P1: FCW 052184780Xpre CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 November 8, 2006 THE MAKING OF BRONZE AGE EURASIA This book provides an overview of Bronze Age societies of Western Eurasia through an investigation of the archaeological record Philip L Kohl outlines the long-term processes and patterns of interaction that link these groups together in a shared historical trajectory of development Interactions took the form of the exchange of raw materials and finished goods, the spread and sharing of technologies, and the movements of peoples from one region to another Kohl reconstructs economic activities from subsistence practices to the production and exchange of metals and other materials He also examines long-term processes, such as the development of more mobile forms of animal husbandry, which were based on the introduction and large-scale utilization of oxen-driven wheeled wagons and, subsequently, the domestication and riding of horses; the spread of metalworking technologies and exploitation of new centers of metallurgical production; changes in systems of exchange from those dominated by the movement of luxury goods to those in which materials essential for maintaining and securing the reproduction of the societies participating in the exchange network accompanied and/or supplanted the trade in precious materials; and increasing evidence for militarism and political instabilities as reflected in shifts in settlement patterns, including increases in fortified sites and quantitative and qualitative advances in weaponry Kohl also argues forcefully that the main task of the archaeologist should be to write culture-history on a spatially and temporally grand scale in an effort to detect large, macrohistorical processes of interaction and shared development Philip L Kohl is Professor of Anthropology and Kathryn W Davis Professor of Slavic Studies at Wellesley College He is the author of The Bronze Age Civilization of Central Asia: Recent Soviet Discoveries, Recent Discoveries in Transcaucasia and coeditor of Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology i 4:55 P1: FCW 052184780Xpre CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 ii November 8, 2006 4:55 P1: FCW 052184780Xpre CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 November 8, 2006 CAMBR IDGE WORLD ARCHAEOLOGY series editor NOR MAN YOFFEE , University of Michigan editorial board SUSAN ALCOK , University of Michigan TOM DILLEHAY , University of Kentucky STEPHEN SHENNAN , University College London CARLA SINOPOLI , University of Michigan The Cambridge World Archaeology series is addressed to students and professional archaeologists, and to academics in related disciplines Each volume presents a survey of the archaeology of a region of the world, providing an up-to-date account of research and integration of recent findings with new concerns of interpretation While the focus is on a specific region, broader cultural trends are discussed and the implications of regional findings for cross-cultural interpretations considered The authors also bring anthropological and historical expertise to bear on archaeological problems, and show how both new data and changing intellectual trends in archaeology shade inferences about the past books in the series raymond allchin and bridget allchin, The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan karen olsen bruhns, Ancient South America nicholas david and carol kramer, Ethnoarchaeology in Action oliver dickinson, The Aegean Bronze Age clive gamble, The Palaeolithic Settlement of Europe clive gamble, The Palaeolithic Societies of Europe a f harding, European Societies of the Bronze Age charles higham, Archaeology of Mainland South East Asia charles higham, The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia sarah milledge nelson, The Archaeology of Korea david phillipson, African Archaeology (second-revised edition) don potts, The Archaeology of Elam james whitley, The Archaeology of Ancient Greece alasdair whittle, Europe in the Neolithic iii 4:55 P1: FCW 052184780Xpre CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 iv November 8, 2006 4:55 P1: FCW 052184780Xpre CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 November 8, 2006 cam b ri dg e wor l d arc e olog y THE MAKING OF BRONZE AGE EURASIA philip l kohl Wellesley College v 4:55 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521847803 © Philip L Kohl 2007 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2006 ISBN-13 ISBN-10 978-0-511-27004-8 eBook (NetLibrary) 0-511-27004-6 eBook (NetLibrary) ISBN-13 ISBN-10 978-0-521-84780-3 hardback 0-521-84780-X hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate P1: FCW 052184780Xpre CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 November 8, 2006 4:55 He cast on the fire bronze which is weariless, and tin with it and valuable gold, and silver, and thereafter set forth upon its standard the great anvil, and gripped in one hand the ponderous hammer, while in the other, he grasped the pincers He made upon it a soft field, the pride of the tilled land, wide and triple-ploughed, with many ploughmen upon it who wheeled their teams at the turn and drove them in either direction He made upon it a herd of horn-straight oxen The cattle were wrought of gold and tin, and thronged in speed and with lowing out of the dung of the farmyard to a pasturing place by a sounding river, and beside the moving field of a reed bed And the renowned smith of the strong arms made on it a meadow large and in a lovely valley for the glimmering sheepflocks, with dwelling places upon it, and covered shelters, and sheepfolds Then after he had wrought this shield, which was huge and heavy, he wrought for him a corselet brighter than fire in its shining, and wrought him a helmet, massive and fitting close to his temples, lovely and intricate work, and laid a gold top-ridge along it, and out of pliable tin wrought him leg armour (Hephaistos makes Achilleus’ shield and armour; Iliad, Book 18, 474–477, 541–543, 573–576, 587–589, 608–612; translated by R Lattimore 1967: 388–391) vii P1: FCW 052184780Xpre CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 viii November 8, 2006 4:55 P1: FCW 052184780Xpre CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 November 8, 2006 4:55 CONTENTS Illustrations and Maps Abbreviations Preface page xiii xvii xix Archaeological Theory and Archaeological Evidence Anglo-American Theoretical Archaeology from ca 1960 to the Present – A Brief Overview Back to the Future – Or Towards an Interpretative and Explanatory Culture History The Devolution of Urban Society – Moving Beyond Neo-evolutionary Accounts 10 Steppe Archaeology and the Identification (and Proliferation) of Archaeological Cultures 15 Chronological Conundrums – The Application of Calibrated C14 Determinations for the Archaeology of the Eurasian Steppes 19 Inherent Limitations of the Present Study 21 The Chalcolithic Prelude – From Social Hierarchies and Giant Settlements to the Emergence of Mobile Economies, ca 4500–3500 BC 23 The Production and Exchange of Copper from the Balkans to the Volga in the Fifth and Fourth Millennia BC – The Carpatho-Balkan Metallurgical Province (CBMP) 28 The Form and Economy of the Gigantic Tripol’ye Settlements – Nucleation of Population and the Development of Extensive Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Particularly the Herding of Cattle 39 An Overview of the Social Archaeology of the Chalcolithic from the Northern Balkans to the Volga and beyond from the Fifth to the Second Half of the Fourth Millennium BC 46 ix P1: FCW 052184780Xref CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 282 Masson, V.M and V.I Sarianidi 1972 Central Asia: Turkmenia before the Achaemenids London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd McConchie, M 2004 Archaeology at the Northeast Anatolian Frontier, V: Iron Technology and Iron-Making Communities of the First Millennium BC Louvain: Peeters McCorriston, J 1997 The Fiber Revolution: Textile Extensification, Alienation, and Social Stratification in Ancient Mesopotamia Current Anthropology 38 (4): 517–549 Meadow, R 1993 Continuity and Change in the Agriculture of the Greater Indus Valley Information Bulletin 19: 63–77 Mei Jianjun and C Shell 1999 The existence of Andronovo cultural influence in Xinjiang during the 2nd millennium BC Antiquity 73 (281): 570–578 Merpert, N.Ya 1974 Drevneishie skotovody volzhsko-uralskogo mezhdurechya Moscow: Nauka Merpert, N.Ya 1991 Die neolithischaă neolithischen Denkmăaler der pontischkaspischen Steppen und der Formierungsprozeò der frăuhen Grubengrabkultur In J Lichardus (ed.), Die Kupferzeit als historische Epoche, pp 35–46 Merpert, N.Ya 2001 Rol’ V.A Gorodstova v sozdanii periodizatsii bronzovogo veka yuzhnoi poloviny vostochnoi evropy i voprocy istoriografii’ In Yu.I Kolev (ed.), Bronzovyi vek vostochnoi evropy: Kharakteristika kul’tur, khronologiya i periodizatsiya, pp 7–8 Merpert, N.Ya and R.M Munchaev 1993 The Earliest Evidence for Metallurgy in Ancient Mesopotamia In N Yoffee and J.J Clark (eds.), Early Stages in the Evolution of Mesopotamian