheseinstitutions,whichwerefirstdevelopedundertheBritishadministration of theoldBombayPresidency,thereisalsoanindigenoussystem of casteandvillagecoun-cils.Thecastecouncilisfoundinanyvillageorsmalltownwherethenumbers of anyonecasteorcasteblocaresuffi-cienttowarrantit.Thiscouncilconsists of themaleheads of themostprominentfamiliesinthecaste,anditsfunctionistomaintainequanimitywithothercastesbyseeingthattradi-tionalpatterns of behavior(thecaste'sdharma)arefollowed.Finesandminorphysicalpunishmentmaybehandeddowntothosewhooffendagainstthesepatterns.Publichumilia-tion,suchasabeatingwithsandals,isausualpunishment.Thereisalsoavillagecouncil(grampanchayat)whichisGurung93greatestpercentage of theirpopulation of allthegroups),Magar,Tamang,Sunwar,Limbu,andRai.Gurkhasclaimde-scentfromthewarlikeRajputs of Chittaur,inRajasthan,say-ingtheyweredriventhencetotheNepalesehillsbytheMus-liminvasions.TheGurkhamilitarytraditioncanbetracedbacktothesixteenthcenturywhenthekingdom of Gorkhawasconqueredbythefirstkings of theShahThakuridynasty.Bytheend of theeighteenthcenturytheGurkhaKingdom,asitwasthenknown,hadexpandedcontrolovermuch of whatisnowNepalandhadbegunpushingnorthintoChinaandTibet.Expansion south intoIndiawasresistedbytheBrit-ish(whowereexpandingnorthward),butin1815theNepa-leseweredefeated.TheBritishwereimpressedbytheGurkhasandobtainedpermissiontorecruitthemfortheBritish-IndianArmy.Therecruitswereorganizedintoethnicregimentsandparticipatedwithdistinction(onthegovernmentside)intheIndianMutiny of 185 7-5 8,theSecondAfghanWar(187 8- 1880),andtheBoxerRebellion(1900).By1908the12,000GurkhaswereorganizedintotenregimentsastheGurkhaBrigade.During World WarIand World WarIIthenumber of Nepalesemilitaryvolunteersincreasedtomorethan200,000andadditionalunitswereformed.In1947theGurkhaBrigadewasdisbandedandsincethenvariousGurkhaunitshaveservedwiththeBritisharmy,theIndianarmy,theNepalarmy,andtheUnitedNationspeacekeepingforces.Today,theyaremainlyusedintheCrownColony of HongKong(whichwillreverttoChinain1997).WithBrit-ain'sintegrationintoEurope,Gurkhasarebeingphasedout of theBritisharmy.GurkhaveteransplayasignificantsocialandeconomicroleinNepalesesociety.Theyenjoyhighstatusandareoftenelectedcommunityleaders,andtheincomefromtheirpen-sionsprovidesasteadysource of cashfortheirfamiliesandcommunities.NepaleseworkinginIndiaaswatchmenarealsosometimesreferredtoasGurkha.SeealsoGurung;Limbu;Magar,Nepali;Rai;Sunwar;TamangBibliographyVansittart,Eden,andB.V.Nicolay(1915).Gurkhds.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Reprint.1985.NewDelhi:B.R.PublishingCorp.GurungETHNONYMS:noneOrientationIdentification.TheGurungsareapeopleinhabitingthefoothills of theHimalayasincentralNepal.Theiroriginsareuncertain,thoughlinguisticevidencesuggeststhattheiran-cestorsmayhavemigratedfromTibetabout2,000yearsago.Location.Themajority of Gurungvillagesarelocatedonmountainslopesatelevationsbetween1,050and2,100me-tersinthefoothills of theAnnapurnaandLamjungHimalayaandHimalchuliinNepalat28°0'to28°30'Nand83°30'to84°30'E.TowardtheHimalayanrange,therearewidegorgeswithtallcraggyridgesrisingabovethem.Thesearedottedwithvillages,sethighonthemountainsides.Oftentherewillbejungleaboveavillageandbelowitacascade of terracedfields.Wintersarecoldanddry,thoughitseldomfreezes.Monsoonrainscomefromthe south insummer.Tempera-turesrangefromabout0°to32°C."Gurungcountry"issitu-atedbetweentwodistinctecologicalzones,thealpinemoun-tainhighlandsandthelowsubtropicalvalleys.Likewiseitexistsbetweentwogreatculturalandsocialtraditions,Ti.betanBuddhismtothenorthandIndianHinduismtothe south. Demography.The1981Nepalcensusreported174,464GurungspeakersinNepal,makingup1.2percent of thecountry'stotalpopulation.Thesefiguresreflectasmallernumber of Gurungsthanactuallyexist,sincetheyindicateonlythosewhonamedGurungastheirmothertongueandnotallGurungsspeakthelanguage.ThecensusshowsGurungstobemostnumerousinthedistricts of Lamjung,Syangja,Kaski,Gorkha,Tanahu,Parbat,andMananginGandakiZone,centralNepal.LinguisticAffiliation.GurungbelongstotheTibeto-BurmanLanguageFamilyandresemblesotherlanguages of peoples of themiddlehills of Nepal,suchasThakaliandTamang.Ithasatonalstructureandnowrittenform.MostGurungsarebilingualandtendtobefluentfromchildhoodinNepali,theSanskriticlanguagethatisthelinguafranca of thenation.HistoryandCulturalRelationsGurunglegendsdescribea"GhaleRaja,"akingwhoruledtheGurungsinancienttimes.HewasoverthrownbytheNepaliraja of aneighboringprincipalityaboutthefifteenthcenturyAD.Bythesixteenthcentury,Khasakings of theShahfamilyhadconqueredmost of theprincipalitiesthatmakeuppres-ent-dayNepal.GurungsactedasmercenariesinKhasaar-mies,includingthose of PrithviNarayanShah,theancestor