STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION I. STRUCTURES A. Sentences with one clause Skill 1: be sure a sentence have S and V Skill 2: Be careful of objects of preposition A preposition is followed by a noun or pronoun that is called an object of preposition. If a word is an object of preposition, it is not the subject. Skill 3: be careful of Appositive An oppositive is a noun that comes before or after another noun and is generally set off from the noun with commas. If a word is an oppositive, it is not the subject. The following oppositive structure are both possible in English Skill 4: Be careful of present participbles (V-ing) A present participble is a –ing form of the verb. The present participble can be part of the verb or an adjective. It is part of the verb when it is an accompanied by some form of the verb “be”. It is an adjective when it is not accompanied by some form of the verb “be”. Skill 5: Be careful of past participbles A past participble often edns in –ed, but there are also many irregular past participbles. For many verbs, including –ed verbs, the simple past and the past participble are the same and can be easily confused. The –ed form of the verb can be the simple past, the past participble of a verb or an adjective. B. Sentences with multiple clauses Skill 6: Use coordinate connectors correctly Coordinate connectors: And, but, or, so, yet Skill 7: Use adverbs Time and Cause connectors correctly Adverb Time connectors: after, as, as long as, as soon as, before, by the time, once, since, until, when, whenever, while,… Adverb cause connectors: as, because, inasmuch as, now that since Skill 8: Use other adverb connectors correctly OTHER ADVERB CONNECTORS CONDITION CONTRAST MANNER PLACE If, in case, provided, providing, unless, whether Although, even though, though, while, whereas As In that Where Wherever Notes: A comma is often used in the middle of the sentence with a contrast connector. Skill 9: Use noun clause connectors correctly Noun clause can be as object or subject. Some noun clause connectors: what, when, where, why, how, whatever, whenever, if, whether, that Skill 10: Use noun clause connectors/subjects correctly Connectors: who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever Skill 11: Use Adjective clause connectors correctly Adj clause Connectors: who/whom (for people), which (for things), that (both) Adj clause Connectors were used to introduce clauses that describe nouns. Note: the adj connectors can be omitted. This omission is very common in spoken English or in casual (informal) written English. It is not as common in formal english or in structure questions on the TOEFL test. Skill 12: Use adj clause connectors/subjects correctly Adj clause Connectors/subjects: who/whom (for people), which (for things), that (both) Adj clause Connectors is not just a connector, it can also be the subject of the clause at the same time. C. Sentences with Reduced clauses Skill 13: Use reduced Adjective clauses correctly - To reduce an adj clause: omit the adj clause connector/subject and the be-verb - If there is no be-verb, omit the adj clause connector/subject and change the main verb to –ing form - Only reduce an adj clause if the connector/subject is dircetly followed by the verb - If an adj clause is set off with commas, the reduced clause can be moved to front of the sentence. Skill 14: Use reduced Adverb clauses correctly - To reduce an adv clause: omit the subject and the be-verb from the adv clause - If there is no be-verb, omit the subject and change the verb to –ing form - Don’t omit the adv clause connectors. D. Sentences with inverted subjects and verbs Skill 15: Invert the subject and verb with question words Question words: who, what, when, where, why, how - When the question word introduces the question, the subject and verb are inverted. - When the question word connects two clauses, the subject and verb that follow aren’t inverted. Skill 16: Invert the subject and verb with place expressions - When a place expression at the front of the sentence is necessary to complete the sentence, the subject and verb that follow are inverted. - When a place expression at the front of the sentence contains extra information that is not needed to complete the sentence, the subject and verb that follow aren’t inverted. Skill 17: Invert the subject and verb with negative words Negative words: no, not, never, neither, nor, barely, scarely, hardly, rarely, only, seldom, … When a negative expression appears in front of asubject verb (at the beginning of a sentence or in the middle of a sentence) the subject and verb are inverted. Skill 18: Invert the subject and verb with conditionals When the verb in conditional clause is had, should, or were; it is possible to omit if and invert the subject and verb. It is also possible to keep if. Then the subject and verb are not inverted. Skill 19: Invert the subject and verb with Comparisions The subject and