C C Chemical symbol for carbon. Ca Chemical symbol for calcium. Cabbage juices Vegetable juices extracted from cabbages (Brassica oleracea). May be blended with other vegetable juices or fruit juices, and may be used in the manufacture of lactic acid fermented beverages. Cabbages Any of various cultivated var. of Brassica oleracea. Typically have a thick stalk with a large, compact head formed from green or reddish purple edible leaves (e.g. savoy cabbages, white cab- bages). Cabbages that do not form a head are known as kale, winter greens or collards. Consumed as a vegetable, used as coleslaw ingredient or fermented to produce sauerkraut. Red cabbages are used for pickling. Chinese cabbages are Brassica pekinen- sis. Cabrales cheese Spanish hard blue cheese made from cow, ewe and goat milks. Matured in natural limestone caverns. It has a creamy texture, complex flavour and powerful bouquet. Cacao Alternative term for cocoa. Cacao beans Alternative term for cocoa beans. Cachaca Sugar cane spirits produced by the dis- tillation of fermented cane sugar juices. Both white and gold (aged) varieties are available and the alcohol content ranges from 38 to 48% by volume. Ca- chaca originates from Brazil where it is consumed in its pure form, but elsewhere it is mainly used as an in- gredient in cocktails. Caciocavallo cheese A type of pasta filata cheese from southern Italy prepared from cow milk. Includes Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese which is produced in the province of Palermo in Sicily. Ca- ciocavallo Silano cheese produced in the Italian re- gions of Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Molise and Puglia has EU protected designation of origin (PDO) status. Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese Italian pasta filata cheese made from cow milk, but said to have been made originally from mare milk. A traditional cheese produced in the province of Palermo in Sicily that is gourd-shaped and hung from the thin end to ma- ture. Eaten as a table cheese after 3 months and used for grating after 2 years. Cacioricotta cheese Italian cheese produced from cow milk, goat milk, ewe milk or water buffalo milk. Apulian Cacioricotta is a cheese produced on an artisanal scale from pasteurized goat milk in a specific region of Italy. It is eaten fresh as a soft dessert cheese or ripened and used mainly for grating over local dishes. Caciotta cheese Italian soft, mild cheese made from cow or ewe milk. CaCl 2 Chemical formula for calcium chloride. Cacodylic acid Alternative term for dimethy- larsinic acid. Cacti Large family of spiny, succulent plants, fruits from some of which are edible. The most common edible parts are the fleshy fruits of various species of prickly pears. Other types include Barbados goose- berries and pitayos (pitaya). The sweet fruits of vari- ous cacti can also be fermented to produce alcoholic beverages. Garambullo cactus (Myrtillocactus ge- ometrizans) produces purple fruits which are a poten- tial source of betalain type pigments. Cactus fruits Alternative term for cactus pears. Cactus pears Spiny fruits produced by several varie- ties of cacti, especially Opuntia ficus-indica. The soft flesh is similar in texture to that of watermelons. Usually eaten fresh, but also used as an ingredient for desserts and beverages. Also known as prickly pears, Indian figs, barberry figs and cactus fruits. Cadaverine Toxic, foul-smelling biogenic amine pro- duced by the decarboxylation of lysine by various microorganisms in decaying meat and fish. Cadmium Toxic heavy metal, chemical symbol Cd. May occur as a contaminant in a wide range of foods and beverages. Caesium Radioelement, chemical symbol Cs, which may occur as the radioactive isotopes 137 Cs or 134 Cs in foods as contaminants from radioactive fallout. Cafestol Diterpene found in coffee which increases plasma triacylglycerol and cholesterol concentrations. 68 Cafeterias Callus culture Cafeterias Self service restaurants. Often located within larger establishments, such as department stores, schools or universities. Caffeic acid Member of the hydroxycinnamic acid class which occurs in many plants and plant de- rived foods. Has antioxidative activity in foods. Caffeine One of the xanthine alkaloids naturally present in several plant foods, including tea, coffee and cola nuts. Acts as a stimulant. Used as an ingre- dient in some soft drinks, including cola bever- ages and energy drinks. Caffeoylquinic acid Synonym for chlorogenic acid. Phenol present in many foods of plant origin. Plays an important role in enzymic browning of fruits and vegetables. Has antioxidative activity, and may contribute to possible health-promoting or protective actions of dietary phenolic compounds. Caja Common name for Spondias lutea (syn. S. mombin), also known as yellow mombin. A South American fruit, the pulp and skin of which are used locally in the preparation of fruit juices, ice cream and liqueurs. Cake batters Batters usually prepared from flour, eggs, butter or margarines, and sugar that are used to make cakes. Other ingredients are added ac- cording to the type of cakes to be made. Cake mixes Powdered formulations containing all the ingredients required to make cakes. Cakes Soft bakery products produced by baking a batter containing flour, sugar, baking powders and beaten eggs, with or without shortenings . Ac- cording to the final product, other ingredients are also included, such as flavourings, nuts, chocolate and dried fruits. Caking Solidification of powders or granules into a mass. Caking can be a problem during the storage of dried foods and sugar. Calamintha Genus of herbs with a mint like aroma. Includes Calamintha nepeta, which is used in soups and sauces. Calamus Medicinal herb (Acorus calamus) also known as sweet flag. Dried rhizomes are used in the formulation of vermouths, liqueurs and bitters, and also for medicinal and veterinary purposes. Calciferol Synonym for ergocalciferol and vitamin D 2 ; one of the group of sterols which constitute vi- tamin D. Synthesized by irradiation of the plant provitamin ergosterol. Calcium Mineral with the chemical symbol Ca. Con- stituent of most foods and an essential nutrient in the human diet, particularly important for strong bones and teeth of which it is a major component. Rich sources include milk and dairy products, oily fish and spinach; staple foods are sometimes enriched with calcium. Also important in the setting of pectins gels, and the firmness of processed fruit and vegeta- ble products. Calcium chloride Calcium salt, chemical formula CaCl 2 , and one of several calcium salts used as addi- tives in foods