Civilization: Soviet Excavations in Northern Iraq Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, pp 241–248 Michaud, R and S Michaud 1978 Caravans to Tartary London: Thames and Hudson Ltd Miron, A and W Orthmann 1995 Unterwegs zum Goldenen Vlies: Archăaologische Funde aus Georgien Saarbrăucken: Victors ResidenzHotel Molodin, V.I., H Parzinger, J Schneeweiß, J.N Garkusa, A.E Grisin, O.I Novikova, N.S Efremova, Z.V Marcenko, M.A Cemjakina, L.N Myl’nikova, H Becker, and J Faßbinder 2002 Cica – Eine befestigte Ansiedlung der ¨ Ubergangsperiode von der Sp¨atbronze- zur Fr¨uheisenzeit in der Barabinsker Waldsteppe October 18, 2006 6:16 References Vorbericht der Kampagnen 1999–2001 EurAnt 8: 185–236 Monah, D and F Monah 1997 Cucuteni: The last great Chalcolithic civilization of old Europe In C.-M Mantu, G Dumitroaia, and A Tsaravopoulos (eds.), Cucuteni: The last great Chalcolithic civilization of Europe Bucharest: Athena Publishing and Printing House, pp 16–95 Moore, K.M 1993 Animal use at Bronze Age Gonur depe Information Bulletin 19: 164–176 Moorey, P.R.S 1994 Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence Oxford: Clarendon Press Morales-Mu˜niz, A and E Antipina 2000 Late Bronze Age (2500–1000 B.C.) faunal exploitation on the East European steppe In K Boyle, M Levine, and C Renfrew (eds.), Late Prehistoric Exploitation of the Eurasian Steppe: Papers presented for the symposium to be held 12 Jan – 16 Jan 2000, vol Cambridge: McDonald Institute Monographs, pp 267–294 Morales-Mu˜niz, A and E Antipina 2003 Srubnaya Faunas and Beyond: A Critical Assessment of the Archaeozoological Information from the East European Steppe In M Levine, C Renfrew, and K Boyle (eds.), Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse, pp 329– 351 Morgunova, N.L 1995 Neolit i Eneolit yuga lesostepi volgo-uralskogo mezhdurechya Orenburg: RAN Motzenbăacker, I 1996 Sammlung Kossnierska Der Digorische Formenkreis der Kaukasischen Bronzezeit Berlin: Museum făur Vor- und Frăuhgeschichte SMPK Muhly, J D 1973 Copper and Tin Transactions, The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 43: 155–535 Muhly, J D 1980 The Bronze Age Setting In T.A Wertime and J D Muhly (eds.), The Coming of the Age of Iron New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, pp 25–67 Munchaev, R M 1975 Kavkaz na zare bronzovogo veka Moscow: Nauka Munchaev, R M 1994 Maikopskaya kul’tura In K.Kh Kushnareva and V.I Markovin (eds.), Epokha Bronzy Kavkaza i Srednei Azii: Rannyaya i srednyaya bronza Kavkaza, pp 158– 225 Munchaev, R M (ed.) 2002 Problemy Arkheologii Evrazii: K 80-letiyu N.Ya Merperta Moscow: Institut Arkheologii RAN P1: FCW 052184780Xref CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 References Munchaev, R.M., N.Ya Merpert, and Sh.N Amirov 2004 Tell Khazna I: Kul’tovoadministrativnyi tsentr IV–III tys n.e v Severo-vostochnoi Sirii Moscow: Paleograph Muscarella, O.W 2003 The Chronology and Culture of S´e Girdan: Phase III Ancient Civilizations: From Scythia to Siberia 9, 1–2: 117–131 Muscarella, O W n.d “Jiroft” and Aratta: a review of Yousef Madjidzadeh, Jiroft The Earliest Oriental Civilization, Teheran 2003 Narimanov, I.G 1985 Obeidskie plemena Mesopotamii v Azerbaidzhane In Vsesoyuznaya Arkheologicheskaya Konferentsiya ‘Dostizheniya Sovestskoi Arkheologii v XI Pyatiletke’ – Tezisy Dokladov Baku, pp 271–272 Narimanov, I.G 1987 Kul’tura Drevneishego Zemledel’chesko-Skotovodchesdogo Naseleniya Azerbaidzhana Baku: “Elm” Nechitailo, A.L 1991 Svyazi Naseleniya Stepnoi Ukrainy i Severnogo Kavkaza v Ephoku Bronzy Kiev: Naukova Dumka Nekhaev, A.A 1986 Pogrebenie maikopskoi kul’tury iz kurgana u sela Krasnogvardeiskoe Sovetskaya Arkheologiya Nekhaev, A.A 1990 Eneoliticheskie poseleniya Zakubanya, In A.M Zhdanovsky and I.I Marchenko (eds.), Drevnie pamyatniki Kubani Krasnodar:, pp 5–22 Nekhaev, A.A 1992 Domaikopskaya kul’tura Severnogo Kavkaza Arkheologicheskie vesti 1: 76–94 Neustupny, E 2002 In P.F Biehl, A Gramsch, and A Marciniak (eds.), Archăaologien Europas Geschichte, Methoden und Theorien, Măunster: Waxmann, pp 283288 Oates, J 2003 A Note on the Early Evidence for Horse in Western Asia In M Levine,C Renfrew, and K Boyle (eds.), Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse, pp 115–125 Olsen, S.L 2003 The Exploitation of Horses at Botai, Kazakhstan In M Levine, C Renfrew, and K Boyle (eds.), Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse, pp 83– 103 Oppenheim, A.L 1954 The Sea-Faring Merchants of Ur Journal of the American Oriental Society 74: 617 Otchir-Goriaeva, M 2002 Welchen Kulturund