of thepresentking of Nepal,whocompletedunification of thekingdom of NepalwhenheconqueredtheKathmanduValleyin1769.Because of theirservice,Gurungsenjoyedrel-ativelyhighstatusinthenewkingdom.Theycontinuedtoactasmercenaries,andinthenineteenthcenturytheNepalesegovernmentsignedatreatyallowingtheBritisharmytore-cruitthemandotherhillpeoplesintotheGurkharegiments,inwhichtheycontinuetoserve.Beyondancientlegendanddocumentedrelationswiththenation-state(suchasmilitaryservice),littleisknownaboutthehistory of Gurungs.TheGurungsareneithergeographicallyisolatedfromothergroupsnorunaware of thesocialconventionsandcul-turalvalues of thepeoplesaroundthem.Theyareinvolvedintradingrelationswithmembers of neighboringethnicgroups,includingThakalisandTibetans,andhigh-casteHindumer-chantswhotravelthroughthevillagessellinghouseholdgoods.Gurungsalsohaveongoingpatron-clientrelationshipswithmembers of blacksmithandtailorservicecasteswholiveinhamletsattachedtoGurungvillages.Althoughinterethnic88GrasiatohavecomefromMewarmanycenturiesago,"andastheystillhavetheirinternal'Gots'orcircles of affinity(suchasParmars,Chouhan,Rathoi,etc.)uponthemodel of aregularclan,wemayperhapsassumethattheyarethedescendants of RajputsbyBhilwomen,"accordingtoP.C.Dave.InMaharashtraStatetheGrasiasareonthelist of ScheduledTribesas"Dungri-Grasias."TheGrasiasspeakadialect of theirownthatisclosetoBhili,withBhilibeingcloselyrelatedtoGujarati.SettlementsGrasiahousesarefoundontheslopes of hillswiththeirfieldsextendingoutinfront.Thehousesusuallyeachhaveoneroomandanopenverandawithwalls of mudorsplitbambooplasteredwithmud.TheroofsarecoveredwithhandmadeflattilesmadebytheGrasiasthemselves.Sometimes,though,thehouses of thepoormayhavegrassthatchingcoveringtheroofs.Aspecialshedforthecattleisoftenconstructedontheside of oroppositetothehouse,andoftenfodderisstoredontheroofs of thesesheds.Toshelterguests,aspecialshedwithatiledroofisbuiltoppositethehouse of theheadman.EconomyGrasiasaregenerallyvegetarianbuthavebeenknownocca-sionallytoenjoynonvegetarianfoods.Maizeisthefoodsta-ple,whichisgrownbyeveryGrasiawhohaslandforcultiva-tion.Itispreparedbycookingthecoarsemaizeflourwithbuttermilkandaddingsomesalttoit.Sometimesbreads of maizeflourarealsoprepared.WhenlittlewheatandmaizeareavailabletheGrasiasuseinferiorgrainlikekuro(Italianmil-let?)asasubstitute,andwhennecessaryjunglerootsandtu-bersareused.Menprimarilydotheworkthatrequiresthemostphysi-calstrength,suchasplowingandotheragriculturalwork,pre-paringfencesforthefields,construction of houses,felling of trees,andsomehouseholdworksuchaschurning of thecurdsforbutter.Womendothecooking,tendtothecattleandmilkthecows,buffalo,andgoats,bringdrinkingwater,grindgrain,etc.,andlookafterthechildren.Therearenoso-cialstigmasattachedtoeithermen'sorwomen'swork.Womenveiltheirfacesinthepresence of eldermalerelations of theirhusbands,buttheyaregenerallyfreetomoveaboutinsocietylikemenandarenotconsideredinferiortomen.Girlsshareasimilarfreedomwithboys.Oncetheyaregrownuptheyhavethefreedomtochoosetheirownhusbands.Thelargestsign of femalesocialoppressionisthatwomenaren'tallowedtoownpropertyontheirown,notevenifitwaslefttothembytheirfather.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyOnlyextremecircumstancessuchasabjectpoverty,debilitat-ingdisease,etc.keepGrasiamenandwomenfrommarrying,astheGrasiasbelievemarriageisanecessityforall.Boysmarrybetweentheages of 18and24,andgirlsbetween14and18.Theselection of amateusuallyiswithoutritualandinvolvesselectingaspouseandthenlivingtogetherwithoutanymarriageceremony.Thisarrangementmayvaryinsomeareasbecause of Hinduinfluence.Theonlyrestrictionsarethatthebride-pricemustbepaidandthatthemarriagecan-notbebetweencousins.Divorceoftenoccursiftheboydoesnotlikethegirl.Itiseasyandfreelypermitted.Thetermsnatra,ornata,refertowidowremarriage,whichisquitecommonandwhichinvolvesthehandingout of breadandjaggerytorelatives,andthemanmakingapay-ment of moneytothewidow'sfatherandprovidingtheneces-sarymarriageclothestothewidow.Polygynyoccursbutpolyandryisunknown,althoughmostGrasiamenmarryonlyonce.Because of thesocialstructurethatexistsit ... herdeceasedhusband.Socialization.Theambition of everyGondwomanistobearason.Barrennessinawomanisconsideredacurse.Preg-nancyandbirtharesurroundedwithprotectiveritesagainstmagicspellsandevilinfluences.Childrenaregenerallywel-comeandtreatedwithaffection.Althoughsonsarepreferred,daughtersarewelcometoo.Childrengrowupwithoutmuchrestriction,butthecommunityteachesthemcorrectbehav-ior.Childrenareearlyinvitedtotakeoversometasks,firstplayfully,theninearnest.Boysspontaneouslyseemtoprefermalecompany,whilegirlsseemtogravitatenaturallytowardotherfemales.Thechangetoadulthoodisgradual;thereisnoinitiationceremony.Thefirstmenstruation of agirlisnotspeciallycelebrated,butshedoeslearninadvancewhatpro-hibitionsshehastoobserve.OnlythreeGondsectionsinthe south haveyouthdormitories,andonlytheMuriasusethedormitoryfortheeducation of youthinmarriedandciviclife.TheotherGondsectionshavenodormitorysystem.