N onfiction texts can be literary or functional. The literary nonfiction you might see on the GED includes essays and autobiographies/memoirs. The functional texts you will see include commentary on the arts and business communications.  How Nonfiction Is Different While nonfiction texts may be imaginative, they differ from fiction because they are not about imagined people and events. Rather, nonfiction texts deal with real people and real events. There are other important differences between fiction and nonfiction as well. In nonfiction, there is no nar- rator, so there is no “filter” between the author and the reader. In a nonfiction text, the author is speaking to the reader directly, expressing his or her personal point of view. Thus, the voice in a nonfiction text is the unique voice of the author. Point of view is important in nonfiction. Remember, point of view establishes a certain relationship with the reader. First-person texts are more personal but also more subjective. Third-person texts are more objective but less personal. The point of view an author chooses will depend upon his or her purpose and audience. For exam- ple, an annual report would likely use the third person, which is appropriate for a formal business document, CHAPTER Nonfiction FROM ESSAYS to commentary to reports and memos, nonfiction texts are written for many different purposes and have many different functions. This chapter describes the kinds of nonfiction texts you will see on the GED Language Arts Reading Exam. 37 337 while an essay about a personal experience would prob- ably use the first-person point of view and explore the impact of that experience on the writer.  Essays There are many different types of essays. The four most common types are: 1. descriptive: describing a person, place, or thing 2. narrative: telling a story or describing an event 3. expository: exploring and explaining an idea or position 4. persuasive: arguing a specific point of view There are essays about every imaginable topic, from what it is like to grow up poor (or rich, or bilingual, or .) to why we should (or should not) clone human beings. The basic structure of an essay is main idea→ support. Even if the writer is describing an experience, he or she has a reason for telling that story, and that rea- son—why the writer thinks the story is important enough to tell—is the main idea. Essays will often make their main idea clear in a the- sis statement. This statement is likely to come at the beginning of the essay. Notice how the author below states his thesis at the end of the opening paragraph of his essay: When you think of former president Bill Clinton, what’s the first thing that comes to mind? Unfor- tunately, for many people, the first thing they think of is Monica Lewinsky. Like millions of people around the globe, I was horrified by how much the Whitewater investigation delved into Mr. Clinton’s private affairs. No one needed to know the sort of details that were revealed by Ken Starr’s investigation. But while I don’t want to know the details, I do believe we have a right to know what sort of lives our politicians are living. I believe their behavior in private is a reflection of their true values and how they will behave in office. One type of writing that you may see in essays (as well as other forms of literature) is satire. Satire is a form of comedy in which the writer exposes and ridicules someone or something in order to inspire change. Satires rely heavily on verbal irony, in which the intended mean- ing is the opposite of the expressed meaning. Satirists also use hyperbole, which is extreme exaggeration, as well as sarcasm and understatement in order to convey their ideas. Jonathan Swift’s 1729 essay “A Modest Proposal” is one of the most famous examples of satire. In the essay, Swift proposes that the Irish, who are starving, eat their own children to prevent “the children of poor people in Ireland from being a burden to their parents or country.” Here’s a brief excerpt: I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fric- assee or ragout. Of course, Swift is not really suggesting that the Irish become cannibals. He is using this ridiculous proposal to criticize the British for oppressing the Irish, especially poor Irish Catholics, who often had many children. The absurdity of Swift’s proposal reflects his feelings about the absurdity of British rule in Ireland at the time and the British government’s inability to find a satisfactory solu- tion to the Irish famine.  Autobiography and Memoir In an autobiography or memoir, the author will—very subjectively, of course—tell the story of his or her life. The difference between autobiographies and memoirs is that memoirs tend to be less comprehensive and more exploratory—they will cover less ground and spend more time examining the impact of people and events on their lives. Authors may write to clarify an experience, teach a lesson, or make a statement about a historical event or social movement. As you read an autobiography or memoir, look for what the author feels has shaped him or her. Why has he or she chosen to relate these par- ticular events; describe these particular people? On the next page is a brief excerpt from Frank McCourt’s bestselling 1996 memoir, Angela’s Ashes. – NONFICTION – 338 Next day we rode to the hospital in a carriage with a horse. They put Oliver in a