Wirtschaftstyp reprăasentieren die bronzezeitlichen Funde in den WolgaManyc-Steppen? EurAnt 8: 103133 ă ¨ Ozdogan, A 1999 Cay¨on¨u In M Ozdogan and N Basgelen (eds.), Neolithic in Turkey: October 18, 2006 6:16 283 The Cradle of Civilization Istanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayinlari, pp 35–64 Pal´eorient 1999 (25 [1]) The Uruk Expansion: Northern Perspectives from Hacinebi, Hassek Hăoyăuk and Gawra Paris Palumbi, G 2003 Red-Black Pottery: Eastern Anatolian and Transcaucasian Relationships during the mid-fourth millennium BC Ancient Near Eastern Studies 40: 80–134 Palumbi, G n.d Rosso e Nero: Ruolo e Significato ella Cultura Kuro-Araks nelle Trasformazioni delle Comunit`a dell’Anatolia Orientale tra IV e III Millennio a.C Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universit`a degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza. Parzinger, H 1998a Kulturverhăaltnisse in der eurasischen Steppe wăahrend der Bronzezeit In B Hăansel(ed.), Mensch und Umwelt in der Bronzezeit Europas Kiel:, pp 457–479 Parzinger, H 1998b Der nordpontische Raum und das untere Donaugebiet in der spăaten Kupferzeit: Das Ende des KodzadermenGumelnita-Karanovo VI-Verbandes und die Cernavoda I-Kultur In B Hăansel and J Machnik (eds.), Das Karpatenbecken und die Osteuropăaische Steppe, pp 123134 Parzinger, H 2003 Grundzăuge der Vor- und Frăugeschichte Sogdiens In H Parzinger and N Boroffka, Das Zinn der Bronzezeit, pp 260–286 Parzinger, H and N Boroffka 2003 Das Zinn der Bronzezeit in Mittelasien I: Die siedlungsarchăaologischen Forschungen im Umfeld der Zinnlagerstăatten Archăaologie in Iran und Turan, Band Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern Pecorella, P.E and M Salvini 1984 Tra Lo Zagros e L’Urmia: Ricerche Storiche ed Archeologiche Nell’Azerbaigian Iraniano Roma Pernicka, E., F Begemann, S Schmitt-Strecker, H Todorova, and I Kuleff 1997 Prehistoric Copper in Bulgaria Its Composition and Provenance EurAnt 3: 41–180 Perrot, J (ed.) 2003 Jiroft: Fabuleuse D´ecouverte en Iran Dossiers d’Archeologie 287 Peterson, D 2003 Ancient Metallurgy in the Mountain Kingdom: The Technology and Value of Early Bronze Age Metalwork from Velikent, Daghestan In A.T Smith and K.S Rubinson (eds.), Archaeology in the Borderlands, pp 22–37 Philip, G and A.R Millard 2000 Khirbet Kerak Ware in the Levant: the implications of P1: FCW 052184780Xref CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 284 radiocarbon chronology and spatial distribution In C Marro and H Hauptmann (eds.), Chronologie des Pays du Caucase et de l’Euphrate aux IVe–IIIe Millenaire, pp 279–296 Pigott, V.C 1999a A Heartland of Metallurgy: Neolithic/Chalcolithic metallurgical origins on the Iranian Plateau In A Hauptmann, E Pernicka, T Rehren, and U Yalc¸in (eds.), The Beginnings of Metallurgy, pp 107–120 Pigott, V.C 1999b The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World: Introductory comments In V.C Pigott (ed.), The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World Philadelphia: The University Museum, pp 1–13 Pilipossian, A 1996 Hachette de c´er´emonie en forme d’ancre In J Santrot (ed.), Arm´enie: Tr´esors de l’Arm´enie ancienne Paris: Somogy Editions D’Art, p 65 Pizchelauri, K 1984 Jungbronzezeitliche bis aă ltereisenzeitliche Heiligtăumer in Ost-Georgien Măunchen: Verlag C.H Beck Possehl, G.L 2002 The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press Potts, D.T 1990 The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity I Oxford: Clarendon Press Potts, D.T 1997 Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press Potts, D.T 2004 Camel hybridization and the role of Camelus bactrianus in the ancient Near East Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 47: 143–165 Potts, D.T 2005 In the beginning: Marhashi and the origin’s of Magan’s ceramic industry in the third millennium BC Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 16: 67–78 Potts, D.T n.d Exit Aratta: Southeastern Iran and the Land of Marhashi Potts, T.F 1994 Mesopotamia and the East An Archaeological and Historical Study of Foreign Relations ca 3400–2000 BC Oxford Committee for Archaeology, Monograph 47 Oxford Priakhin, A.D and V.I Besedin 1999 The Horse Bridle of the Middle Bronze Age in the East European Forest-Steppe and the Steppe Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia 38 (1): 39–59 Primas, M 2002 Early Tin Bronze in Central and Southern Europe In M Bartelheim, E Pernicka, and R Krause (eds.), Die Anfăange der Metallurgie in der Alten Welt Rahden/ Westf.: Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH, pp 