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.SincetheGondsarespreadoverawidearea,therearemanylocalsubsectionsthathavenoso-cialcontactwitheachother.ThemoreSanskritizedthesesec-tionsare,thehigheristhesocialranktheyclaim.Butthehighestrankisgiventothedescendants of theGondrajasandtheirretainers,theRaj-GondsandKatholias.Amongthesetwosectionswefindthegreatestnumber of Gondswithsubstantiallandholdings.OtherGondsectionsoutside of GondavanaaretheKisans,inthe south of Biharandintheneighboringdistricts of Orissa.TheGondsreachedeventhehillsalongthesouthernbank of theGanges.TheretheyareknownasMajwarsorMajhis(headmen).AkintotheGondsareanumber of othertribes,suchastheBhattras,Koyas,KondaKapus,KondaDeras,andHalbas.TheKhonds of Orissa,anotherimportanttribe,alsomayoriginallyhavebeenGonds.PoliticalOrganization.TheentireGondtribewasneverapoliticalunit.Tribalsolidaritydoesnotextendbeyondtheconfines of asubsection.ThebasicpoliticalunitistheGondvillagecommunity.Itisademocraticorganizationinwhichtheheadmanandotherofficialsarechosenbythevillagers.Eachvillagehasitscouncil,withofficialsliketheheadman,thepriest,thevillagewatchman,andfourorfiveelders.Moreimportantaffairsarediscussedanddecideduponbyallthemen of thecommunity.Avillagehasalsoitsservantcastes,suchastheAhir(cowherds),Agaria(blacksmiths),Dhulia(drummers),andPardhan(bardsandsingers).Atthetowns of Garha-Mandla,Kharla,Deogarh,andChanda,theleadingheadmenmanagedtorisetotherank of rulers(rajas)andtoestablishdynastiesthatlastedforcenturies.ButtheveryfactthattheserajassurroundedthemselveswithHinduofficialsandeagerlyadoptedHinduorMogulmethods of administra-tionprovesthatroyaltywasalientotribaldemocracy.InthepresentpoliticalsituationtheGondsare,despitetheirnum-bers,politicallypowerless,whichispartlybecause of thistri-baldisunitybutalsobecause of theircomparativelack of edu-cationanddrive,andtheirgreatpoverty.ThosefewGondswhoaremembers of thelegislativeassembliesoreventhena-tionalparliament(LokSabha)areeitheralienatedfromtheirtribalcultureoreasilymanipulatedbyotherpoliticians.ConflictandSocialControl.Insettlingdisputesthecourt of firstinstanceisthevillagecouncil(panch),whichispre-sidedoverbytheheadman.Usuallyitstrivestorestorehar-monybetweenthelitigantsratherthantoimplementcus-tomarylaw.Asettlementcommonlyinvolvesafine,orex-communicationinvaryingdegrees.Thosewhooffendagainsttherule of clanexogamyincursupernaturalsanctions.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligion of theGondsdoesnotdif-fermuchfromthat of thenumerousothertribesincentralIndia.Likethem,theGondsbelieveinahighgodwhomtheycalleitherbyhisHinduname,"Bhagwan,"orbyhistribalname,"BaraDeo,"the"GreatGod."Butheisanotiosedeityandisrarelyworshiped,thoughhisnameisofteninvoked.Heisapersonalgod-eternal,just,merciful,maker of thefertileearthand of man-thoughtheuniverseisconceivedascoex-istingwithhim.IntheGondbeliefsystem,besidesthishighgodtherealsoexistagreatnumber of maleandfemaledeitiesandspiritsthatpersonifyvariousnaturalfeatures.Everyhill,river,lake,tree,androckisinhabitedbyaspirit.Theearth,water,andairareruledbydeitiesthatmustbeveneratedandappeasedwithsacrificesandofferings.Thesedeitiesandspir-itsmaybebenevolent,butoftentheyarecapricious,malevo-lent,andpronetoharminghumanbeings,especiallyindivid-ualswhohavemadethemselvesvulnerablebybreakingarule of thetribalcode.Thedeitiesandspirits,especiallytheances-torspirits,watchoverthestrictobservance of thetribalrulesandpunishoffenders.ReligiousPractitioners.Gondsdistinguishbetweenpriestsandmagicians.Thevillagepriestisappointedbythevillagecouncil;however,hisappointmentisoftenhereditary.Hisresponsibilityistoperformallthesacrificesheldatcer-tainfeastsforthevillagecommunityforwhichhereceivesaspecialremuneration.Sacrificesandreligiousceremoniesonfamilyoccasionsareusuallyperformedbythehead of thefamily.Thedivinersandmagicians,ontheotherhand,areunofficialcharismaticintermediariesbetweenthesupernat-ural world andhumanbeings.TheGonds,liketheothertri-bals of centralIndia,believethatmostdiseasesandmisfor-tunesarecausedbythemachinations of evilspiritsandoffendeddeities.Itisthetask of