verb may invert after a comparision. The following structures are both possible. Note: A subject-verb invertion after a comparision sounds rather formal. II. THE WRITTEN EXPRESSION QUESTIONS Procedures for the written expression questions 1. First, look at the underlined words or groups of words. You want to see if you can spot which of the four answer choices isn’t correct 2. If you have been unable to find the error by looking only at the four underlined expressions, then read the complete sentence. Often an underlined expression is incorrect because of something in another part of the sentence. A. Problems with Subject/verb Agreement Skill 20: Make verbs agree after prepositional phrases S (prepositional phrase) V When a prepositional phrase comes between the subject and the verb, be sure that the verb agrees with the subject Skill 21: Make verbs agree after Expressions of quantity (All,most,some,half) of the object + V (agreement with O) When an expression of quantity is the subject, the verb agrees with the object Skill 22: Make inverted verbs agree SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT AFTER INVERTED VERBS [question words (skill 15)/ place expression (skill 16)/ negative (skill 17)/ omitted conditionals (skill 18)/ comparision (skill 19) + V + S The verb agrees with the subject, which may be after the verb Skill 23: Make verbs agree after certain words These words or expressions are grammatically singular, so they take singular verbs: any-, every-, no-, some-, any-, no one, each (+noun), every (+noun). B. Problem with parralel structure Skill 24: Use parallel structure with coordinate conjunctions (same structure) + (and, but, or) +(same structure) (same structure), (same structure), (and, but, or), (same structure) Skill 25: Use Parallel structure with paired conjunctions Parallel structure with paired conjunctions Both (same structure) and (same structure) Either Or Neither Nor Not only But also Skill 26: Use Parallel structure with Comparisions Parallel structure with Comparisions (same structure) More ……….than (same structure) -er………than Less…… than As……….as The same……… as Similar…….to C. Problems with comparatives and superatives Skill 27: Form comparatives and superatives correctly Comparative More + long adj/adv than Short adj/adv +er Superative the Most + long adj/adv Maybe in, of, that Short adj/adv +est Skill 28: Use the and superatives correctly The comparative is used to compare two equal things The superative is used to show which one of many is in some way the most outstanding. Skill 29: Use the irregular –er, -er structure correctly THE –ER, -ER STRUCTURE The –er/more (same structure), the –er/more (same structure) This type of sentence may or may not include a verb D. Problem with form of the verb: Skill 30: After Have, use the past participle Skill 31: After Be, use the present participle or the past participle Skill 32: After modals, use the base form of the verb Modals: will, would, can, could, should, shall. May, might, must, have to. E. Problem with the use of the verb Skill 33: Know when to use the past with the present - If you see a sentence with one verb in the past and one verb in the present, the sentence is probably incorrect - However, it is possible for a correct sentence to have both past and present together. - If you see the past and present together, you must check the meaning to determine whether or not the sentence is correct. Skill 34: Use Have and Had correctly The present perfect (have PP) refers to the period of time from the past until the present. The past perfect (had PP) refers to the period of time that started in the past and ended in the past, before something else happened in the past. USING HAVE AND HAD CORRECTLY TENSE FORM MEANING USE Present perfect Have + PP Past up to now Not with a past tense Past perfect Had + PP Before past up to past Not with a present tense Except when the time expression since is part of the sentence (see skill 35) Skill 35: Use the correct tense with time expressions Skill 36: Use the correct tense with WILL and WOULD USING CORRECT TENSES WITH WILL AND WOULD VERB MEANING USE Will After the present Don’t use with the past Would After the past Don’t use with the present USING CORRECT TENSES WITH TIME EXPRESSIONS PAST PERFECT SIMPLE PAST PRESENT PERFECT By (1999) (two years) ago Last (year) In (1999) Since (1999) lately Note: there is a different modal would that is used to make polite requests. This type of would is often used with the present tense. F. Problem with passive verbs Skill 37: Use the correct form of the passive Be + PP + (by + O) Skill 38: Recognize active and passive meanings Active: The S does the action of the verb Passive: The S receives the action of the verb G. Problems with nouns Skill 39: Use the correct singular or plural noun KEYWORDS FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS Singular nouns Each every single one a Plural nouns Both two many several various