303– 314 October 18, 2006 6:16 References Pumpelly, R 1908 Explorations in Turkestan, Expedition of 1904 Vol I Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute of Washington Pustovalov, S.Z 1994 Economy and Social Organization of Northern Pontic Stepp – Forest-Steppe Pastoral Populations: 2700– 2000 BC (Catacomb Culture) Baltic-Pontic Studies 2: 86–134 Pustovalov, S.Z 1998 Nekotorye Problemy Izucheninya Kolesnogo Transporta Epokhi Bronzy In Problemy Izucheniya Katakombnoi Kul’turno-Istoricheskoi Obshchnosti (KKIO) i Kul’turno-Istoricheskoi Obshchnosti Mnogovalikovoi Keramiki (KIOMK), Zaporozh’e, pp 50–54 Puturidze, M 2003 Social and Economic Shifts in the South Caucasian Middle Bronze Age In A.T Smith and K.S Rubinson (eds.), Archaeology in the Borderlands, pp 111– 127 P’yankova, L.T 1993 Pottery of Margiana and Bactria in the Bronze Age Information Bulletin (UNESCO International Association for the Study of the Cultures of Central Asia)19: 109– 127 P’yankova, L.T 1994 Central Asia in the Bronze Age: Sedentary and Nomadic Cultures Antiquity 68 (259): 355–372 P’yankova, L.T 1999 Stepnye komponenty v kompleksakh bronzogo veka yugo-zapadnogo Tadzhikistana Stratum Plus 2: 286–297 Rao, S.R 1972 Lothal and the Indus Civilization Bombay: Asia Publishing House Rassamakin, Yu 1994 The main directions of the development of early pastoral societies of Northern Pontic Zone: 4500–2450 Baltic-Pontic Studies 2: 29–70 Rassamakin, Yu 1999 The Eneolithic of the Black Sea steppe: Dynamics of cultural and economic development 4500–2300 BC In M Levine,Yu Rassamakin, A Kislenko, and N Tatarintseva (eds.), Late Prehistoric Exploitation of the Eurasian Steppe, pp 59– 182 Rassamakin, Yu 2002 Aspects of Pontic Steppe Development (4500–3000 BC) in the Light of the New Cultural-Chronological Model In K Boyle, C Renfrew, and M Levine (eds.), Ancient Interactions, pp 49–73 Ratnagar, S 2000 The End of the Great Harappan Tradition New Delhi: Manohar Ratnagar, S 2001 The Bronze Age: Unique Instance of a Pre-Industrial World Sytem? Current Anthropology 42: 351–379 P1: FCW 052184780Xref CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 References Ratnagar, S 2004 Trading Encounters From the Euphrates to the Indus in the Bronze Age New Delhi: Oxford University Press Renfrew, C 1969 The Autonomy of the South-East European Copper Age Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 35: 12–47 Renfrew, C 1987 Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Rezepkin, A.D 1991 Kul’turno-khronologicheskie aspekty proiskhozhdeniya i razvitiya maikopskoi kul’turi In Maikopskii phenomenon v drevnei istorii Kavkaza i Vostochnoi Evropy Leningrad:, pp 20–21 Rezepkin, A.D 1996 K probleme sootnosheniya khronologii kul’tur epokhi eneolita – rannei bronzy severnogo Kavkaza i Tripol’ye In Yu.Yu Piotrovskii (ed.), Mezhdu Aziei i Evropoi: Kavkaz v IV–I tys Do n.e Saint Petersburg: Gosudarstvennyi Ermitazh, pp 50–54 Rezepkin, A.D 2000 Das frăuhbronzezeitliche Grăaberfeld von Klady und die Majkop-Kultur in Nordwestkaukasien Rahden/Westf.: Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH Roaf, M 1990 Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East Oxford Rothman, M.S (ed.) 2001 Uruk Mesopotamia and Its Neighbors Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Rothman, M.S 2003 Ripples in the Stream: Transcaucasia-Anatolian Interaction in the Murat/Euphrates Basin at the Beginning of the Third Millennium BC In A.T Smith and K.S Rubinson (eds.), Archaeology in the Borderlands, pp 95–110 Rovira, S 2004 Tekhnologiya vyplavki metalla i ego obrabotki In E.N Chernykh (ed.), Kargaly Tom III, pp 106–133 Rovira, S 2005 Tekhnologiya vyplavki medi v epokhu pozdnei bronzy na Kargalakh Rossiskaya Arkheologiya 4: 79–83 Rubinson, K.S 1977 The Chronology of the Trialeti Culture In L.D Levine and T.C Young, Jr (eds.), Mountains and Lowlands: Essays in the Archaeology of Greater Mesopotamia Bibliotheca Mesopotamica Malibu: Undena Publications, pp 235–249 Safonov, I.E 2001 Raskopki V.A Gorodtsovym kurganov epokhi bronzy v izyumskom uezde letom 1901 g (po arkhivnym materialam) In Yu.I Kolev (ed.), Bronzovyi vek vostochnoi evropy: Kharakteristika kul’tur, khronologiya i periodizatsiya, pp 11–18 October 18, 2006 6:16 285 Sagona, A.G 1984 The Caucasian Region in the Early Bronze Age BAR International Series 214 London Sagona, A.G 2000 Sos Hăoyăuk and the Erzurum region in late prehistory: A provisional chronology for Northeast Anatolia In C Marro and H Hauptmann (eds.), Chronologie des Pays du Caucase et de l’Euphrate aux IVe–IIIe