thesoothsayersanddivinerstofindoutwhichsupernaturalagencieshavecausedthepres-entsicknessormisfortuneandhowtheycanbeappeased.Ifsoothsayersanddivinerscannothelp,magiciansandsha-mansmustbeemployed.Magiciansbelievethatbymagicfor-mulasanddevicestheycanforceaparticulardeityorspirittocarryouttheircommands.Shamansarepersonswhoeasilyfallintotrancesandarethenbelievedtobepossessedbydei-tiesorspiritsthatprophesythroughtheirmouths.Thesefre-quentecstasiesdonotseemtohaveanydetrimentalmentalorphysicaleffectsontheshamans,whomaybemaleorfe-male.Magicmaybe"white"or"black":itiswhiteifitcoun-teractsblackmagicoreffectsacurewhenasicknesshasbeenGaro83thebeginningsilentbarterwaspossiblebecauseeachpartyunderstoodfromlonginvolvementtherespectivevalues of theirgoods.Thisprocesshascontinuedtothepresent,withincreasinginvolvement of tradersfromneighboringareas,andhasnowbecomefullymonetized.Cotton,ginger,anddriedchiliesproducedbytheGarosaresoldtothetraders.TheGarosinturnpurchasepottery,metallictools,andotherindustrialgoodssuchasclothfromthetraders.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbetweenmembers of thehouseholdisasfollows:themalesareresponsibleforclearingjungleandsettingfiretothedebrisforshiftingculti-vation,whilewomenareresponsibleforplanting,weeding,andharvesting.Duringthepeak of theagriculturalopera-tionsthemensometimeshelpthewomen.Constructionandrepair of thehousearemaleduties.Menmakebaskets,whilewomencarrycropsfromthefieldandfirewoodfromjungle.Womenlookafterthekitchenandpreparebeer,andmenservethebeertoguests.Womenrearthechildrenandkeepthedomesticanimals.Bothmenandwomensellfirewoodandvegetablesinthemarket.LandTenure.Landforshiftingcultivationisownedbytheclan.Eachvillagehasatraditionallydemarcatedarea of itsowntermedadok.Thisareaissubdividedintoplotsthatareusedforcultivationinacyclicorder.Theplotsaredistrib-utedtothefamilies.Allotment of thegeneralplotsisdonebycommonconsensus of thevillageelders,buttheflatareaforpermanentwetcultivationisownedbyindividuals.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGarosreckontheirkinshipthroughthemother.Individualsmeasurethedegree of theirrelationshiptooneanotherbythedistance of theirmatrilin-eages.Formen,children of theirsistersorsisters'daughtersareveryimportantkin.Forwomen,children of theirsisters'daughtersareequivalenttothose of theirowndaughters.KinshipTerminology.ThekinshiptermsusedbytheGarosformaset,whichisbroadenoughsothateachGarocanbeassignedaterm.Thetermsarearrangedinasystemthatclassifiesthekin.Thisclassificationisbasedonnineprinciples,asfollows:(1)sex,(2)generation,(3)relativeage,(4)moietymembership,(5)collaterality,(6)inheritance,(7)type of wife,(8)intimacy of relationship,(9)speaker'ssex.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Descentismatrilineal,residenceuxorilocal.Themother'sbrother'sdaughtertype of cross-cousinmar-riageisthemostwidelyacceptedandprevalentamongthepeople.Itisarigidcustomthatamanmustmarryawomanfromtheoppositechatchi(moiety).Therule of chatchiexogamystipulatesthataman'smother'sfatherwillbeintheoppositechatchiandaman'swife'spotentialhusbandswillbeinhisownchatchi.Aftermarriageamankeepsuphisrela-tionwithhismachong(clan).Hisrelationwithreferencetohiswife'smachongisdesignatedasgachi.Marriageestab-lishesapermanentrelationbetweentwomachong,knownasakim.Aftermarriage,amalemovestotheresidence of hiswife.Inthecase of anokrom(husband of theheiress of prop-erty),marriagedoesnotcreateanewhouseholdbutratheraddsanewleaseonlifetoanoldhousehold.Evenafterthedeathordivorce of aspousetheakimrelationcontinues.Itistheresponsibility of thedeceased'smachongtoprovideare-placementspousetothesurvivingpartner.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdistheprimaryproductionandconsumptionunit.AGarohouseholdcomprisesparents,unmarriedsonsanddaughters,amarrieddaughter(heiress),andherhusbandandtheirchildren.Inprincipleamarriedgranddaughterandherchildrenshouldbeincluded,butinre.alitygrandparentsrarelysurvivetoseetheirgrandchildrenmarried.Somehouseholdsmay-forshortperiodsonly-includedistantrelativesornonrelatedpersonsforvariousreasons.Inheritance.PropertyamongtheGarosisinheritedinthefemaleline.One of thedaughtersisselectedbytheparentstobetheheiress.Ifthecouplehavenofemalechild,agirlbe-longingtothemachong of thewife(preferablythedaughter of hersister,whetherrealorclassificatory)isadoptedtobeanheiress.Sheisnotconsideredtobetheabsoluteowner of theproperty.Decisionaboutthedisposal of propertyistakenbyherhusband,whoisconsideredtobethehouseholdauthority(nokniskotong).Afterthedeath of thefather-in-lawresponsi-bilitytransferstotheson-in-law.Ifadeadmanissurvivedbyawidow,shestaysinthefamily of herdaughterandissome-timesreferredtoasanadditionalwife(Uk) of herdaughter'shusband.Socialization.Childrenstarthelpingtheirmothertolookaftertheinfantswhentheirmotherisbusywithwork.Todaytherearedifferenteducationalinstitutions-namely,themis-sionschoolsandotherIndianestablishments-thatactasmajoragents of education.