white box that came with us in the carriage and we took him to the graveyard. They put the white box into a hole in the ground and covered it with earth. My mother and Aunt Aggie cried, Grandma looked angry, Dad, Uncle Pa Keating, and Uncle Pat Sheehan looked sad but did not cry and I thought that if you’re a man you can cry only when you have the black stuff that is called the pint. I did not like the jackdaws that perched on trees and gravestones and I did not want to leave Oliver with them. I threw a rock at a jackdaw that waddled over toward Oliver’s grave. Dad said I shouldn’t throw rocks at jackdaws, they might be somebody’s soul. I didn’t know what a soul was but I didn’t ask him because I didn’t care. Oliver was dead and I hated jackdaws. I’d be a man someday and I’d come back with a bag of rocks and I’d leave the graveyard littered with dead jackdaws.  Commentary on the Arts The purpose of commentary is to illuminate or explain other works of literature and art. These texts review and analyze a work of art (performance art, visual art, and lit- erature) and generally have two goals: to help us under- stand the work of art and to evaluate its success or value. A book review, for example, will typically offer some background on the author, summarize the basic plot of the story, and describe the main characters and their chief conflicts. It will also point out what makes the novel good (e.g., the characters are especially endearing, the plot has surprising twists and turns, the descriptions are particularly lush, the structure is very unique) or bad (e.g., the plot is trite, the characters are flat and unbe- lievable, the writing is clumsy, the chapters are disor- ganized). Thus, commentary can help you determine whether a work of art is something you should experi- ence, and if you do experience it, the commentary can help you make more sense of your experience. The commentary on the GED can be of any sort, including reviews of books, movies, concerts/musical performances, dance productions, musicals, television shows, plays, paintings, sculptures, photography, or multimedia arts. But you are most likely to see com- mentary on a visual art or experience. When reading commentary, one of the most impor- tant skills to have is the ability to distinguish between fact and opinion. While commentators do deal with facts, commentary is by nature highly subjective; they are shar- ing their personal reactions to an experience with a work of art. A good commentator will always explain why he or she feels the way he or she does about a work of art. For example, a movie critic might praise a film because the story was original and moving, the actors convincing, and the special effects stunning. Remember, however, that the reviewer’s feelings about the film are opinions, no matter how well the author might defend them. There are many nondebat- able facts about a work of art such as a film, including when it was made, how long it took to make, who made it, how much it cost, the events in the plot, how the spe- cial effects were created, etc. But the reviewer’s judgment of these facts is a matter of debate, and therefore a mat- ter of opinion. You might find the story in a movie inter- esting while your friend finds it boring. As you read commentary, pay attention to word choice. Even in sentences that seem to express facts, com- mentators can express their opinion. For example, look at the following sentences. They have the same meaning but convey different attitudes: Raquel Ramirez plays the role of Ophelia. Raquel Ramirez shines in the role of Ophelia.  Business-Related Documents Business documents were new to the GED as of 2002, and you will see one on the Language Arts, Reading Exam. These texts can range from employee handbooks and training manuals to letters, memos, reports, and proposals. Business documents are unlike the other nonfiction texts because they: ■ are meant for a specific audience ■ have a specific, business-related purpose While essays, autobiographies, and commentary are meant for a general reader, business documents (with the exception of annual reports) are designed for a much – NONFICTION – 339 smaller and more specific audience. Memos and letters, for example, are often addressed to only one individual. The purpose of each business document, too, is very specific and related to business. A memo may provide an agenda for a meeting or a reminder about forms that need to be completed; a proposal may describe a plan to improve or expand business; a training manual will show employees how to perform specific tasks. The purpose of the document will usually be made very clear right from the start. As the saying goes, in busi- ness, time is money, and in order to save the reader time, writers of business communications state their purpose clearly at the beginning of the document. For example, notice how the main idea of the following letter is stated in the second sentence: Dear Ms. Ng: Thank you for your recent application for an auto- mobile loan from Crown Bank. Unfortunately, we are unable to process your application because informa- tion is missing from your application form. We need the following information to complete the loan application process: 1. the number of years in your current residence 2. your driver’s license number 3. the name and telephone number of your insur- ance provider Please provide this information to us as soon as pos- sible. You may call me at 800-123-4567, extension 22, or fax me at 222-123-4567. Please include application code XT121 on your correspondence. Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter. I look forward to completing your loan application. Sincerely, Victor Wilson Junior Loan Analyst Crown Bank Readability Techniques To maximize time and clarity, business-related docu- ments will use several readability techniques. These in- clude chunking information and using headings and lists. Business writers often organize information into small, manageable “chunks” of data. That is, they will group sentences or paragraphs according to the specific topics or ideas they discuss and set those sentences apart with line breaks and/or headings. Headings and subheadings provide “titles” within the text to guide readers topic by topic through the docu- ment. Headings show readers how ideas are related and help readers find specific information in the document. (Notice, for example, how headings are used throughout this book.) To make information easier to process, business writ- ers will also use bulleted or numbered lists as often as possible, especially when providing instructions. It is eas- ier to see the items in a list when they are separated and listed vertically rather than running together horizon- tally in a regular sentence or paragraph. For example, notice how much easier it is to absorb the information in the bulleted list than in the following narrative: To apply for a permit, you must bring proof of residency, a photo identification, a copy of your birth certificate, and proof of insurance. To apply for a permit, you must bring: ■ proof of residency ■ a photo identification ■ a copy of your birth certificate ■ proof of insurance Whether the text is a business document or a personal essay, remember that writers always write for a reason. Think about the writer’s purpose. Why is he or she writ- ing? Look for clues in both content (including specific facts and details) and style (including word choice and tone). Check for topic sentences and thesis statements that express the author’s main idea. – NONFICTION – 340 I n this chapter, you will review the structure of the reading exam and specific tips you can use to improve your score on the test. Read this chapter carefully, and then review your notes from the whole Lan- guage Arts, Reading section. When you are ready, move on to the practice questions that follow.  The GED Language Arts, Reading Test in a Nutshell This GED exam consists of 40 multiple-choice questions about texts from three different time periods: pre-1920, 1920–1960, and 1960–present. Each exam will include a poem, an excerpt from a play, a commentary on the arts, a business-related document such as a memo or report, and at least one excerpt from a work of fiction. Each pas- sage (except the poem) will be approximately 200–400 words long. Questions will test your basic comprehension of the texts (20%), your ability to analyze the texts (30–35%), your ability to “synthesize” (draw inferences from) ideas from the texts (30–35%), and your ability to apply infor- mation or ideas from the texts to different contexts (15%). You may be asked about the main idea or theme of a text, a character’s feelings or motivations, or the significance of a symbol. You may be asked to identify a specific fact or detail or to predict the effect of an action described or implied in the text. You might be asked about the effect of a rhetorical technique or to identify the tone of a passage. CHAPTER Tips and Strategies for the Language Arts, Reading Exam YOU HAVE reviewed a lot of material to prepare for the GED Lan- guage Arts, Reading Test. Now here are some specific tips and strate- gies for handling the questions you will see on the exam. 38 341  Getting Ready for the Exam The Language Arts, Reading GED covers a lot of ground. It tests your comprehension not just of functional texts but also of the many genres and time periods of litera- ture. Between now and test time, one of the best things you can do is to read as much as possible, especially in the genres with which you are least familiar. The more comfortable you are with literature, the easier it will be to understand what you read, and the more comfortable you will be at test time. As you read various texts, remember that you don’t necessarily have to like what you read. Hopefully, you will find the experience enjoyable and rewarding. But if you don’t like every poem you read, that’s okay. Different writers have different styles, and sometimes, the writer’s style and subject matter may simply not appeal to you. What matters is that you are able to appreciate the text and understand what the author is trying to say. Whether you like the writer’s style, whether the subject matter thrills you or bores you, keep reading and devel- oping your reading comprehension skills. You may find some authors and texts that have a profound impact on you. You might also develop a love for a genre that will last throughout the rest of your life.  