and beverages. Applications include flavour preservation in pickles, as a firming agent in fruits and vegetables, and as a source of calcium for calcium alginate gels. Calcium hydroxide One of several calcium salts used as additives in foods and beverages. Chemical formula Ca(OH) 2 . Member of the alkalies, and also known as slaked lime. Specific applications in the food industry include as an acidity regulator and a firming agent. Calcium lactate One of several calcium salts used as additives in foods and beverages. Chemical for- mula [CH 3 CH(OH)COO] 2 Ca (and up to 5 molecules of water). Particular uses include as dough condition- ers, acidity regulators, antioxidants, emulsifiers, firming agents, stabilizers and thickeners. Calcium tartrate The calcium salt of tartaric acid. Calcium tartrate may precipitate in wines, forming an undesirable haze or sediment. Haze stabilization treatments may be required to prevent this problem. Calf meat Meat from specific types of young, sexually immature bovine animals, usually milk-fed cattle, and also an alternative term for beef. Calf muscles Meat from specific types of young, sexually immature bovine animals, usually milk-fed cattle, and also an alternative term for beef. Calf rennets Substance extracted from the abomasum of calves that is used in coagulation of milk for cheesemaking. The active enzyme is chymosin; pepsin is also present. Caliciviruses Genus of RNA-containing viruses of the family Caliciviridae. Include Norwalk viruses and Norwalk-like viruses, which are responsible for acute gastroenteritis in humans and are transmitted by the faecal-oral route via contaminated water and foods (e.g. shellfish and salads). Callipyge phenotype In sheep the callipyge locus is involved in muscling. In lambs expressing this gene, weight of some muscles is increased. However, tenderness of the meat from affected muscles is not as good as in normal lamb. Various techniques for tenderization of meat from callipyge lambs have been investigated, including freezing, electrical stimulation and calcium chloride injection of car- casses. Callus culture Mass of cells, generally plant cells, with no regular form resulting from the growth of un- 69 Calmodulin Camphechlor differentiated tissue on semisolid agar. Used in tissue culture as the starting material for the propagation of plant clones or to initiate suspension cultures. Calmodulin Calcium ion binding protein which can moderate the activity of various metabolic enzymes in plants, animals and microorganisms. Calocybe Genus that includes some edible fungi, such as the edible milk-white mushroom Calocybe in- dica. Calories Metric units of energy used widely to indi- cate the level of energy in foods and nutrients. One normal calorie (also known as the 15° calorie) is the amount of energy required to heat pure water from 14.5 to 15.5°C at atmospheric pressure (equivalent to 4.185 J). The small calorie or therm is equivalent to 4.204 J and is the energy required to heat pure water from 3.5 to 4.5°C. Calorific values Amount of calories in foods or nutrients, indicating the levels of utilizable energy. Also known as energy values. Calorimetry Technique for measuring the energy content of foods from the number of calories formed during combustion of a known amount of sample. Calpains Proteinases with broad specificity in- volved in meat tenderization and deterioration of fish quality during post mortem storage. There are three separate types of these cysteine endopeptidases, including: calpain-1 (EC 3.4.22.52), requiring Ca 2+ concentrations in the micromolar range; and calpain-2 (EC 3.4.22.53), requiring Ca 2+ concentrations in the millimolar range. Calpastatins Proteinases inhibitors present in meat which act on calpains and play a role in modu- lating the tenderness of meat during storage. Calvados Apple brandy manufactured in a defined district in the Normandy region of France. Calves Specific types of young, sexually immature bovine animals, usually cattle which are <8 months of age, that produce beef. Male calves are called bull calves and females are called heifer calves, quey calves or cow calves. Camelina oils Vegetable oils obtained from oil- seeds of the plant Camelina sativa. Rich source of PUFA, in particular linolenic acid. PUFA account for around 50% of the total fatty acids content of camelina oilseeds. Camelina sativa Species of plants of the family Cruciferae, native to Europe and temperate regions of Asia, but now also grown in other regions. A source of oilseeds from which camelina oils can be ex- tracted. The defatted seed cake may be used in feeds. Common names include false flax. Camel meat Meat from camels that has a similar appearance, colour, texture and palatability to beef. Mature camels produce rather tough meat; con- sequently, meat from young animals is often preferred. Camel milk Milk obtained from camels. Similar in composition to cow milk, with approximately 4.2% fat, 3.5% protein, 4.5% lactose and 0.8% ash. Camels The common name for two species of large, herbivorous, long necked, mainly domesticated, ungu- late mammals that are well adapted to living in arid conditions. Camels belong to the genus Camelus of the Camelidae family. The one-humped camel is known as the Arabian camel (C. dromedarius) whilst the two- humped camel is known as the bactrian camel (C. ferus). Camels are reared as a source of camel milk and camel meat. They are major meat animals in many Arab and sub-Saharan African countries. Camembert cheese Soft French cheese made from cow milk . Crumbly and soft at the beginning of rip- ening, it gets creamier over time (usually 2-3 weeks). A genuine Camembert has a delicate salty flavour. Cameros cheese Soft fresh cheese made from raw or pasteurized goat milk in La Rioja (northeast Spain). The inside of the cheese is a bright white col- our, and the texture is jellied. It is easily melted. The flavour is somewhere between sweet and acid. Since it is a fresh cheese, it is usually eaten as a dessert or with honey. Camomile Herbs obtained from Anthemis nobilis (syn. Chamaemelum nobile). The plants are a source of essential oils used to flavour liqueurs, other bev- erages and confectionery. Flowers are used to make herb tea. Wild camomile (Matricaria recutita syn. M. chamomilla) has similar uses. Also known as chamomile. cAMP Abbreviated name for cyclic adenosine 3',5'- monophosphate, one of the nucleotides. A univer- sally distributed metabolite formed by the action of adenylate cyclase on ATP. cAMP is an important me- diator in signal transduction pathways, and an activator of several kinases and physiological processes, in- cluding