Millenaires, pp 329–374 Sagona, A (ed.) 2004a A View from the Highlands: Archaeological Studies in Honour of Charles Burney Ancient Near Eastern Studies Supplement 12 Belgium: Peeters Sagona, A 2004b Social Boundaries and Ritual Landscapes in Late Prehistoric TransCaucasus and Highland Anatolia In A Sagona (ed.), A View from the Highlands, pp 475– 538 Sahlins, M and E Service (eds.) 1960 Evolution and Culture Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press Salvatori, S 1995 Protohistoric Margiana: On a Recent Contribution (Review of IASCCA [International Association for the Study of the Cultures of Central Asia] Information Bulletin 19, Moscow 1993) Rivisita di Archeologia 19: 38–55 Salvatori, S 1998 The Bronze Age in Margiana In A Gubaev, G Kosholenko, and M Tosi (eds.), The Archaeological Map of the Murghab Delta Preliminary Reports 1990–95 Roma: IsIAO, pp 47–55 Salvatori, S 2000 Bactria and Margiana Seals: A New Assessment of Their Chronological Position and a Typological Survey East and West 50 (nos 1–4): 97–145 Salvatori, S 2003 Pots and Peoples: The ‘Pandora’s Jar’ of Central Asia Archaeological Research On Two Recent Books on Gonur Graveyard Excavations Rivista di Archeologia 27: 5–20 Sarianidi, V.I 1977 Drevnie Zemledel’tsi Afganistana Moscow: Nauka Sarianidi, V.I 1986 Die Kunst des Alten Afghanistan: Keramik, Siegel, Architektur, Kunstwerke aus Stein und Metall Leipzig: VEB E.A Seemann Verlag Sarianidi, V.I 1998a Margiana and Protozoroastrianism Athens: Kapon Editions Sarianidi, V.I 1998b Myths of ancient Bactria and Margiana on its seals and amulets Moscow: Pentagraphic, Ltd Sarianidi, V.I 2001 Necropolis of Gonur and Iranian Paganism Moscow: World Media P1: FCW 052184780Xref CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 286 Sarianidi, V.I 2002 Margush: Ancient Oriental Kingdom in the Old Delta of the Murghab River Ashgabat: Tăurkmendăowlethabarlary Sarianidi, V.I 2004 Strana Margush otkryvaet svoi tainy dvortsovo-kul’tovyi ansambl’ severnogo Gonura In M.F Kosarev, P.M Kozhin, and N.A Dubova (eds.), U istokov tsivilizatsii, pp 229–253 Sarianidi, V.I 2005 Gonurdepe Tăurkmenistan: city of kings and gods Ashgabat: Tăurkmendăowlethabarlary Sarianidi, V.I., N.N Terekhova, and E.N Chernykh 1977 O rannei metallurgii I metalloobrabotke drevnei Baktrii Sovetskaya Arkheologiya 2: 35–42 Schlanger, N (ed.) 2002 Explorations in the History of Archaeology (Special section) Antiquity 76 (291): 127–238 Schmidt, E.F 1937 Excavations at Tepe Hissar Damghan Philadelphia: The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania Press Shahmirzadi, S.M 2004 Sialk und siene Kulă tur Ein Uberblick In T Stăollner, R Slotta, and A Vatandoust (eds.), Persiens Antike Pracht: Bergbau Handwerk Archăaologie Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau Museum, Band I, pp 200–208 Shchetenko, A.Ya 1999 O kontaktakh kul’tur stepnoi bronzy c zemledel’tsami yuzhnogo Turkmenistana v epokhu pozdnei bronzy (po materialam poselenii Tekkem-depe i Namazga-depe) Stratum Plus 2: 323–335 Sherratt, A.G 1981 Plough and pastoralism: Aspects of the Secondary Products Revolution In I Hodder, G Isaac, and N Hammond (eds.), Patterns of the Past: Studies in honour of David Clark Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 261–305 Sherratt, A.G 1983 The secondary exploitation of animals in the Old World World Archaeology 15: 90–104 Sherratt, A.G 2003 The Horse and the Wheel: The Dialectics of Change in the Circum-Pontic Region and Adjacent Areas, 4500–1500 BC In M Levine, C Renfrew, and K Boyle (eds.), Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse, pp 233–252 Shiomi, H 1976 Archaeological Map of the Gorgan Plain, Iran, no Hiroshima Shiomi, H 1978 Archaeological Map of the Gorgan Plain, Iran, no Hiroshima Shishlina, N.I 1997 The Bow and Arrow of the Eurasian Steppe Bronze Age Nomads Journal of European Archaeology (2): 53–66 October 18, 2006 6:16 References Shishlina, N.I 2003 Yamnaya culture pastoral exploitation: A local sequence In M Levine, C Renfrew, and K Boyle (eds.), Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse, pp 353–365 Shishlina, N.I and F.T Hiebert 1998 The steppe and the sown: Interaction between Bronze Age Eurasian nomads and agriculturalists In V.H Mair (ed.), The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Peoples of eastern Central Asia, vol I, pp 222–237 Shishlina, N.I., O.V Orfinskaya, and V.P Golikov 2003 Bronze Age Textiles from the North Caucasus: New Evidence of Fourth Millennium BC Fibres and Fabrics Oxford Journal of Archaeology 22 (4): 331–344 Shnirelman, V.A 