Skill 40: Distinguish countable and uncountable nouns KEYWORDS FOR COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS For countable nouns Many number few fewer For uncountable nouns Much amount little less Skill 41: Recognize irregular plurals of nouns IRREGULAR PLURALS Vowel change Man/men Woman/women Foot/feet Tooth/teeth Goose/geese Mouse/mice Add –en Child/children Ox/oxen Same as singular Deer/deer Fish/fish Salmon/salmon Sheep/sheep Trout/trout -IS → -ES Analysis/analyses Axis/axes Crisis/crises Diagnosis/diagnoses Hypothesis/hypotheses Parenthesis/parentheses Synthesis/syntheses Thesis/theses Ends in –A Bacterium/bacteria Curriculum/curricula Datum/data Phenomenon/phenomena Criterion/criteria -US → -I Alumnus/alumni Bacillus/bacilli Cactus/cacti Fungus/fungi Nucleus/nuclei Radius/radii Stimulus/stimuli Syllabus/syllabi Skill 42: Distinguish the person from the thing It is common to confuse aperson with a thing in written expression questions on the TOEFL test. You must check by the maening in the situation in the sentence that they provide. H. Problem with pronouns Skill 43: Distinguish subject and object pronouns Subject: I/you/he/she/it/we/they Object: me/you/him/her/it/us/them The subject pronoun is used as the subject of the verb. An object pronoun can be used as the object of a verb or object of a preposition. Skill 44: Distinguish possessive adjectives and pronouns PA: my/your/his/her/its/our/their. It must be accompanied by a noun PP: mine/yours/his/hers/ no form of it/ours/theirs. It cannot be accompanied by a noun PP = PA + N Skill 45: Check pronoun reence for agreement - Be sure that every pronoun and possessive agrees with the noun it refers to - You generally check back in the sentence for agreement I. Problem with ADJs and ADVs Skill 46: Use basic ADJs and ADVs correctly ADJs: Adj describe nouns or pronouns ADVs: Adv describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs Skill 47: Use ADJs after linking verbs Linking verbs: appear, be, become, feel, look, prove, seem, smell, taste - A regular verb is followed by an adverb. The adverb describes the verb. - A linking verb is followed by an adjective. The adjective describes the subject. - It is possible that a linking verb is followed by an adverb and an adjective. The adverb is describes the adjective and the adjective describes the subject. Skill 48: Position adjectives and adverbs correctly THE POSITION OF ADJs AND ADVs ADJs A one-word adjective comes before the noun it describe. It doesn’t come directly after. ADVs An adverb can appear in many positions: beginning sentence, ending sentence, between two verbs. It cannot be used between a verb and its object J. More problem with ADJs Skill 49: Recognize –LY adjectives Generally when a word ends in –ly in English, it is an adverb. However, There are a few words ending in –ly that are adjectives, and these –ly adjectives can cause confusion in written expression questions on the TOEFL test. -LY adjectives Costly Early Friendly Kindly Likely Lively Lonely Manly Daily Hourly Monthly Nightly Quarterly Weekly Yearly Lovely Northerly Easterly Southerly Westerly Skill 50: Use predicate adjectives correctly Certain adjectives appear only in the predicate of the sentence, that is, they appear after a linking verb such as be, and they cannot appear dirrectlt in front of the nouns that they are describe. Ex: Correct: The snake on the rock was alive. Incorrect: The alive snake was lying on the rock. PREDICATE ADJECTIVES PREDICATE ADJECTIVES FORM USED IN FRONT OF NOUN Alive Alike Alone Afraid Asleep Live, living Like, similar Lone Frightened Sleeping Note: A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such as be. It cannot appear dirrectly in front of noun that it describes. Skill 51: Use –ED and –ING adjectives correctly The difference between an –ed and an –ing adjective is similar to the difference between the active and the passive. An –ing adj means that the noun it describe is doing the action. An –ed adj means that the noun it desribes is receiving the action from the verb. -ED AND –ING ADJECTIVES TYPE MEANING USE EXAMPLE -ING Active It does the action of the verb ….the happily playing children… (the children play) -ED Passive It receives the action of the verb …the frequently played record… (someone plays the record) K. Problems with articles Skill 52: Use articles with singular nouns A singular noun must have an article (a, an, the) or some other determiner such as my or each. A plural noun or an uncountable noun may or may not have an article. Skill 53: Distinguish A and AN A AND AN ARTICLES A A is used in front of a singular noun with a consonant sound. AN An is used in front of a singular noun with a vowel sound Be careful of nouns beginning with H or U. They may be have a vowel or a consonant sound. Skill 54: Make articles agree with nouns The definite article (the) is used for both singular and plural nouns, so agreement is not a problem with