expression of some virulence-related genes in microorganisms. Campesterol Sterol which occurs in many vegeta- ble oils and vegetable fats. The relative concentra- tions of campesterol and other sterol fractions may be used as parameters for identification and authenticity testing of oils. Camphechlor Non-systemic contact and stomach insecticide with some acaricidal action. Used for con- trol of a wide range of insect pests in crops and soil, often in combination with other pesticides. Subject to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic 70 Camphene Cane sugar Pollutants and usage on crops has largely been dis- placed by less persistent insecticides. Also known as toxaphene. Camphene Monoterpenoid which is one of the fla- vour compounds present in a wide range of herbs and spices. Camphor Monoterpene ketone which is one of the flavour compounds in a wide range of herbs and spices. Campylobacter Genus of Gram negative, microaero- philic rod-shaped bacteria of the family Campylobac- teriaceae. Occur in the reproductive and intestinal tracts of animals and humans. Some species are patho- genic, e.g. Campylobacter jejuni, which frequently contaminates raw chicken meat. Raw milk is also a source of infection. Campylobacteriosis is the in- fectious disease caused by bacteria of this genus. Peo- ple who become ill with this disease, during which they can experience diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever and vomiting, usually recover within 2-10 days; how- ever, rarely, long-term complications can occur (e.g. arthritis and Guillain-Barre syndrome). Campylobacteriosis Any human or animal disease caused by infection with Campylobacter spp. C. je- juni causes food poisoning in man characterized by diarrhoea, fever, abdominal pain, nausea, headache and muscle pain. Camu-camu Fruits produced by Myrciaria dubia, an Amazonian shrub. The round, light orange to purple fruits are the richest source of vitamin C discovered so far. Compared with oranges, they contain 30 times the vitamin C content, 10 times the content of iron, 3 times more niacin, twice as much riboflavin and fifty percent more phosphorus. Fruits are eaten out of hand and the fruit pulp is used to prepare a range of products, including fruit juices and fruit nectars, marmalades, sherbet, vinegar and ice cream. Also known as rumberries. Canapes Small pieces of bread, toast or crackers spread with savoury toppings, such as cheese or pates. Served as appetizers or cocktail snack foods. Canary grass Annual grass (Phalaris canariensis) from the Mediterranean. Its grains are commonly used as food for caged birds, but are also consumed by hu- mans. Canavanine Non-protein amino acid, which is a po- tentially toxic arginine antimetabolite. Found in al- falfa and certain other legumes such as jack beans. Canbra oils Former name for canola oils. Cancer A range of malignant diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell proliferation that results in tissue invasion and destruction. Dietary factors have been linked with increased risk for certain cancers (e.g. high intakes of dietary fats) and with reduced risk (e.g. in- creased intakes of fruits and vegetables). Common examples include breast cancer, lung cancer, co- lorectal cancer and prostate cancer. Candida Genus of yeasts of the class Saccharomy- cetes. Occur in soil and on plants. May be used in the production of fermented foods (e.g. Candida kefir in the production of kefir and koumiss, and C. famata in the production of fermented sausages). C. lipolytica and C. xylanoides cause meat spoilage, while C. valida causes spoilage in wines. C. utilis and C. lipolytica may be used for production of single cell proteins. C. rugosa, C. antarctica and C. inter- media produce lipases which have potential use in the food industry. Candied fruits Fruits, usually whole, preserved by softening in water and then soaking in syrups of pro- gressively increasing sucrose concentrations. After drying, the fruits are coated in sugar to make crystal- lized fruits or dipped in concentrated sugar syrups to make glace products, such as glace cherries. Often regarded as luxury products, although glace cherries are frequently used as ingredients in bakery prod- ucts. Candling Technique for determining the quality of eggs wherein the egg is held before a light which penetrates the egg and makes it possible to inspect the contents and shell. Candy Sweet crystallized product formed by boiling of sugar. Also a US term for sugar confectionery products in general. Candy floss A fluffy mass of spun sugar that is formed from thin threads. Often served on a stick. Also known as cotton candy, particularly in the USA and Canada. Cane molasses Molasses produced as a by-product of refining of sugar from sugar cane (Saccharum officinarium). Cane molasses are composed of ap- proximately 40% sucrose. Also known as blackstrap molasses and sugar cane molasses. Canestrato Pugliese cheese Italian hard cheese made from unpasteurized ewe milk. During manufac- ture, peppercorns are added after the curd has been cut, scalded and salted. Flavour and consistency vary according to the ripening period selected. Cane sugar Sucrose extracted from stalks of sugar cane (Saccharum officinarium). Processing of sugar cane to produce cane sugar involves: washing and cut- ting the cane stalks; extraction of cane sugar juices by crushing the stalks using a series of heavy rollers; purification of the raw cane sugar juices by precipita- tion of impurities (liming and clarification ); filtra- tion to remove the precipitates; evaporation of the pu- 71 Cane sugar factories Cantharellus rified juices which results in concentration of the cane sugar juices and crystallization of sucrose. Dried pu- rified cane sugar is composed of 99.80% sucrose and has <0.05% moisture content. Cane sugar factories Factories containing proc- essing lines equipped for extracting cane sugar from sugar cane (Saccharum officinarium). Sugar cane factories located close to where the sugar cane is cultivated (plantation factories) are involved with manufacture from sugar cane of pure white sugar or raw cane sugar. Sugar refineries are normally situ- ated nearer to the markets for sugar and are involved in purification of raw or salvaged sugar to produce white sugar. Sugar cane bagasse generated by these facilities may be used for cogeneration. Cane sugar juices Aqueous solutions of cane sugar produced during processing of sugar cane. Raw juices are produced by compression of the sugar cane stalks and contain cane sugar and impurities, thin juices are the purified raw juices and thick juices are concentrates of