1998 Archaeology and ethnic politics: The discovery of Arkaim Museum International 50 (2): 33–39 Shnirelman, V.A 1999 Passions about Arkaim: Russian Nationalism, the Aryans, and the Politics of Archaeology Inner Asia 1: 267–282 Skripkin, A.S., A.N D’yachenko, and V.A Demkin 2004 O naznachenii sooruzheniya y stanitsy Trekhostrovskoi Istoriko-arkheologicheskie issledovaniya v Azove i na Nizhnem Dony v 2002 g 19: 192–196 Smith, A.T 2003 The Political Landscape: Constellations of Authority in Early Complex Polities Berkeley: University of California Press Smith, A.T and K.S Rubinson (eds.) 2003 Archaeology in the Borderlands: Investigations in Caucasia and Beyond Monograph 47 Los Angeles: The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California Smith, M.E 1996 The Aztecs Malden, MA: Blackwell Snodgrass, A.M 1971 The Dark Age of Greece Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Stein, G J 1999 Rethinking World Systems: Diasporas, Colonies and Interaction in Uruk Mesopotamia Tucson: University of Arizona Press Stein, G J., R Bernbeck, C Coursey, A McMahon, N.F Miller, A Misir, J Nicola, H Pittman, S Pollock, and H Wright 1996 Uruk colonies and Anatolian communities: An interim report on the 1992–1993 excavations at Hacinebi, Turkey AJA 100 (2): 205–260 Stein, M.A 1937 Archaeological Reconnaissances in North-Western India and South-Eastern Iran London: Macmillan Steinkeller, P 1982 The Question of Marhashi: A Contribution to the Historical Geography P1: FCW 052184780Xref CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 References of Iran in the Third Millennium B.C Zeitschrift făur Assyriologie 72: 237265 Stone, L 1979 The Revival of Narrative: Reflections on a New Old History Past and Present 85: 3–24 Tatarinov, S.I 2003 Drevnie gornyaki-metallurgi Donbassa Slavyansk: “Pechatnyi dvor.” Taylor, T 1999 Envaluing Metal: Theorizing the Eneolithic ‘Hiatus.’ In S.M.M Young, A.M Pollard, P Budd, and R.A Ixer (eds.), Metals in Antiquity BAR International Series 792 Oxford: Archaeopress, pp 22– 32 Tekhov, B.V 1977 Tsentralny Kavkaz v XVI–X vv n.e Moscow: Nauka Tekhov, B.V 1980 Tliiskii Mogil’nik I Tbilisi: “Metsniereba.” Tekhov, B.V 1981 Tliiskii Mogil’nik II Tbilisi: “Metsniereba.” Tekhov, B.V 1985 Tliiskii Mogil’nik III Tbilisi: “Metsniereba.” Tekhov, B.V 1988 Bronzovye Topory Tliiskogo Mogil’nika Tbilisi: “Metsniereba.” Telegin, D.Ya 1986 Dereivka: A settlement and cemetery of Copper Age horse-keepers on the Middle Dnieper BAR International Series 287 Oxford: Archaeopress Telegin, D.Ya 2002 A Discussion on Some of the Problems Arising from the Study of Neolithic and Eneolithic Cultures in Azov Black Sea Region In K Boyle, C Renfrew, and M Levine (eds.), Ancient Interactions, pp 25–47 Telegin, D.Ya., A.L Nechitailo, I.D Potekhina, and Yu.V Panchenko 2001 Srednestogovskaya i Novodanilovskaya Kul’tury Eneolita Azovo-Chernomorskogo Regiona: arkheologoantropologicheskii analiz materialov I katalog pamyatnikov Lugansk: “Shlyakh” Teufer, M 1999 Ein Scheibenknebel aus Dzarkutan (Săuduzbekistan) AMI 31: 69142 Tiratsian, G 1992 D´ecouvertes r´ecentes en Arm´enie Les Dossiers D’Archeologie 177: 32–39 Todorova, H 1978 The Eneolithic Period in Bulgaria British Archaeological Reports vol S 49, Oxford: BAR Todorova, H (ed.) 1989 Durankulak Soa Todorova, H 1990 Die Sozial-ăokonomische Struktur der Varnakultur an der Westlichen Schwarzmeerkăuste Sarajevo: Godisnjak Knjiga XXVIII Centar za Balkanoloska Ispitivanja Knjiga 26, pp 233–238 October 18, 2006 6:16 287 Todorova, H 1991 Die Kupferzeit Bugariens In J Lichardus (ed.), Die Kupferzeit als historische Epoche, pp 89–93 Todorova, H 1993 Die Protobronzezeit auf der Balkanhalbinsel Anatolica 19: 307–318 Todorova, H 1995 The Neolithic, Eneolithic and Transitional Period in Bulgarian Prehistory In D.W Bailey and I Panayatov (eds.), Prehistoric Bulgaria Madison, WI: Prehistory Press, pp 79–98 Todorova, H 1998 Der balkano-anatolische Kulturbereich vom Neolithikum bis zur Frăuhbronzezeit In M Stefanovich, H Todorova, and H Hauptmann (eds.), James Harvey Gaul: In Memoriam Sofia: The James Harvey Gaul Foundation, pp 27–53 Todorova, H 1999 Die Anfăange der Metallurgie an der westlichen Schwarzmeerkăuste In A Hauptmann, E Pernicka, T Rehren, and ă Yalcin.(eds.), The Beginnings of Metallurgy, U pp 237–246 Todorova, H (ed.) 2002a Die prăahistorischen Grăaberfelder (Durankulak II; vols.) Soa: Deutsches Archăaologisches Institut Todorova, H 2002b Die Sozialstruktur im Licht der Auswertungsergebnisse In H Todorova (ed.), Die prăahistorischen Grăaberfelder, pp 267–280 Todorova, H 2002c Einleitung In H Todorova (ed.), Die prăahistorischen Grăaberfelder, pp 11 15 Todorova, H 2002d Die geographische Lage der Grăaberfelder (mit drei Karten) Palăaoklima, Strandverschiebungen und Umwelt der Dobrudscha im 6.