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InGarosocietythemostimportantsocialgroupisthemachong(clan).Amachongisanexoga-mousmatrilinealdescentgroupwhereinaGaroisautomati-callyassignedbybirthtotheunilinealgroup of hismother.Achatchi(moiety)isdividedintomanymachong.Eachmar-riedcouplechoosesonedaughter-or,iftheyhavenone,theyadoptacloserelative of themother-tobeheiress(noknadongipikamechik) of thefamily.Herhusbandtradi-tionallyisselectedfromthelineagegroup of thefatherandisacceptedasthenokrom of thehouse.Heresideswithhiswifeinherparents'house.Hehastotakeontheresponsibility of lookingafterhisparents-in-lawduringtheiroldage,andhiswifeinheritstheproperty.PoliticalOrganization.Traditionally,theGaroswerenotapoliticallyorganizedsociety,andeventodaythereexistsnoclear-cutpoliticalstructure.Chieftainshipinvolvesreligiousfunctionsonly.SocialControl.Thekinshipsystem,thekinshipbond,andtherelatedvaluesystemactasaneffectivemeans of socialcontrol.Formerlythebachelors'dormitorieswereimportantagents of socialcontrol.Conflict.AmongtheGarosmostdisputesariseovertheis-sues of property,inheritance,anddomesticquarrelswithinthefamily.Suchproblemsaretoalargeextentsettledbythemahari(lineage) of theoffendedandtheoffender.Anewsit-uationdevelopswhensomeone'scattlecausedamagetoan-other'scrops.Insuchasituationthenokma(villagehead-man)actsasanintermediaryonly.IfhefailstosettletheGurung95PoliticalOrganization.Until1962theGurungvillagesweregovernedbyhereditaryclanleadersandvillagehead-men.In1962thenationalgovernmentinstitutedanelectoralsystemwherebyvillagesaregroupedtogetherinunits of five,calledpanchayats,anddividedintoneighborhoodsorwardsfromwhichlocalcouncillorsareelected.Theelectoratealsochoosesapradhanpancheanduperpradhan(likeamayorandvicemayor,respectively)toleadthepanchayat.SocialControl.Gossipandfear of witchattackarecom-monmeans of socialcontrol.Thelocalcouncilisabletolevyfinesagainstpanchayatresidents,andforseriouscrimesgov-ernmentpolicemaybecalledin.Conflict.Disputesareoftenresolvedbyelderstrustedbythepartiesinvolved.Ifthisdoesnotprovideasolutionthentheymaybebroughtbeforethevillagecouncilor,asalastre-sort,tothedistrictcourt.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGurungspracticeaform of TibetanBuddhismstronglyinfluencedbythepre-Buddhistreligion of Tibet,andtheyalsoobservemajorHindufestivals,suchasDasain.Theybelieveinsometenets of BuddhismandHindu-ism,suchaskarma,yettheyhaveaset of beliefsaboutanaf-terlifeintheLand of theAncestorsandinlocaldeitiesthatarepeculiarlyGurung.Gurungsbelievetheirlocaletobein-habitedbysupernaturalforestcreaturesandbyavariety of formlesswraithsandspirits.Some of theseexistinand of themselves,whileothersarebelievedtobethespirits of hu-manswhohavediedviolentdeaths.GurungsbelieveinthemajorHindudeitiesandintheBuddhaandbodhisattvas.Particularvillageshavetheirowndeities,whicharefelttobeespeciallypowerfulintheirimmediatesurroundings.ReligiousPractitioners.Practitioners of thepre-BuddhistGurungreligion,calledpanjuandklihbri,areactiveintheperformance of exorcismsandmortuaryrites.Buddhistlamasarealsoimportantinfuneraryrituals,aswellasperformingpurificationritesforinfantsandsomeseasonalagriculturalrituals.WealthierGurungsoccasionallycalllamasintoper-formhouse-blessingceremonies.Brahmanpriestsaresum-monedtocasthoroscopesandperformdivinationsattimes of misfortune.Dammisfromthelocalservicecastesarebelievedtobeparticularlypotentexorcistsandareoftencalledincases of illness.Arts.Gurungsmakenothingthattheywouldidentifyasart.Thegoodsthattheyproduce,suchasbasketsandblan-kets,areusefulandtendtobe of aconventionalplaindesign.Theartistry of Gurungsisexpressedintheirfolkmusicanddanceandespeciallyintheevanescentform of songex-changesbetweenyoungmenandwomen.Medicine.Gurungsoftenemployexorcistsaswellassci-entificdrugswhensufferingfromanillness.Scientificmedi-cineishighlyvalued,butitiscostlyandisnoteasilyavailableinruralareas.Herbsandplantsarealsousedintreatingill-nessandinjury.DeathandAfterlife.Deathis of centralsymbolicimpor-tanceforGurungs.Thefuneraryritual(pae)isthemaincere-monialoccasioninGurungsociety,involvingtwonightsandthreedays of ritualactivity.Itisattendedbykin,villagers,andalargenumber of peoplewhocomefortheconvivialityandspectacle.Buddhistlamasandthepanjuandklihbripriests of thepre-Buddhistreligionmayofficiateatthepae.Deathisbelievedtoinvolvethedissolution of elementsthatmakeupthebody,sothattheearthelementreturnstoearth,airtoair,firetofire,andwatertowater.Thisprocessleavestheplahorsouls(nineformenandsevenforwomen),whichmustbesentthroughtheperformance of thepaetotheLand of theAncestors.Therelifecontinuesmuchasitdoesinthepresent world, andfromtherethespiritcantakeotherrebirths.SeealsoGurkha;NepaliBibliographyMacfarlane,Alan(1976).ResourcesandPopulation:AStudy of theGurungs of Nepal.