the thin juices. Cane sugar products Products generated by cane sugar factories. Refers to both intermediate and end products, including cane sugar juices, cane sugar syrups, massecuites and molasses. Cane sugar syrups Highly concentrated aqueous solutions of cane sugar produced by evaporation of purified cane sugar juices (thin juices). Canna Edible tubers of Canna edulis or C. indica which grow in South America and the West Indies. Di- rect consumption is limited by poor eating quality and long cooking times, but baking yields a white, mucilaginous mass with a sweet flavour. The roots typically contain 25% starch and may be cultivated for extraction of this constituent. Canna starch Starch isolated from canna. The starch granules , which are large in size and visible to the naked eye, are very digestible. Canna starch is used as a substitute for arrowroot , and is also used to make cellophane noodles in China. Canned foods Foods preserved by canning. One of the main advantages of canned foods is their ease of storage at ambient temperatures. Shelf life is typically around 2 years for canned fruits and vegetables and longer for canned meat. Canned pet foods Foods with a high moisture content for cats and dogs. Main ingredients are meat or fish, but may also contain herbs, cereals and fruits. Special formulations are available with raised or reduced levels of particular nutrients to meet particular health needs. Seasonal products also exist, e.g. thanksgiving meals for dogs. Canneloni Pasta tubes which may be stuffed with meat, vegetables or cheese and are often baked in tomato or cream sauces. Canneries Factories producing canned foods. Canning A sterilization process in which spoilage organisms and pathogens are eliminated from foods, and the foods are hermetically sealed in containers (cans). Most commercial canning operations are based on the principle that bacterial destruction in- creases tenfold for each 10qC increase in temperature. The safest method for most foods involves canning under conditions of high heat and pressure. Food ex- posed to high temperatures for short periods of time is known to retain more of its natural flavour. Canning equipment Machinery for preservation of foods in sealed containers (cans). Canning quality Canning quality scores represent the sum of scores for colour (chroma, uniformity, and at- tractiveness), wholeness, smoothness, firmness, moistness, lack of fibre, mouthfeel and flavour of canned foods. Canola Alternative term for rapeseeds. Canola oils Rapeseed oils originally derived from a Canadian variety of rapeseeds which contain low (<2%) amounts of erucic acid. Also low in glu- cosinolates. Canopy Uppermost level of plant vegetation in a for- est or area under cultivation, such as a vineyard, or- chard or vegetable plot. Canopy density and structure affect intensity of light reaching the plant, which may impinge on crop quality. Cans Rigid cylindrical metal containers made of steel sheet or plate, aluminium, copper or other metals. Used as packaging for foods and beverages; most are sealed hermetically for storage and retail over long pe- riods of time. Cantaloupes One of the main cultivated types of melons (Cucumis melo). Grown commercially in Europe, they have orange (occasionally green), aro- matic flesh and a yellowy-orange ribbed, warty rind. Canteen meals Meals served in canteens, i.e. restaurants catering for workers in establishments such as schools or factories. Food is usually prepared in large amounts and served from a central point. Canteens Restaurants located in establishments such as schools and factories. Usually self service and designed to cater for large numbers of people. Also re- fers to vessels with caps or other closures used for car- rying water or other beverages, especially while travel- ling. Cantharellus Genus of fungi, which includes chan- tarelles. True chantarelle (C. cibarius) is a much-prized species in France and continental Europe, character- 72 Canthaxanthin Caps ized by a funnel-shaped, apricot-yellow cap and a faint fruity aroma. Other edible species include C. tubi- formis and C. infundibuliformis. Canthaxanthin Red pigment of the carotenoids group. Occurs naturally in crustacea and salmonid fish and has antioxidative activity. Used as a feed additive to improve the colour of egg yolks, skin colour of broilers and flesh colour of aquacultured salmon or trout. Ca(OH) 2 Chemical formula for calcium hydroxide. CAP Abbreviation for Common Agricultural Pol- icy. Capacitance Ability to store energy in the form of electric charge. One of the electrical properties used in a wide range of food industry analyses, exam- ples of which include monitoring of yeasts in brew- ing, food composition, quality deterioration in frying oils and bottling efficiency. Cape gooseberries Small, white or yellow fruits produced by Physalis peruviana (syn. P. edulis). Eaten fresh or used in jams and jelly products. Similar in appearance and utilization to ground cherries (P. prui- nosa), but slightly larger in size and less sweet. Also known as goldenberries. Capelin Marine fish species (Mallotus villosus) be- longing to the smelt family (Osmeridae) which occurs extensively in the north Atlantic, north Pacific and ad- joining regions of the Arctic. Marketed in fresh, fro- zen, lightly smoked, salted and dried forms. Also util- ized as a source of fish oils and for fish meal pro- duction. Capers Unopened flowers of the shrub, Capparis spinosa, pickled in vinegar and used as a spice. Commonly used in pickles, sauces and toppings for pizzas. Capillaria Genus of parasitic nematodes of the fam- ily Trichuridae. Capillaria philippinensis and C. hepat- ica, found in freshwater fish, are the causative agents of capillariasis. Capillariasis Severe and potentially fatal disease in humans caused by eating raw fish contaminated with the larvae of Capillaria philippinensis and C. hepat- ica. Symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea, vomit- ing, diarrhoea and anorexia. Capillary electrochromatography Combines high performance liquid chromatography with capil- lary electrophoresis. An electric potential is ap- plied across the long axis of the capillary column, causing mobile phase flow by electrophoresis. The flow dynamics generated lead to improved efficiency and resolution, and short analysis times. Used in the separation and analysis of multicomponent mixtures, e.g. flavanone glycosides in citrus juices; ster- ols, tocopherols and ferulates in vegetable oils; and herbicides in vegetables. Capillary electrophoresis Electrophoresis tech- nique in which separation is performed in buffer filled