the definite article. However, because the use of the indefinite article is different for singular and plural nouns, you must be careful of agreement error is to use the singular indefinite article (a, an) with a plural noun. You should never use a or an with a plural noun. Skill 55: Distinguish specific and general ideas SPECIFIC AND GENERAL IDEAS ARTICLE MEANING USES A or AN General idea Use when there are many, and you don’t know which one it is Use when there are many, and you don’t care which one it is. THE Specific idea Use when it is the only one Use when there are many, and you don’t know which one it is. L. Problems with prepositions Skill 56: Recognize incorrect prepositions You should to use remember and use the preposition correct. Skill 57: Recognize when prepositions have been omitted Sometimes a necessary preposition has been omitted from a sentence in written expression questions on the TOEFl test. M. Problems with usage Skill 58: Distinguish Make and Do Make and Do can be confused ion English because their meaning are so similar. Since the difference between make and do is tested on the TOEFL test, you should learn to distinguish them. Make often has the idea of creating or constructing. Do often has the idea of completing of performing. Skill 59: Distinguish Like, Alike and Unlike LIKE, ALIKE and UNLIKE GRAMMAR MEANING USE Like Alike Adjective Adjective Similar Similar As an adjective, like is used before a noun As an adjective, Alike is used after a linking verb. Like Unlike Preposition Prepostion Similar Different Both preposition are followed by objects. They can both be used in many positions, including at the beginning of the sentence. Skill 60: Distinguish Other, Another, and Others Other, another, and others are very easy to confuse. To describe how to use each of them correctly, you must consider three thing: (1) if it is singular or plural, (2) if it is definite (the) or indefinite (a, an), and (3) if it is an adjective (it appears with a noun) or if it is a pronoun (it appears by itself). SINGULAR PLURAL INDEFINITE I have another book. (ADJ) I have another. (Pronoun) I have other book. (ADJ) I have others. (pronoun) DEFINITE I have the other book. (ADJ) I have the other. (pronoun) I have the other book. (ADJ) I have the others. (pronoun) Notice that you use another only to refer to an indefinite, singular idea. Others is used only as a plural pronoun (not accompanied by a noun). In all other cases, other is correct. READING COMPREHENSION GENERAL STRATEGIES 1. Be familiar with the directions. The directions on the every TOEFL test are the same, so it is not necessary to spend time reading the directions carefully when you take the test. You should be comeplete familiar with the directions before the day of the test 2. Don’t spend too much time reading the passages! You don’t have time to read each reading passage in depth, and it is quite possible to answer the questions correctly without fisrt reading the passage in depth. Some studdents prefer to spend a minute or two on each passage reading for the main idea before starting on the questions. Others prefer to move directly to the questions without reading the passage first. 3. Don’t worry if a reading passage is on a topic that you are unfamiliar with. All of the information that you need to answer the question is included in the passages. You don’t need any background knowledge to answer the questions. 4. Never leave any answers blank on your answer sheet. Even if you are unsure of the correct response, you should answer each question. There is no penalty for guessing. THE READING COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS STRATEGIES FOR THE READING COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. Skim the reading passage to determine the main idea and the overal organization of ideas in the passage. You don’t need to understand any detail in each passage to answer the questions correctly. It is therefore a waste of time to read the passage with the intent of understanding every single detail before you try to answer the questions. 2. Look ahead at the questions o determine what types of questions you must answer. Each type of question is answered in a different way. 3. Find the section of the passage that deals with each question. The question-type tells you exactly where to look in the passage to find correct answers • For main idea questions, look at the fisrt line of each paragraph • For directly and indirectly answered detail questions, choose a key word in the question, and skim for that key word (or a ralated idea) in order in the passage. • For vocabulary questions, the question will tell you where the word is located in the passage. • For overall review questions, the answer are found anywhere in the passage. 