Finding the Main Idea Remember that the main idea is the thought that con- trols the text. What is the author trying to say? What point does he or she want to get across? The main idea may be explicitly stated in a topic sentence (for a para- graph) or a thesis statement (for a complete text). It can also be implied. In literature, the main idea is called the theme. The theme is the “sum” of all of the elements of literature, including plot, character, symbolism, tone, language, and style. Here are some specific tips for finding the main idea: 1. Remember that themes and main ideas are gen- eral and should cast a “net” over the whole pas- sage or text. 2. Consider the author’s purpose. What do you think the writer is trying to accomplish with this text? Why do you think he or she wrote it? 3. Try to fill in the blanks: ■ This story (poem, play, essay, etc.) is about ______ (insert topic). ■ The writer seems to be saying ______ (general thematic statement) about this topic. If you can support your statement with specific evidence from the text, and if that statement is general enough to encompass the whole passage, you have probably successfully identified the main idea or one of the themes of the text. (Lit- erary texts, especially long ones such as novels, can have more than one theme.) 4. Try giving the text a new title that conveys the main idea or theme. What would you call the passage?  Finding Specific Facts and Details Specific facts and details are often used to support the main idea of a text. Here are some tips for questions about specific facts and details: 1. Remember the difference between main ideas and their support. Note the specific examples, facts, and details the writer uses to develop his or her ideas. 2. Look for key words in the question to tell you exactly what information to look for in the passage. 3. Think about the structure of the passage and where that information is likely to be located. (For a review of common writing structures and organizational patterns, see Chapter 32.)  Distinguishing between Fact and Opinion An important reading comprehension skill is also a crit- ical thinking skill: the ability to distinguish between fact and opinion. It is often important to know whether a writer is stating a fact or expressing an opinion. Here are three quick tips for distinguishing between the two: 1. When you are unsure whether something is a fact or opinion, ask yourself, Is this statement debatable? Can others take a different position? –– TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED LANGUAGE ARTS, READING EXAM –– 342 2. Look for signal words and other clues that the author is expressing a fact or an opinion. Signal words include phrases like I believe and words like should and ought. 3. Remember that good writers will usually provide facts to support their opinions.  Making Inferences The ability to draw logical conclusions from a text is essential to reading comprehension and to doing well on the GED. Remember that your conclusions must be based on evidence from the text. If a writer wants you to infer something, he or she will give you clues so you can make that inference. If you have a hunch about what the writer is trying to say, search for evidence in the text to support your ideas. Here are some more specific tips for making effective inferences: 1. Pay careful attention to word choice, details, actions, and structure. If the writer wants you to infer something, he or she will leave you clues to guide you to the right conclusion. 2. Test your inference. Double back to find specific evidence that will support your conclusion. Inferring Cause and Effect 1. Look for basic clues like transitions that signal cause and effect: since, because, therefore, as a result, etc. (See Chapter 32 for more ideas.) 2. Make sure you can establish a direct link between cause and effect. Remember that many effects have more than one cause and that there is often a chain of causes that lead to a specific event. 3. Again, make sure you have evidence to support your inferences about cause and effect.  Reading Fiction When you read a work of fiction, remember the eight elements of fiction that work together to create meaning: plot, character, setting, point of view, tone, language and style, symbolism, and theme. Here are some specific tips for handling questions about fiction on the GED: 1. Pay attention to details, especially details about characters and setting. 2. Use your mind’s eye to visualize people, places, and actions. 3. Think about motivations. Why do the characters say what they say, feel what they feel, do what they do? Many of the questions on the GED will be about the reasons for characters’ thoughts and actions. 4. Remember that stories aim to help us better understand our world and ourselves. Think about what message the story might be sending that would meet this goal.  Reading Drama Drama is literature that is meant to be performed. But you can still be greatly entertained and moved by simply reading a play. Here are some tips for understanding dramatic excerpts on the GED exam: 1. Remember to read any stage directions carefully. These notes from the playwright provide impor- tant clues to the characters’ emotions as they speak and to the relationships between charac- ters. Stage directions about setting are also important clues to the play’s theme. 2. As in fiction, think about motivations.Why do the characters say what they say and do what they do? What has happened between the char- acters or to the characters to make them feel, say, and do these things? 