capillaries across which high voltages are applied. Ad- vantages over conventional electrophoretic techniques include faster analysis and the possibility of incorpo- rating on-line detection of separated species. Capocollo Italian cured pork sausages which are a speciality of the Parma region. Pork shoulder is cured, flavoured with spices and seasonings such as sweet red peppers, packed into natural casings and air dried. Eaten raw, especially in antipasti platters. Capons Castrated male chickens, which are fattened for eating. Compared with cockerels, capons show slightly increased growth rates, less crowing and fight- ing behaviour, and greater meat tenderness. Capping devices Alternative term for caps. Cappuccino coffee Type of coffee beverage which is topped with whipped cream or frothed milk. Of- ten served sprinkled with cocoa powder or cinnamon. Caprenin Semi-synthetic triacylglycerols that were developed for use in low calorie fat substitutes . Composed of two medium chain fatty acids (capric acid and caprylic acid) and one very long chain fatty acid ( behenic acid) esterified to glycerol. Melting profile was similar to that of cocoa butter, so was developed for particular use in confection- ery. However, the product had difficult tempering characteristics and appeared to increase serum cho- lesterol levels slightly, and was withdrawn from the market. Capretto Lean goat meat from goat kids fed on milk up to 5 months of age. Meat is pale pink in colour and finely textured. Low in fat, but rich in protein. Capric acid Synonym for decanoic acid. Medium chain fatty acid which occurs in various fats, includ- ing milk fats. One of the flavour compounds found in various foods. Caprine Relating to or resembling goats. Caproic acid Synonym for hexanoic acid. Medium chain fatty acid which occurs in various fats, includ- ing milk fats. One of the flavour compounds found in various foods. Caprylic acid Synonym for octanoic acid. Medium chain fatty acid which occurs in various fats, includ- ing milk fats. One of the flavour compounds found in various foods. Caps Protective covers or lids, particularly for bot- tles. May include a thread and be used to reseal con- tainers after use. 73 Capsaicin Carbadox Capsaicin One of the flavour compounds of chil- lies and other capsicums, in part responsible for their pungent characteristics. Capsaicinoids Flavour compounds of chillies and other capsicums related to capsaicin and partly responsible for the pungent characteristics. Capsanthin Pigment of the xanthophylls group which occur in peppers (capsicums). Capsicum annuum Domesticated Capsicum sp. that includes many of the most economically important capsicums, including bell peppers, paprika, pi- miento peppers, and many kinds of chillies. Fruits tend to be less pungent than those of C. frutescens. Capsicums Fruits of the Capsicum genus, also known as peppers. The genus contains several do- mesticated species, such as the economically-important Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens, and many hundreds of varieties. Capsicums are grown worldwide and vary in pod size, colour, shape, flavour and pungency. Some types are used primarily as a vege- table, while others are used as spices or for produc- tion of oleoresins. Common types of capsicum in- clude bell peppers, paprika and chillies. Good source of many nutrients including the antioxidant vitamins A, C and E. Pungency is due to the presence of capsaicinoids. Captafol Protective contact fungicide used for control of a wide range of fungal diseases in fruits, vegeta- bles and cereals. Restricted or banned in many coun- tries. Classified by WHO as extremely hazardous (WHO Ia). Captan A protectant fungicide used for control of a wide range of fungal diseases in fruits , vegetables and cereals. Classified by WHO as unlikely to pre- sent acute hazard in normal use. Also known as ortho- cide. Capybaras Semi-aquatic herbivores of the family Hydrochoeridae and the largest living rodents worldwide. Capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) are endemic to most temperate and tropical regions of South America that lie to the east of the Andes. Capy- baras are occasionally hunted in these areas for their meat, which is similar in appearance and flavour to pork. Carabao A domesticated subspecies of water buffa- loes of the family Bovidae that is native to south east Asia. Carabao (Bubalus bubalis carabanesis) are used as a source of both milk and meat. Carambolas Common name for Averrhoa carambola. Tropical fruits native to Indonesia, and now grown in many hot countries. Rich in vitamin C, with a waxy, golden yellow skin and translucent, juicy yellow flesh with large brown seeds. Can be eaten raw or cooked, or processed into tarts, jams and juice products. Also known as five fingers or star fruit, due to their five prominent spokes and star-shaped cross section. Caramel Complex mixture of brown flavour- ing/colouring substances produced when sugars are heated above their melting point during carameliza- tion. Thermal degradation of the sugars results in a similar bitter-sweet flavour profile to that of molas- ses and maple syrups. Caramel is used in flavour- ings and flavour enhancers for a wide range of foods, including caramels, cakes and biscuits . Colouring properties are employed in caramel col- orants. Caramel colorants Colorants resulting from the carefully controlled heating of carbohydrates (e.g. sugars or malt syrups) in the presence of small amounts of food-grade acids, alkalis or salts. Widely used to impart a yellow or brown colour to numerous foods and beverages, including cola beverages and other soft drinks, beer, soy sauces, bakery products, browning agents and sausage cas- ings. Both positively and negatively charged caramel colorants are available (particles of the caramel color- ant must have the same charge as the colloidal particles of the product to be coloured, in order to avoid precipi- tation). Also reported to act as vitamin antagonists to vitamin B 6 . Caramel is also used in flavourings. Caramelization Form of nonenzymic browning. Different chemical process to the Maillard reaction. Involves removal of water from sugar molecules, fol- lowed by isomerization and polymerization. Oc- curs during dry heating or roasting of foods with high contents of sugars. Generates a range of flavour compounds, including caramel substances, diacetyl and hydroxymethylfurfural, depending on the heat- ing temperature and the types of sugars present in the foods. Leads to desirable colour and flavour in various foods and beverages, including bakery products, coffee, beer and peanuts. Caramels Sugar confectionery products similar to toffees made from sweetened, condensed or evapo- rated milk, butter or vegetable oils, and sugar. Boiled at lower temperatures than toffees, and may be soft or hard. Caraway Seeds of the umbelliferous plant Carum carvi. Used as a spice in a wide range of products in- cluding bakery products, cheese, meat and schnapps. Caraway essential oils are also widely used for flavouring purposes. Carbadox One of the antibacterial drugs which are used as growth promoters in animals. Residues may persist in meat from treated animals. 