4. Read the part of the passage that contains the answer carefully. The answer will probably be in the same sentence (or one sentence before or after) the key word or idea. 5. Choose the best answer to each question from the four answer choices listed in your test book. You can choose the best answer according to what is given in the appropriate section of the passage, eliminate definitely wrong answers, and mark your best guess on the answer sheet. A. QUESTIONS ABOUT THE IDEAS OF THE PASSAGE Skill 1: ANSWER MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS CORRECTLY MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS How to identify the question What is the topic/subject/main idea of the passage? What is the author’s main point in the passage? With what is the author primarily concerned? Which of the following would be the best tittle? Where to find the answer The answer to this type of question can generally be determined by looking at the first sentence of each paragraph. How to answer the question 1. Read the first line of each paragraph 2. Look for a common theme or idea in the first lines 3. Pass your eyes quickly over the rest of the passage to check that you really have found the topic sentence(s) 4. Eliminate any definitely wrong answers and choose the best answer from the remain choices. Skill 2: RECOGNIZE THE ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS B. DIRECTLY ANSWERED QUESTIONS Skill 3: ANSWER STATED DETAIL QUESTIONS CORRECTLY ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS How to identify the question How is the information in the passage organized? How is the information in the second paragraph related to the information in the first paragraph? Where to find the answer The answer to this type of question can generally be determined by looking at the first sentence of the appropriate paragraph. How to answer the question 1. Read the first line of each paragraph 2. Look for words that show the relationship between the paragraphs. 3. Choose the answer that best expresses the relationship. [...]... conclusion about the purpose from the main idea and supporting details COURSE: Draw a conclusion about the course from the topic of the passage and the suppporting details TONE: 1 Skim the passage looking for clues that the author is showing some emotion 2 Choose the answer that identifies the emotion PURPOSE: 1 Study the main idea in the topic sentence and the details used to support the main idea 2... pronoun can be found is generally stated in the question) 2 Look for nouns that come before the pronoun 3 Read the part of the passage before the pronoun carefully 4 Eliminate any definitelywrong answers and choose the best answer from the remaining choices C INDIRECTLY ANSWERED QUESTIONS Skill 6: ANSWER IMPLIED DETAIL QUESTIONS CORRECTLY IMPLIED DETAIL QUESTIONS How to identify the It is implied in the... clue How to answer the 1 Find the word in the passage question 2 Located any structural clues 3 Read the part of the passage after the structural clue carefully 4 Eliminate any definitely wrong answers and choose the best answer from the remaining choices Skill 9: DETERMINE MEANING FROM WORD PARTS A SHORT LIST OF WORD PARTS PART MEANING EXAMPLE PART MEANING EXAMPLE Contra Against Contrast Dic Say Dictate... the passage answer the word can be found How to answer the 1 Find the word in the passage question 2 Read the sentence that contains the word carefully 3 Look for the context clues to help you understand the meaning 4 Choose the answer that the context indicates Skill 11: USE CONTEXT TO DETERMINE MEANINGS OF SIMPLE WORDS VOCABULARY QUESTIONS CONTAINING SIMPLE WORDS How to identify the What is the meaning….?... the passage answer the word can be found How to answer the 1 Find the word in the passage question 2 Read the sentence that contains the word carefully 3 Look for the context clues to help you understand the meaning 4 Choose the answer that the context indicates E OVERALL REVIEW QUESTIONS Skill 12: DETERMINE WHERE SPECIFIC INFORMATION IS FOUND QUESTIONS ABOUT WHERE IN THE PASSAGE How to identify the... the passage for the key word or idea 3 Read the sentence that contains the key word or idea carefully 4 Look for the answer that restates an idea in the passage 5 Eliminate the definitely wrong answers and choose the best answer from the remaining choices Skill 4: FIND “UNSTATED” DETAILS “UNSTATED” DETAILS QUESTIONS How to identify the Which of the following is not stated…? question Which of the following... the emotion PURPOSE: 1 Study the main idea in the topic sentence and the details used to support the main idea 2 Draw a conclusion about the purpose COURSE: 1 Study the main idea in the topic sentence and the details used to support the main idea 2 Draw a conclusion about the course . parralel structure Skill 24: Use parallel structure with coordinate conjunctions (same structure) + (and, but, or) +(same structure) (same structure) , (same structure) ,. STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION I. STRUCTURES A. Sentences with one clause Skill 1: be sure a sentence have S and V Skill 2: Be careful