3. Use the stage directions and other clues to “stage” the play in your head. Create a “theater of the mind” and imagine the action taking place on stage. Try to hear the characters saying their lines and see them moving about on the stage.  Reading Poetry Every GED exam will include at least one poem. Remember that while there are many different types of poems, most poems aim to tell a story, capture a moment, embody an emotion, or make an argument. In a poem, word choice is limited by the poem’s length and often by structure and rhyme scheme, so poets are –– TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED LANGUAGE ARTS, READING EXAM –– 343 especially deliberate in their choice of words. Because poems are usually short, every word counts. Pay atten- tion to every detail. Here are some more specific tips for dealing with poems on the GED: 1. Read the poems aloud in your head so you can “hear” how they sound. Read each poem at least twice: first to get a general sense of the poem and its sound, and second to get a better understand- ing of its meaning. 2. Poems don’t have a narrator, but there is still a specific voice speaking to the reader, telling the story, painting the picture, or capturing the emo- tion. Use tone and word choice to determine as much as you can about the speaker of the poem. Who is this person? How does he or she feel about the subject of the poem? Does he or she seem to be talking to someone in particular or to a general audience? 3. Examine the overall structure of the poem. Is there a rhyme scheme or meter? Does the struc- ture fit a particular pattern or design? Think about how the structure might reflect the subject or meaning of the poem. 4. Look at the line breaks and stanzas, if any. Where are the line breaks? Do any of the end words seem significant? Are the lines separated into stanzas? If so, what holds the lines in the stanzas together? Are any words separated to stand out for readers? 5. Try to determine the purpose of the poem. Is the speaker telling a story? Explaining an idea or emotion? Making an argument? Capturing a moment? Celebrating or mourning a person, place, or thing? Determining the type of poem is central to determining the poem’s theme. 6. Pay attention to repetition. If a word or line is repeated, especially if it is repeated at the end of a line or stanza, it is significant and may be symbolic. 7. Look carefully at word choice. Because poems are so compact, each word must be chosen with special care, and some words may be chosen because they have multiple meanings. 8. Remember that poems are about real people and real emotions. Think about how the poem makes you feel. Think about the emotions conjured up by the words and rhythm of the poem.  Reading Essays You can expect nonfiction texts, like essays, to be more straightforward than stories and poems. But the main idea may not always be stated in a topic sentence or the- sis statement. Here are some tips for handling essays: 1. Determine the author’s purpose. Is the author describing a person? Making an argument? Telling a story? Exploring an idea? 2. Use questions to determine the main idea of the essay. How does the author seem to feel about the person he or she is describing? Why? What sort of relationship did they have? What position has the author taken on the issue he or she is dis- cussing? Why? Look for a thesis statement that expresses the main idea. 3. Look for topic sentences in the paragraphs you have been given. What are the controlling ideas of each paragraph? What larger idea might these ideas be supporting? 4. Use clues in word choice and tone to determine how the author feels about the subject.  Reading Commentary Commentary on the arts aims to help readers better understand and appreciate a work of art. Here are some specific tips for reading commentary: 1. When reading commentary, always be on the lookout for support. Whenever the author makes a claim, ask why? Look for the specific reasons the author has come to that conclusion. 2. A thoughtful commentary will look for both the good and the bad in its subject. It is rare that a review is entirely positive or that someone finds a work of art utterly worthless, without one redeeming quality. Look for both the positive and the negative in the review. –– TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED LANGUAGE ARTS, READING EXAM –– 344  Business Documents All GED exams include at least one business document. This may be a memorandum, report, e-mail, or other business text. Here are some tips for dealing with ques- tions about business documents: 1. Remember that business documents are written for specific audiences and for specific purposes. Determine the specific audience and the reason for the communication. 2. Business documents are often written so specific actions will be taken. Are there any specific instructions or steps to follow? Look for lists and other clues regarding things to do or understand. 3. If a business document is making an argument, look for support. What facts or ideas are used to support the main idea? –– TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED LANGUAGE ARTS, READING EXAM –– 345 . tips and strate- gies for handling the questions you will see on the exam. 38 341  Getting Ready for the Exam The Language Arts, Reading GED covers a lot. both the positive and the negative in the review. –– TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED LANGUAGE ARTS, READING EXAM –– 344  Business Documents All GED exams