74 Carbamate pesticides Carbonic acid Carbamate pesticides Group of pesticides which inhibit activity of cholinesterases in insects. Used for control of chewing and sucking insects (especially aphids, whitefly, leaf miners and soil-dwelling in- sects) in a wide range of fruit, vegetable and cereal crops. Examples include aldicarb, carbaryl and carbofuran. Carbamide Synonym for urea. The excretory product of nitrogen metabolism produced in the liver of mam- mals following the breakdown of amino acids. Its formation during the fermentation of wines is sig- nificant, since it is a precursor of ethyl carbamate, a well known carcinogen. Used as a fertilizer and as a feed supplement for ruminants, and is found in milk. Carbaryl One of the N-methylcarbamate insecti- cides. Has slight systemic properties and also acts as a plant growth regulator. Used for control of chewing and sucking insects in a wide range of fruits, vege- tables and cereals. Classified by WHO as moder- ately hazardous (WHO II). Also known as naphthyl- methylcarbamate, sevin and vioxan. Carbendazim Systemic benzimidazole fungicide used for control of a wide range of fungal diseases in crops. Degrades relatively slowly in plants. Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). Also known as bavistin and carbendazole. Carbendazole Alternative term for the fungicide carbendazim. Carbofos Alternative term for the insecticide malathion. Carbofuran Systemic N-methylcarbamate insecticide and nematicide used for control of soil-dwelling and foliar-feeding insects and nematodes in vegeta- bles and cereals. Classified by WHO as highly haz- ardous (WHO Ib). Carbohydrases General name for enzymes that hydrolyse polysaccharides such as starch , cellu- loses and pectins . Examples of starch-hydrolysing enzymes include Į-amylases, ȕ-amylases, Į- dextrin endo-1,6-Į-glucosidases and glucan 1,4-Į-glucosidases. Other carbohydrases include xylan endo-1,3-ȕ-xylosidases, endo-1,3(4)-ȕ- glucanases and pectic enzymes. Carbohydrates One of the main classes of com- pounds present in foods, which includes monosac- charides, their derivatives such as glucosides, polyols, nucleotides and nucleosides, and their oligomers and polymers (oligosaccharides and polysaccharides). Important carbohydrates in foods include sugars, starch, pectins, fibre fractions, celluloses and their derivatives, and polysaccharides used as additives such as gelling agents and thick- eners. Carbolines Pyridoindole compounds which may be formed in foods (e.g. fish and meat) during cooking or processing. Tetrahydro-ȕ-carbolines and ȕ- carbolines, generated during the Maillard reaction, are potential carcinogens. Carbon Element, chemical symbol C, which is a con- stituent of all organic compounds. A specially modified form, activated carbon, is used in various processing aids for foods and beverages. Carbonatation Process used in the manufacture of white sugar for purification ( clarification) of sugar juices. Various carbonatation methods have been developed for specific purposes, but the basic principle is the same. The process involves addition of lime (CaO) to sugar juice followed by bubbling of carbon dioxide through this mixture. A precipitate of CaCO 3 forms that entraps suspended impurities within its crystalline structure and adsorbs soluble im- purities. Soluble impurities may also react with the lime to form insoluble Ca salts. Carbonated beverages Beverages, especially soft drinks, which have been impregnated with suffi- cient carbon dioxide to cause effervescence. Carbonates Salts of carbonic acid which include carbonate anions (CO 3 2- ) together with a cation. Ex- amples include sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium or ammonium carbonates. Food industry uses include as additives, and specifically as acidity regulators, anticaking agents, raising agents and stabilizers. Carbonation Conversion of a compound into a car- bonate, or the impregnation of a liquid with carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) under pressure. CO 2 is added to bev- erages to make them effervescent. Examples of car- bonated beverages include lemonade and spar- kling mineral waters. Carbon dioxide A colourless, odourless gas (chemi- cal formula CO 2 ) produced by the combustion of carbon and organic compounds and by organisms during respiration, and absorbed by plants for photo- synthesis. Widely used in the food industry for modi- fied atmosphere packaging of foods and for su- percritical CO 2 extraction, whilst solid carbon di- oxide (dry ice) is used for cold storage and clean- ing applications. Carbon disulfide A colourless, extremely volatile and flammable compound, with chemical formula CS 2 , with a disagreeable, fetid odour, used in insecti- cides. Exposure to carbon disulfide can occur by breathing it in from the air and by drinking water or eating foods that contain it. Carbonic acid Acid formed when carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is dissolved in water. Forms various salts (car- 75 Carbonic maceration Cardamom bonates and bicarbonates), some of which are impor- tant in food processing. Carbonic maceration A winemaking process in which whole grapes are macerated under a carbon dioxide atmosphere before alcoholic fermenta- tion; it is used in manufacture of Beaujolais and simi- lar wines. Carbonic maceration enhances the fruity character of the wine aroma. Carbon monoxide Toxic colourless, odourless gas, with the chemical formula CO, which may be formed by incomplete combustion of carbon-containing mate- rials. May be used in modified atmosphere pack- aging of meat or other foods. Carbon tetrachloride Synonym for tetrachloro- methane. Organic halogen compound and versatile organic solvent whose use has diminished since the discovery that it is carcinogenic. May be used in fu- migants. Can occur as a contaminant of treated drinking water. Carbonyl compounds Organic compounds which contain the C=O functional group, including al- dehydes and ketones. Many are important flavour compounds and aroma compounds in foods. Carboxin One of the