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Messerschmidt,DonaldA.(1976).TheGurungs of Nepal.Warminister:Aris&Phillips.Pignede,Bernard(1966).LesGurungs:UnePopulationhinalayenneduNepal.TheHague:Mouton.ERNESTINEL.McHUGH82GaroHajong,theKoch,theRabha,theDalau,andtheBanaiswhoresideontheadjacentplains of theneighboringdistrict.Thereremainsanobscurityabouttheorigin of theword"Garo."Theyareknownas"Garos"tooutsiders;buttheGarosalwaysdesignatethemselvesas"Achik"(hillmen).TheGarosaredividedintoninesubtribes:theAwe,Chisak,Matchi-Dual,Matabeng,Ambeng,Ruga-Chibox,Gara-Gan.ching,Atong,andtheMegam.Thesearegeographicsub-tribes,buttheyarealsodialectalandsubculturalgroups.Ac-cordingtotheirbeliefsandreligion,theGarosaredividedintothe"Songsarek"(thosewhofollowindigenousbeliefsandpractices)andtheChristians.Location.ThetwoGaroHillsdistrictsaresituatedbe-tween25°9'and26°1'Nand89°49'and91°2'E,coveringanarea of 8,000squarekilometers.ThedistrictsborderBangla-deshonthe south andwestandAssamonthenorth.Hillscovermost of thedistrict,withsomeadjacentfringes of plainsborderingthemonsoonarea,producingthickvegetationonthehills.Thereareanumber of hillystreamsandrivers;ex-ceptfortheSimsangRiver,whichformsawidefloodplain,noneisnavigable.Demography.Accordingtothecensus of Indiafor1971,Garosnumbered342,474.ChristianGaroswere54.3percent of thetotalGaropopulation;nowtheymaybemorethan60percent of thetotalGaropopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.AccordingtoSirGeorgeGrierson'sclassificationinTheLinguisticSurvey of India,GarobelongstotheBodoSubsection of theBodo-NagaSection,undertheAssam-BurmaGroup of theSino-TibetanorTibeto-BurmanLanguageFamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThereremainsnorecord of whentheGarosmigratedandset-tledintheirpresenthabitat.Theirtraditionallore,asre-cordedbyA.Playfair,indicatesthattheymigratedtotheareafromTibet.Thereisevidencethattheareawasinhabitedbystone-usingpeoples-PaleolithicandNeolithicgroups-inthepast.Aftersettlinginthehills,Garosinitiallyhadnocloseandconstantcontactwiththeinhabitants of thead-joiningplains.In177 5-1 776theZamindars of MechparaandKaraibari(atpresentintheGoalparaandDhuburidis.tricts of Assam)ledexpeditionsintotheGarohills.ThefirstcontactwithBritishcolonialistswasin1788,andtheareawasbroughtunderBritishadministrativecontrolintheyear1873.SettlementsThepopulationinaGarovillagemayrangefrom20to1,000persons.Thepopulationdensitytendstodecreaseasonemovestowardtheinteriorareasfromtheurbanareas of thedistricts.Villagesarescatteredanddistantfromoneanotherintheinteriorareas.Thesevillagesaregenerallysituatedonthetop of hillocks.Thehousesarebuilt,togetherwithgrana-ries,firewoodsheds,andpigsties,onpilesaroundtheslope of thehillock,usinglocallyavailablebamboo,wood,grass,etc.Theapproachtotherectangularhouseisalwaysbuiltfacingtheleveledsurface of thetop,whiletherearpart of thehouseremainshorizontaltotheslope.Nowadaysnewpile-typebuildingsusingwoodandironasmajorcomponentsarebeingmadeinsometraditionalvillagesalso.Inaddition,buildingssimilartothose of theneighboringplainsareconstructed.Thevillagesmayremaindistantfromagriculturalfields(hum).Inordertoguard ... asamoregeneralizedorganizingprincipleinGurungsociety.Descentinterms of rightstolineagere-sourcesandclanaffiliationispatrilineal,butdescentthroughthemother'slineinfluencesmarriagepossibilitiesandpro-hibitions.KinshipTerminology.TheGurungshaveawidearray of kinterms,whicharehighlydifferentiatedandprecise.Birthorderandrelativeageareimportantmatricesinthestructure of Gurungkinship.KintermsareusedfornearlyeveryonewithwhomGurungsinteract;unrelatedpersonsareassignedafictiveterm.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriageandchildbearingareimportanttotheassumption of fulladultstatusforGurungs.Marriagesarear-rangedwhendaughtersareintheirmid-tolateteensandsonsintheirlateteenstotwenties.Inpreviousgenerationstheageatmarriageforgirlswasearlier,fromabout9to13.AmongGurungs,cross-cousinmarriageispreferred.Thecat-egory of crosscousinisbroad,includingalargenumber of classificatoryrelatives.Residenceispatrilocal,withaprefer-enceforvillageexogamy.Divorcecanbeinitiatedbyeitherthemanorthewoman.Bride-wealthintheform of goldjew-elryisgiventothebrideatmarriage.Ifthehusbandinitiatesadivorcewithoutduecomplaint,suchasadultery,thewifehastherighttokeepthebride-wealth.However,ifthewifecausesorinitiatesthedivorcesheisrequiredtoreturnthebride-wealthtoherhusband.DomesticUnit.AmongGurungs,thedomesticunitchangesovertime.Ahouseholdwillbeginasanuclearfamily,and,assonsreachadulthoodandmarry,theirbridescomeintotheparentalhomeandremaintherewhiletheirfirstoneortwochildrenaresmall.Thedomesticunitisthenanextendedfamilyforaperiod