CHAPTER 8 APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION 177 7. Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan once introduced a bill that would levy a 10,000 percent tax on certain hollow- tipped bullets. a. Do you expect that this tax would raise much revenue? Why or why not? b. Even if the tax would raise no revenue, what might be Senator Moynihan’s reason for proposing it? 8. The government places a tax on the purchase of socks. a. Illustrate the effect of this tax on equilibrium price and quantity in the sock market. Identify the following areas both before and after the imposition of the tax: total spending by consumers, total revenue for producers, and government tax revenue. b. Does the price received by producers rise or fall? Can you tell whether total receipts for producers rise or fall? Explain. c. Does the price paid by consumers rise or fall? Can you tell whether total spending by consumers rises or falls? Explain carefully. (Hint: Think about elasticity.) If total consumer spending falls, does consumer surplus rise? Explain. 9. Suppose the government currently raises $100 million through a $0.01 tax on widgets, and another $100 million through a $0.10 tax on gadgets. If the government doubled the tax rate on widgets and eliminated the tax on gadgets, would it raise more money than today, less money, or the same amount of money? Explain. 10. Most states tax the purchase of new cars. Suppose that New Jersey currently requires car dealers to pay the state $100 for each car sold, and plans to increase the tax to $150 per car next year. a. Illustrate the effect of this tax increase on the quantity of cars sold in New Jersey, the price paid by consumers, and the price received by producers. b. Create a table that shows the levels of consumer surplus, producer surplus, government revenue, and total surplus both before and after the tax increase. c. What is the change in government revenue? Is it positive or negative? d. What is the change in deadweight loss? Is it positive or negative? e. Give one reason why the demand for cars in New Jersey might be fairly elastic. Does this make the additional tax more or less likely to increase government revenue? How might states try to reduce the elasticity of demand? 11. Several years ago the British government imposed a “poll tax” that required each person to pay a flat amount to the government independent of his or her income or wealth. What is the effect of such a tax on economic efficiency? What is the effect on economic equity? Do you think this was a popular tax? 12. This chapter analyzed the welfare effects of a tax on a good. Consider now the opposite policy. Suppose that the government subsidizes a good: For each unit of the good sold, the government pays $2 to the buyer. How does the subsidy affect consumer surplus, producer surplus, tax revenue, and total surplus? Does a subsidy lead to a deadweight loss? Explain. 13. (This problem uses some high school algebra and is challenging.) Suppose that a market is described by the following supply and demand equations: Q S = 2P Q D = 300 Ϫ P a. Solve for the equilibrium price and the equilibrium quantity. b. Suppose that a tax of T is placed on buyers, so the new demand equation is Q D = 300 Ϫ (P ϩ T). Solve for the new equilibrium. What happens to the price received by sellers, the price paid by buyers, and the quantity sold? c. Tax revenue is T ϫ Q. Use your answer to part (b) to solve for tax revenue as a function of T. Graph this relationship for T between 0 and 300. d. The deadweight loss of a tax is the area of the triangle between the supply and demand curves. Recalling that the area of a triangle is 1/2 ϫ base ϫ height, solve for deadweight loss as a function of T. Graph this relationship for T between 0 and 300. (Hint: Looking sideways, the base of the deadweight loss triangle is T, and the height is the difference between the quantity sold with the tax and the quantity sold without the tax.) e. The government now levies a tax on this good of $200 per unit. Is this a good policy? Why or why not? Can you propose a better policy? IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL . . . Examine the arguments people use to advocate trade restrictions Learn that the gains to winners from international trade exceed the losses to losers Consider what determines whether a country imports or exports a good Examine who wins and who loses from international trade Analyze the welfare effects of tariffs and import quotas If you check the labels on the clothes you are now wearing, you will probably find that some of your clothes were made in another country. A century ago the textiles and clothing industry was a major part of the U.S. economy, but that is no longer the case. Faced with foreign competitors that could produce quality goods at low cost, many U.S. firms found it increasingly difficult to produce and sell textiles and clothing at a profit. As a result, they laid off their workers and shut down their fac- tories. Today, much of the textiles and clothing that Americans consume are im- ported from abroad. The story of the textiles industry raises important questions for economic pol- icy: How does international trade affect economic well-being? Who gains and who loses from free trade among countries, and how do the gains compare to the losses? APPLICATION: INTERNATIONAL TRADE 179 180 PART THREE SUPPLY AND DEMAND II: MARKETS AND WELFARE Chapter 3 introduced the study of international trade by applying the princi- ple of comparative advantage. According to