systemic anilide fungicides. Applied to a range of seeds, such as barley, corn, oats, rice, wheat, vegetables and cotton. Classi- fied by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. Carboxylesterases EC 3.1.1.1. Esterases which hydrolyse carboxylic esters to alcohols and carboxy- lates. Useful for removing acetyl groups from hemi- celluloses to form easily fermentable carbohydrate substrates, and for modifying the gelation properties and other rheological properties of heteropolysac- charides. Also involved in changes in the aroma and flavour of wines and other alcoholic beverages . Carboxylic acids Organic acids characterized by presence of the COOH group. Carboxymethylation A form of chemical modifica- tion involving the introduction of carboxymethyl (COOH-CH 2 -) groups. Used to alter the physico- chemical properties and functional properties of biopolymers, including starch and proteins commonly found in foods. Carboxymethylcellulose Water-soluble cellulose ether obtained by chemical modification. Widely used in food stabilizers, thickeners or binding agents in a variety of foods including ice cream, puddings, batters and icings. Also known by the abbreviation CMC. Carboxypeptidases EC 3.4.16-3.4.18. Exopro- teinases that hydrolyse peptide bonds and remove amino acids one at a time from protein chains, work- ing from the carboxyl terminus. Useful for production of protein hydrolysates and for modifying the fla- vour of foods, e.g. dairy products. Carboxypeptidase Y Alternative term for car- boxypeptidases. Carcass by-products Alternative term for offal. Carcass condemnation Occurs after inspection of carcasses of slaughter animals, due to diseases, emaciation or injury, when the carcass is declared unfit for human consumption. Usually takes place in slaughterhouses and is governed by a range of regulations and certification procedures in different countries. Condemned carcasses may be incinerated, buried or used for other purposes. e.g. as ingredients of animal feeds. Carcasses Dead bodies of animals and birds, espe- cially those prepared for cutting up as meat. The term is used by butchers to describe animals' and birds' bod- ies after dressing (removal of the heads, limbs, hides (or feathers in birds) and offal); these types of car- casses are also called dressed carcasses. Bird carcasses are usually chilled whole, whilst animal carcasses are usually split longitudinally into sides before chilling. Many countries operate carcass classification schemes, which are designed to categorize carcasses with com- mon characteristics such as carcass weight, fatness (fat class) and conformation. Usually, carcass classifi- cation schemes discriminate against very fat and very lean carcasses. Carcinogenesis Processes leading to the formation of cancer (tumours). Carcinogenicity A measure of the relative activity of carcinogens. Carcinogenicity testing Analyses, including the Ames test, to determine the carcinogenicity of suspected carcinogens. Also applied to other chemi- cal compounds as part of routine safety evaluation studies. Tests can include the use of animal models, cell cultures or microorganisms. Carcinogens Substances that are able to induce car- cinogenesis, encompassing direct-acting agents that possess genotoxicity and indirect-acting procarcino- gens that require activation by cell metabolic path- ways, such as those involving the detoxification en- zymes. Food sources of potential carcinogens are widespread, and include heterocyclic amines formed in meat during cooking, acrylamide in heated starchy foods, nitrosamines in nitrite-treated meat products, urethane in fermented foods and alcoholic beverages, and agaritine in mush- rooms. Cardamom Green spice pods containing numerous aromatic seeds produced by Elettaria cardamomom, a 76 Cardboard Carotenes shrub belonging to the ginger family. Pods and seeds are used extensively in flavourings for both sweet and savoury dishes, particularly in Indian and Middle Eastern cuisine. White (bleached) pods are also avail- able. Cardboard Rigid, moderately thick material made from paper pulp but heavier than paper. Used widely to make containers, e.g. boxes, for packaging foods. Cardiovascular diseases Congenital and acquired diseases of the heart or blood vessels including coro- nary heart diseases and stroke. Many risk factors for cardiovascular diseases have been identified, in- cluding lifestyle (smoking, lack of physical exercise), diseases (obesity, hyperlipaemia) and diet. Cardiovas- cular risk may be modified by lowering intake of fats, modulating dietary fatty acids composition and in- creasing consumption of whole grains, dietary fibre and fruits and vegetables. Cardoons Common name for Cynara cardunculus. The plant is of Mediterranean origin and has many similarities to globe artichokes, to which it is re- lated. Cultivated mainly for the fleshy leaf stalks, which can be blanched like celery, or used in dishes such as salads and stews. Roots can also be cooked and used as a vegetable, while extracts from the dried flowers are used as vegetable rennets in cheese- making. Caribou The common name for any of the four North American species of large deer in the genus Rangifer within the Cervidae family. Caribou are hunted for their meat. Caribou meat is a traditional food for some ethnic groups, e.g. the Baffin Inuit in the Canadian Arctic. Caribou meat is referred to as venison. Caries Alternative term for dental caries. Carmine Water-insoluble aluminium lake of car- minic acid (the red pigment obtained from cochi- neal). Soluble in alkaline media and widely used in natural red colorants for foods and beverages. Carminic acid Water-soluble red pigment obtained from dried bodies of cochineal insects (Coccus cacti). Colour is orange to red, depending on pH. Carmine is the insoluble aluminium lake of carminic acid. Carmoisine Bluish-red artificial azo dyes used in confectionery , soft drinks , ice cream and canned fruits. Also known as azorubine. Carnauba wax Yellowish wax exuded by the leaves of the north-eastern Brazilian fan palm. Primarily composed of carnaubic acid, which is also found in many plant oils and resins. Used to prepare coatings for foods e.g. fruits or sugar confectionery, de- creasing moisture loss and giving an attractive, shiny appearance. Also used to improve the barrier proper- ties of packaging films. Carnitine Amino acid found in muscle, liver and other tissues. Also known as vitamin B 7 or vitamin Bt. Re- quired for the transport of fatty acids into mitochon- dria for oxidation. Rich dietary sources include meat and dairy products. Carnobacterium Genus of Gram