of fivetotenyears.Astheson'schildrengrow,hewillbuildaseparateresidence,usuallynexttothat of hisparents.Inheritance.ResourcesaredistributedequallyamongsonsinGurungsociety.Ifthereisnoson,adaughtercanin-herit,andtheson-in-lawwillcometoresideinthehousehold of hisparents-in-law.Thepatrimonymaybedividedpriortothedeath of thefather.Inthatcase,thefathercanreserveasmallportion.AlthoughitrunscontrarytoGurungcustom,Nepaleselawspecifiesthatunmarriedadultdaughtersshouldinheritashare of familyproperty.Socialization.Childrenaretaughttobeobedientandre-spectful of elders.Theylearnbyimitationandtheactiveen-couragement of theolderchildren,whooftencareforsmallerones.Corporalpunishmentisoccasionallyused,andunrulychildrenmaybeisolatedbriefly.Moreoftenchildrenarecoaxedtowardgoodbehaviorandinstructedthroughstoriesaboutpossiblesocialandsupernaturalconsequences of badbehavior.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Gurungsocietyisorganizedintotwotiersorsubgroupscalledthe"CharJat"or"fourclans"andthe"SoraJat"or"sixteenclans."Thesubgroupsareendoga-mousandwithinsubgroupseachclanisexogamous.TheCharJatgrouphastraditionallyclaimedsuperiorstatustotheSoraJatgroup.Clanswithineachsubgroupintermarryandotherwisetreatoneanotherasequals.Grasia87causedbyblackmagic.Gondsalsobelieveintheevileyeandinwitchcraft.Awitchisusuallyawomanwhobyherevilpowerbringssicknessanddeathtopeopleintheneighbor-hood.Whendiscovered,sheispubliclydisgracedandex-pelledfromthevillageorevenkilled.Ceremonies.TheGondscelebratemanyfeastsconnectedmainlywiththeagriculturalseasonsandwithlife-cycleevents(birth,marriage,sickness,anddeath).Onallfestiveocca-sionssacrificesandofferingsareperformedeitherbytheoffi-cialvillagepriest,bythesoothsayersandmagicians,orbythehead of thefamilythatiscelebratinganevent.Allthesesacri-ficesareaccompaniedbyappropriateceremonies of symbolicsignificance.Theofferingsandsacrificescanbeeitheranimalorvegetable;itdependsonthetype of deitybeingaddressed.Femaledeitiesgenerallydemandthatbloodbespilled;thevictimsareusuallychickensorgoats,sometimesmalebuffalo,and,occasionallyinthepast,humanbeings.Vegetableoffer-ingsincludefruits(especiallycoconuts),flowers,coloredpowder,andstrings.Arts.Likemosttribals,theGondsareaccomplishedarti-sansandcanmanufacturealmostalltheimplementstheyre-quirefortheirworkonthefarmandintheforest,allfurnitureinhouseandkitchen,andall of theirornamentsanddecora-tions.Theyareartisticallygifted:theypainttheirhousewallswithartisticdesigns,andtheycarvememorialpillarsinwoodandstonefortheirdead.Theyhaveinventedvariousoriginaldancesandarepassionatedancers.Theyaregoodmusiciansonthedrum,theflute,andotherinstruments.Theyaregoodsingers,thoughthemelodies of theirsongssometimessoundmonotonousandmaynotbe of theirowninvention.Theyareinventiveincomposingnewsongs,folktales,legends,andmythsandinretellingthemdramatically.Theyhavecom-posedagreatepiccelebratingtheoriginsandexploits of acul-tureheronamedLingo.Medicine.TheGondsarefullyawarethatcertaindiseaseshaveanaturalcause,andtheyknowmanyjunglemedicinestocuresuchdiseases.Butwhentheseremediesremaininef-fective,theyresorttomagicaldevices.DeathandAfterlife.AfterdeathanadultGondmanorwomaniscremated;childrenareburiedwithoutmuchcere-mony.Ceremoniesareperformedatthefuneraltopreventthesoul of thedeceasedfromfindingitswaybacktoitshouseandvillage.TheGondsbelieveinanafterlife.Theybelieveeachhumanbeinghastwosouls,thelifespiritandtheshadow.Theshadowmustbepreventedfromreturningtoitshome,oritwillharmthesurvivingrelatives.ThelifespiritgoestoBhagwantobejudgedandrewardedbyreincarnationintoahigherformorpunishedinapool of bitingworms;afterawhilethesoulisrebornandbeginsanewlife.Othersbelievethatthesouljoinstheotherancestors of theclan,especiallyafterastonememorialhasbeenerected.StillothersbelievethatthesoulisabsorbedinBhagwanorBaraDeo.Thebeliefinthesurvival of theancestralspiritsis,however,quitestrong.Theseancestorspiritswatchoverthemoralbehavior of thelivingGondandpunishoffenders of triballaw.Thustheyactasstrictguardians of theGondcommunity.SeealsoAgaria;Ahir;Baiga;Kond;KoyaBibliographyElwin,Verrier(1943).MariaMurderandSuicide.London:OxfordUniversityPress.2nded.1950.Elwin,Verrier(1944).TheMuriaandTheirGhotul.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Fuchs,Stephen(1960).TheGondandBhumia of EasternMandla.