this principle, all countries can bene- fit from trading with one another because trade allows each country to specialize in doing what it does best. But the analysis in Chapter 3 was incomplete. It did not explain how the international marketplace achieves these gains from trade or how the gains are distributed among various economic actors. We now return to the study of international trade and take up these questions. Over the past several chapters, we have developed many tools for analyzing how markets work: supply, demand, equilibrium, consumer surplus, producer surplus, and so on. With these tools we can learn more about the effects of international trade on economic well-being. THE DETERMINANTS OF TRADE Consider the market for steel. The steel market is well suited to examining the gains and losses from international trade: Steel is made in many countries around the world, and there is much world trade in steel. Moreover, the steel market is one in which policymakers often consider (and sometimes implement) trade restric- tions in order to protect domestic steel producers from foreign competitors. We ex- amine here the steel market in the imaginary country of Isoland. THE EQUILIBRIUM WITHOUT TRADE As our story begins, the Isolandian steel market is isolated from the rest of the world. By government decree, no one in Isoland is allowed to import or export steel, and the penalty for violating the decree is so large that no one dares try. Because there is no international trade, the market for steel in Isoland consists solely of Isolandian buyers and sellers. As Figure 9-1 shows, the domestic price ad- justs to balance the quantity supplied by domestic sellers and the quantity de- manded by domestic buyers. The figure shows the consumer and producer surplus in the equilibrium without trade. The sum of consumer and producer surplus measures the total benefits that buyers and sellers receive from the steel market. Now suppose that, in an election upset, Isoland elects a new president. The president campaigned on a platform of “change” and promised the voters bold new ideas. Her first act is to assemble a team of economists to evaluate Isolandian trade policy. She asks them to report back on three questions: ◆ If the government allowed Isolandians to import and export steel, what would happen to the price of steel and the quantity of steel sold in the domestic steel market? ◆ Who would gain from free trade in steel and who would lose, and would the gains exceed the losses? ◆ Should a tariff (a tax on steel imports) or an import quota (a limit on steel imports) be part of the new trade policy? CHAPTER 9 APPLICATION: INTERNATIONAL TRADE 181 After reviewing supply and demand in their favorite textbook (this one, of course), the Isolandian economics team begins its analysis. THE WORLD PRICE AND COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE The first issue our economists take up is whether Isoland is likely to become a steel importer or a steel exporter. In other words, if free trade were allowed, would Isolandians end up buying or selling steel in world markets? To answer this question, the economists compare the current Isolandian price of steel to the price of steel in other countries. We call the price prevailing in world markets the world price. If the world price of steel is higher than the domestic price, then Isoland would become an exporter of steel once trade is permitted. Isolandian steel producers would be eager to receive the higher prices available abroad and would start selling their steel to buyers in other countries. Conversely, if the world price of steel is lower than the domestic price, then Isoland would be- come an importer of steel. Because foreign sellers offer a better price, Isolandian steel consumers would quickly start buying steel from other countries. In essence, comparing the world price and the domestic price before trade in- dicates whether Isoland has a comparative advantage in producing steel. The do- mestic price reflects the opportunity cost of steel: It tells us how much an Isolandian must give up to get one unit of steel. If the domestic price is low, the cost of producing steel in Isoland is low, suggesting that Isoland has a comparative advantage in producing steel relative to the rest of the world. If the domestic price is high, then the cost of producing steel in Isoland is high, suggesting that foreign countries have a comparative advantage in producing steel. Price of Steel Equilibrium price 0 Quantity of Steel Equilibrium quantity Domestic supply Domestic demand Producer surplus Consumer surplus Figure 9-1 T HE E QUILIBRIUM WITHOUT I NTERNATIONAL T RADE . When an economy cannot trade in world markets, the price adjusts to balance domestic supply and demand. This figure shows consumer and producer surplus in an equilibrium without international trade for the steel market in the imaginary country of Isoland. world price the price of a good that prevails in the world market for that good 182 PART THREE SUPPLY AND DEMAND II: MARKETS AND WELFARE As we saw in Chapter 3, trade among nations is ultimately based on compar- ative advantage. That is, trade is beneficial because it allows each nation to spe- cialize in doing what it does best. By comparing the world price and the domestic price before trade, we can determine whether Isoland is better or worse at pro- ducing steel than the rest of the world. QUICK QUIZ: The country Autarka does not allow international trade. In Autarka, you can buy a wool suit for 3 ounces of gold. Meanwhile, in