positive, aerobic, rod-shaped lactic acid bacteria of the family Car- nobacteriaceae. Species may be responsible for spoil- age of vacuum packaged meat (Carnobacterium di- vergens), fish (C. piscicola) and chicken meat (C. mobile). Several carnobacterial bacteriocins are known to exist, such as carnobacteriocin, carnocin and pisci- colins. Carnosic acid One of the diterpenes. Present in rosemary and sage and has antioxidative activ- ity. Carnosine Dipeptide (ȕ-alanylhistidine) which occurs in meat and fish and displays antioxidative activ- ity. Carnosol One of the diterpenes present in rose- mary and sage. Possesses antioxidative activity and antitumour activity. Carob beans Seeds from the leguminous Mediterra- nean tree Ceratonia siliqua. Seeds are encased in a sweetish pulp within the carob pods. They are used as the source of carob gums or can be ground and used as baking flour. Also known as locust beans. Carob gums Alternative term for locust bean gums, obtained from carob beans. Carob pods Pods from the carob tree (Ceratonia sili- qua ), containing seeds (carob beans) encased in a soft, sticky pulp. The pulp is high in sugar and has a taste similar to chocolate. Powdered pulp is mar- keted as a chocolate substitute and is also used in the manufacture of beverages and syrups. Į-Carotene One of the carotenes with antioxidant and provitamin A activities found in green and yellow plant foods in association with chlorophylls. Has ap- proximately half the vitamin A activity of ȕ- carotene. Rich dietary sources include carrots, green beans, Swiss chard and tomatoes. As with other carotenoids, intake of Į-carotene is maximized if foods are eaten raw or lightly cooked. ȕ-Carotene One of the carotenoids with antioxidant and provitamin A activities found in yellow and green plant foods in association with chlorophylls. Rich dietary sources include carrots, sweet potatoes, green leafy vegetables and yellow fruits. In general, plant foods with more intense green or yellow colour have greater concentrations of ȕ-carotene. Carotenes Long chain unsaturated hydrocarbons with provitamin A activity found in green and yellow plant foods such as carrots, sweet potatoes, green leafy [...]... or ice cream Formed by pre-crystallization of chocolate, coating of the food and cooling Pre-crystallization and cooling affect the gloss, degree of solidification and coat thickness of the coatings produced Chocolate confectionery Collective term for chocolate and chocolate products Chocolate couverture Chocolate which contains maximal levels of cocoa butter, used as coatings for high quality chocolate... chocolate to flow Also called chocolate mass, cocoa mass and cocoa liquor Chocolate mass Alternative term for chocolate liquor, produced by grinding dehusked cocoa beans, or nibs, to a paste from which chocolate and chocolate products are made Also called cocoa mass and cocoa liquor Chocolate milk Chocolate flavoured milk-based beverage Chocolate powders Manufactured from cocoa powders which are agglomerated... chocolate products Chocolate crumb Intermediate material produced during manufacture of milk chocolate, composed of dried milk, sugar and cocoa mass Chocolate desserts Desserts containing chocolate as a main ingredient, e.g chocolate flavoured milk puddings and chocolate mousses Chocolate dragees Confectionery products composed of hard centres coated with chocolate Chocolate fillings Chocolate products used... proteins Composed of several fractions, including s-casein, s1casein, s2-casein, -casein, -casein and casein A phosphorus-containing protein that is heat stable, but precipitated by alcohol, rennets and acids Individual fractions are combined into larger units called casein micelles, structure and stability of which are related to calcium content s-Casein The main casein fraction in milk, accounting... mass Cocoa mass Produced by grinding of cocoa nibs (cocoa beans from which the shell or husk has been removed) to release the cocoa butter from the cells Used in the manufacture of chocolate and chocolate products Also called cocoa liquor, chocolate liquor and chocolate mass Cocoa nibs Cocoa beans that are separated from their husks and broken into small pieces Used in the manufacture of chocolate Cocoa... oils are extracted, or desiccated coconut Freshly grated endosperm is squeezed to make coconut milk Coconut toddy Alcoholic beverages made by fermentation of the sap of coconut palms (Cocos nucifera) Coconut water The liquid enclosed within the kernels of coconuts (Cocos nucifera), which may be used in beverages Cocos Genus of palms In some, including the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) and C yatay, fruits,... Loss of cell cycle regulation can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and cancer development Cell lines Established collections of cells which can be cultured indefinitely and which usually have specific properties which can be exploited in scientific research studies Cellobiases Alternative term for -glucosidases Cellobiohydrolases Alternative term for cellulose 1, 4- -cellobiosidases Cellobiose Reducing... Cocoa powders Products obtained by extracting a predetermined amount of cocoa butter from chocolate liquor using hydraulic presses, and grinding the resulting press cake Cocoa powders produced are classified according to fat contents Cocoa products Products such as cocoa beverages and cocoa powders that are made from cocoa or contain cocoa as a major constituent Cocona Fruits produced by Solanum topiro... applications Also known as cocoa butter replacers Cocoa liquor A suspension of cocoa particles in cocoa butter that is produced by milling cocoa beans that have undergone dehulling (cocoa nibs) Coconuts The grinding process generates heat which melts the fats, causing them to become liquid Cocoa liquor is a key component of chocolate that is also known as chocolate liquor, chocolate mass and cocoa mass... phosphates Chicken skin Skin from chickens Antimicrobial treatment of chicken skin is commonly used to decrease bacterial contamination (and cross contamina- Chick peas tion) of chicken carcasses during processing Most of the fats in chicken meat are associated with the skin; thus, fat content can be lowered by removing the skin Chicken skin is used as an ingredient in sausages, including chicken sausages Connective . Common examples include breast cancer, lung cancer, co- lorectal cancer and prostate cancer. Candida Genus of yeasts of the class Saccharomy- cetes. Occur. piscicola) and chicken meat (C. mobile). Several carnobacterial bacteriocins are known to exist, such as carnobacteriocin, carnocin and pisci- colins. Carnosic