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.2nded.1968.Bombay:NewLiteraturePublishingCo.Fiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1948).TheAboriginalTribes of Hyderabad.Vol.3,TheRajGonds of Adilabad.Lon-don:Macmillan.Fiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon,andElizabethvonFilrer-Haimendorf(1979).TheGonds of AndhraPradesh:TraditionandChangeinanIndianTribe.NewDelhi:VikasPublishingHouse.Grigson,William(1938).TheHillMarias of Bastar.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Russell,RV.,andHiraLal(1916).'Gond."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India.Vol.3,3 8-1 43.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Ooster-hout:AnthropologicalPublications.Singh,Indrajit(1944).TheGondwanaandtheGond.Luck-now:UniversityPublishers.STEPHENFUCHSGrasiaETHNONYMS:Bhil-GrasiaBhomia,Dungri-Grasia,Gara,Garasia,GirisiaOrientationTheterm"Grasia"referstotheRajputandotherlandholdersinsections of GujaratandRajasth,wheretheyholdlandsgiventothemasgaras(landlords)bythechieftainsformain-tenance.Itissaidthattheterm'Grasia"isderivedfromthenativetermfor"landlords."TheGrasiasaretheprincipalin-habitants of theBhakkarsection of PakistaniPunjab,andalso of parts of KachchhDistrict,inGujarat.SirJohnMalcolmnotedthattheterm"Girasias"denotes"chiefswhoweredrivenfromtheirpossessionsbyinvadersandestab-lishedandmaintainedtheirclaimtoashare of therevenueupontheground of theirpowertodisturborpreventitscol-lection."ThewordcanbederivedfromtheSanskritgiras,whichsignifies"mouthful,"andinthepastitwasusedmeta-phoricallytodesignatethesmallshare of theproduce of thecountrythattheseplunderersclaimed.TheGrasiasaresaid92Gujaratiheadedbythevillageheadman(patel)andcontainsleadingrepresentatives of each of thecastegroups.Itsfunctionispartlytoconductformalcommunityaffairs,suchasseason-alfestivals,andpartlytoresolveintercastedisputesandoffenses.Conflict.Becausetherehasbeenlittlelaborunrestinre-centtimes,Gujarathasbecomearelativelyprosperousstate.Publiclifehashoweverbeenmarredbyseveralriotsledbyupper-castestudents,inprotestagainstthegovernmentpol-icy of reservingplacesinthecollegesforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes.ReligionandExpressiveCultureGujaratiHindusaredividedintoalargenumber of religioussects.Therearetwobroadcategories:thosewhoworshiponeoracombination of some of thegreatVedicdeitiesor of thePuranicaccretionstotheorthodoxpantheon;andthosewhodenytheregulardeitiesandprohibitidolworship.TheformeraretheShaivites,ShaktasorDeviBhaktas,Vaishnavites,andthefollowers of minordeities.ThelatterbelongtotheAryaSamaj,KabirPanthi,andothersuchfairlymodernsects.Thesesectsarenotmutuallyexclusive.ReligiousBeliefs.AGujaratiHinduattachesthegreatestimportancetobathing.Heorsheobservesfastsonceaweekandeveryeleventhdayinafortnight.AGujaratiHindube-lievesinHeaven,Hell,andthetransmigration of thesoul.Onehopestobetterone'spositioninthisandthelifetocomebyone'sdevotiontoGod,bydan(charity),andbydaya(mercytowardfellowhumanbeingsandcows,etc.).GujaratiJains,thoughfewinnumber,occupyanimportantplaceinGujaratisocietyandtheeconomy.Jainismrejectstheauthor-ity of theVedasandthespiritualsupremacy of theBrahmans.Thehighestgoal of Jainismisnirvanaormoksha,thesettingfree of theindividualfromthesanskara,thecycle of birthanddeath.TheJainsaredividedintotwosects,DigambarisandSvetambaris.ThecowisworshipedandconsideredsacredbyHindus.Besidesworshipingvariousidols,anaverageHinduworshipsanimals,trees,fire,etc.andbelievesinbhuts(pos-sessingspirits).Beliefinomensisalsocommon.Hindusbe-lievethattheresult of everyundertakingisforeshadowedbycertainsignsandhints.ReligiousPractitioners.Thelife-cycleceremoniesareper-formedbyBrahmans.Wanderingholymen,however,arere.veredirrespective of theircaste,religion,ororigin.Gujaratisalsopatronizemenwhohaveareputationforbeingabletoridtheindividual of bhuts.Ceremonies.Ceremoniesareperformedatbirth,mar-riage,anddeathwhenrelativesareinvitedforfeasts.Amongtheimportantfestivalsare:Diwali,thefestival of lamps;Hindunewyear'sday,whichisthenextdayafterDiwali;UtranorSankrant,afestival of theharvest;andNavratra,afestival of the"ninenights"involvingafolkdancecalledGarba.Arts.RasandGarbaareimportantfolkdancesperformedbybothmalesandfemales.Melas,fairseitheratpilgrimageplacesoronthebank of ariverduringcertainfestivals,attractalargecrowdwherepeopledance,sing,andwatchbullfightsorcockfights.Bhavaiisapopularfolkdrama,generallyper-formedinopenspacesinvillagesandtowns.Woodandstonesculpturesdecoratingtemples,palaces,andprivatebuildingsarewellknown.Paintingscalledsathiaandrangoli,donebyusingpowderedchalk,aremadebywomenatthethreshold of theirhousesforfestivalsandotherceremonies.Thecalicoprinting of Gujaratisfamous.TattooingiscommonamongcertaincastesinSaurashtraandnorthGujarat.Medicine.Traditionally,diseasewasbelievedtobecausedbyanimbalance of elementsinthebody,aswell...