neighboring countries, you can buy the same suit for 2 ounces of gold. If Autarka were to allow free trade, would it import or export suits? THE WINNERS AND LOSERS FROM TRADE To analyze the welfare effects of free trade, the Isolandian economists begin with the assumption that Isoland is a small economy compared to the rest of the world so that its actions have negligible effect on world markets. The small-economy as- sumption has a specific implication for analyzing the steel market: If Isoland is a small economy, then the change in Isoland’s trade policy will not affect the world price of steel. The Isolandians are said to be price takers in the world economy. That is, they take the world price of steel as given. They can sell steel at this price and be exporters or buy steel at this price and be importers. The small-economy assumption is not necessary to analyze the gains and losses from international trade. But the Isolandian economists know from experi- ence that this assumption greatly simplifies the analysis. They also know that the basic lessons do not change in the more complicated case of a large economy. THE GAINS AND LOSSES OF AN EXPORTING COUNTRY Figure 9-2 shows the Isolandian steel market when the domestic equilibrium price before trade is below the world price. Once free trade is allowed, the domestic price rises to equal the world price. No seller of steel would accept less than the world price, and no buyer would pay more than the world price. With the domestic price now equal to the world price, the domestic quantity supplied differs from the domestic quantity demanded. The supply curve shows the quantity of steel supplied by Isolandian sellers. The demand curve shows the quantity of steel demanded by Isolandian buyers. Because the domestic quantity supplied is greater than the domestic quantity demanded, Isoland sells steel to other countries. Thus, Isoland becomes a steel exporter. Although domestic quantity supplied and domestic quantity demanded differ, the steel market is still in equilibrium because there is now another participant in the market: the rest of the world. One can view the horizontal line at the world price as representing the demand for steel from the rest of the world. This demand curve is perfectly elastic because Isoland, as a small economy, can sell as much steel as it wants at the world price. CHAPTER 9 APPLICATION: INTERNATIONAL TRADE 183 Now consider the gains and losses from opening up trade. Clearly, not every- one benefits. Trade forces the domestic price to rise to the world price. Domestic producers of steel are better off because they can now sell steel at a higher price, but domestic consumers of steel are worse off because they have to buy steel at a higher price. To measure these gains and losses, we look at the changes in consumer and producer surplus, which are shown in Figure 9-3 and summarized in Table 9-1. Be- fore trade is allowed, the price of steel adjusts to balance domestic supply and do- mestic demand. Consumer surplus, the area between the demand curve and the before-trade price, is area A ϩ B. Producer surplus, the area between the supply curve and the before-trade price, is area C. Total surplus before trade, the sum of consumer and producer surplus, is area A ϩ B ϩ C. After trade is allowed, the domestic price rises to the world price. Consumer surplus is area A (the area between the demand curve and the world price). Pro- ducer surplus is area B ϩ C ϩ D (the area between the supply curve and the world price). Thus, total surplus with trade is area A ϩ B ϩ C ϩ D. These welfare calculations show who wins and who loses from trade in an exporting country. Sellers benefit because producer surplus increases by the area B ϩ D. Buyers are worse off because consumer surplus decreases by the area B. Be- cause the gains of sellers exceed the losses of buyers by the area D, total surplus in Isoland increases. This analysis of an exporting country yields two conclusions: ◆ When a country allows trade and becomes an exporter of a good, domestic producers of the good are better off, and domestic consumers of the good are worse off. Price of Steel Price before trade Price after trade 0 Quantity of Steel Domestic quantity demanded Domestic quantity supplied Domestic supply World price Domestic demand Exports Figure 9-2 I NTERNATIONAL T RADE IN AN E XPORTING C OUNTRY . Once trade is allowed, the domestic price rises to equal the world price. The supply curve shows the quantity of steel produced domestically, and the demand curve shows the quantity consumed domestically. Exports from Isoland equal the difference between the domestic quantity supplied and the domestic quantity demanded at the world price. 184 PART THREE SUPPLY AND DEMAND II: MARKETS AND WELFARE ◆ Trade raises the economic well-being of a nation in the sense that the gains of the winners exceed the losses of the losers. THE GAINS AND LOSSES OF AN IMPORTING COUNTRY Now suppose that the domestic price before trade is above the world price. Once again, after free trade is allowed, the domestic price must equal the world price. As Figure 9-4 shows, the domestic quantity supplied is less than the domestic quan- tity demanded. The difference between the domestic quantity demanded and the domestic quantity supplied is bought from other countries, and Isoland becomes a steel importer. In this case, the horizontal line at the world price represents the supply of the rest of the world. This supply curve is perfectly elastic because Isoland is a small economy and, therefore, can buy as much steel as it wants at the world price. C B D A Price of Steel Price before trade Price after trade 0 Quantity of Steel Domestic supply World price Domestic demand Exports Figure 9-3 H OW F REE T RADE A FFECTS W ELFARE IN AN E XPORTING C OUNTRY . When the domestic price rises to equal the world price, sellers are better off (producer surplus rises from C to B ϩ C ϩ D), and buyers are worse off (consumer surplus falls from A ϩ B to A). Total surplus rises by an amount equal to area D, indicating that trade raises the economic well-being of the country as a whole. Table 9-1 C HANGES IN W ELFARE FROM F REE T RADE : T HE C ASE OF AN E XPORTING C OUNTRY . The table examines changes in economic welfare resulting from opening up a market to international trade. Letters refer to the regions marked in Figure 9-3. B EFORE T RADE A FTER T RADE C HANGE Consumer Surplus A ϩ BAϪB Producer Surplus C B ϩ C ϩ D ϩ(B ϩ D) Total Surplus A ϩ B ϩ CAϩ B ϩ C + D ϩD The area D shows the increase in total surplus and represents the gains from trade. CHAPTER 9 APPLICATION: INTERNATIONAL TRADE 185 Now consider the gains and losses from trade. Once again, not everyone ben- efits. When trade forces the domestic price to fall, domestic consumers are better off (they can now buy steel at a lower price), and domestic producers are worse off (they now have to sell steel at a lower price). Changes in consumer and producer surplus measure the size of the gains and losses, as shown in Figure 9-5 and Ta- ble 9-2. Before trade, consumer surplus is area A, producer surplus is area B ϩ C, and total surplus is area A ϩ B ϩ C. After trade is allowed, consumer surplus is area A ϩ B ϩ D, producer surplus is area C, and total surplus is area A ϩ B ϩ C ϩ D. These welfare calculations show who wins and who loses from trade in an im- porting country. Buyers benefit because consumer surplus increases by the area B ϩ D. Sellers are worse off because producer surplus falls by the area B. The gains of buyers exceed the losses of sellers, and total surplus increases by the area D. This analysis of an importing country yields two conclusions parallel to those for an exporting country: ◆ When a country allows trade and becomes an importer of a good, domestic consumers of the good are better off, and domestic producers of the good are worse off. ◆ Trade raises the economic well-being of a nation in the sense that the gains of the winners exceed the losses of the losers. Now that we have completed our analysis of trade, we can better understand one of the Ten Principles of Economics in Chapter 1: Trade can make everyone better off. If Isoland opens up its steel market to international trade, that change will create Price of Steel Price before trade Price after trade 0 Quantity of Steel Domestic quantity supplied Domestic quantity demanded Domestic supply World price Domestic demand Imports Figure 9-4 I NTERNATIONAL T RADE IN AN I MPORTING C OUNTRY . Once trade is allowed, the domestic price falls to equal the world price. The supply curve shows the amount produced domestically, and the demand curve shows the amount consumed domestically. Imports equal the difference between the domestic quantity demanded and the domestic quantity supplied at the world price. 186 PART THREE SUPPLY AND DEMAND II: MARKETS AND WELFARE winners and losers, regardless of whether Isoland ends up exporting or importing steel. In either case, however, the gains of the winners exceed the losses of the losers, so the winners could compensate the losers and still be better off. In this sense, trade can make everyone better off. But will trade make everyone better off? Probably not. In practice, compensation for the losers from international trade is rare. Without such compensation, opening up to international trade is a policy that expands the size of the economic pie, while perhaps leaving some participants in the economy with a smaller slice. THE EFFECTS OF A TARIFF The Isolandian economists next consider the effects of a tariff—a tax on imported goods. The economists quickly realize that a tariff on steel will have no effect if Isoland becomes a steel exporter. If no one in Isoland is interested in importing C B D A Price of Steel Price before trade 0 Quantity of Steel Domestic supply Domestic demand Price after trade World price Imports Figure 9-5 H OW F REE T RADE A FFECTS W ELFARE IN AN I MPORTING C OUNTRY . When the domestic price falls to equal the world price, buyers are better off (consumer surplus rises from A to A ϩ B ϩ D), and sellers are worse off (producer surplus falls from B ϩ C to C). Total surplus rises by an amount equal to area D, indicating that trade raises the economic well-being of the country as a whole. Table 9-2 C HANGES IN W ELFARE FROM F REE T RADE : T HE C ASE OF AN I MPORTING C OUNTRY . The table examines changes in economic welfare resulting from opening up a market to international trade. Letters refer to the regions marked in Figure 9-5. B EFORE T RADE A FTER T RADE C HANGE Consumer Surplus A A ϩ B ϩ D ϩ(B ϩ D) Producer Surplus B ϩ CCϪB Total Surplus A ϩ B ϩ CAϩ B ϩ C ϩ D ϩD tariff a tax on goods produced abroad and sold domestically The area D shows the increase in total surplus and represents the gains from trade. . importer of a good, domestic consumers of the good are better off, and domestic producers of the good are worse off. ◆ Trade raises the economic well-being of. gains of the winners exceed the losses of the losers. Now that we have completed our analysis of trade, we can better understand one of the Ten Principles of