-4 Jahrtausend v.Chr In H Todorova (ed.), Die prăahistorischen Grăaberfelder, pp 1623 Todorova, H and K Dimitrov 2005 Sovremennye issledovaniya arkheometallurgii v Bolgarii Rossiskaya Arkheologiya 4: 6–12 Tolstov, S.P 1962 Po drevnim del’tam Oksa i Yaksarta Moscow: Vostochnoi Literaturi Tosi, M 1977 The archaeological evidence for protostate structures in Eastern Iran and Central Asia at the end of the 3rd millennium BC In J Deshayes (ed.), Le plateau iranien et l’Asie Centrale des origins a` la conquˆete islamique, Paris: CNRS, pp 45–66 Tosi, M n.d Reasoning about Magan, Marhashi, and the Shifting Frontiers of Meluhha Trifonov, V A 1987 Nekotorye voprosy peredneaziatskikh svyazei maikopskoi kul’tury KSIA 192: 18–26 P1: FCW 052184780Xref CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 288 Trifonov, V.A 1991 Osobennosti lokal’nokhronologicheskogo razvitiya Maikopskoi kul’tury In V.A Trifonov (ed.), Maikopskii fenomenon v drevnei istorii Kavkaza i Vostochnoi Evropy Leningrad:, pp 25–29 Trifonov, V.A 1996 Popravki k absolyutnoi khronologii kul’tur epokhi eneolita – bronzy severnogo Kavkaza In Yu.Yu Piotrovskii (ed.), Mezhdu Aziei I Evropoi, pp 43–49 Trifonov, V.A 2000 Maikop Type Tumuli in Northwestern Iran: Towards a More Precise Dating of the Tumuli at S´e Girdan In The Scholar’s Destiny, to the Centenary of Boris A Latynin St Petersburg (in Russian, cited in Muscarella op cit.), pp 244–264 Trifonov, V 2001 Popravik absolyutnoi khronologii kul’tur epokhi eneolita-srednei bronzy Kavkaza, stepnoi i lesostepnoi zon vostochnoi Evropy (po dannym radiouglerodnogo datirovaniya) In Yu.I Kolev (ed.), Bronzovyi vek vostochnoi evropy: Kharakteristika kul’tur, khronologiya i periodizatsiya, pp 71–82 Trifonov, V.A 2004 “Tsarskie” Grobnitsy Arslantepe i Novosvobodnoi: Nekotorye aspekty sravnitel’nogo analiza Problemy Arkheologii Nizhnego Povol’zh’ya/ Mezhdunardnaya Nizhne volzhskaya arkheologicheskaya konferentsiya Tezisi Dokladov Volgograd:, pp 56–61 Trigger, B.G 1973 The Future of Archeology is the Past In C L Redman (ed.), Research and Theory in Current Archeology New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp 95–111 Trigger, B.G 1989 A History of Archaeological Thought Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Trigger, B.G 2003 Artifacts and Ideas: Essays in Archaeology New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers Trippett, F 1974 The First Horsemen New York: Time-Life Books Tschartolani, S 2001 Alterbergbau in Swanetien In I Gambaschidze, A Hauptmann, R ă Yalcin (eds.), Georgien: Schăatze Slotta, and U aus dem Land des Goldenen Vlies, pp 120–129 Ucko, P.J (ed.) 1995 Theory in Archaeology: A World Perspective London: Routledge Videjko, M.Y 1996 Grosssiedlungen der Tripol’e Kultur in der Ukraine EurAnt 1: 45–80 Vinogradov, A.V 1979 Issledovaniya pamyatnikov kamennogo veka v severnom Afganistane Drevnyaya Baktriya 2: 7–62 October 18, 2006 6:16 References Vinogradova, N.M 1994 The farming settlement of Kangurttut (South Tadjikistan) in the Late Bronze Age AMI 27: 29–47 Vinogradova, N.M 2004 Yugo-Zapadnyi Tadzhikistan v epokhu pozdnei bronzy Moscow: Institut Vostokovedeniya RAN Voigt, M.M and R.H Dyson, Jr 1992 The Chronology of Iran, ca 8000–2000 B.C In R.W Ehrich (ed.), Chronologies in Old World Archaeology, vol I (Chicago, 2nd ed.), pp 122–178 Waldbaum, J.C 1978 From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, vol 54 Găoteborg: Paul Astrăoms Wallerstein, I 1974 The Modern World System New York: Academic Press Watson, P.J., S.A LeBlanc, and C.L Redman 1971 Explanation in Archeology: An Explicitly Scientific Approach New York: Columbia University Press Webb, J.M and D Frankel 1999 Characterizing the Philia Facies: Material Culture, Chronology, and the Origin of the Bronze Age in Cyprus AJA 103: 3–43 Weiss, H and T.C Young, Jr 1975 The Merchants of Susa: Godin V and Plateau-Lowland Relations in the Late Fourth Millennium B.C Iran 13: 1–18 Weeks, L R 1999 Lead Isotope Analyses from Tell Abraq, United Arab Emirates: New data regarding the ‘tin problem’ in Western Asia Antiquity 73: 49–64 Weeks, L.R 2003 Early Metallurgy of the Persian Gulf: Technology, trade, and the Bronze Age world Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, Inc Wolf, E.R 1982 Europe and the People Without History Berkeley: University of California Press Wolf, E R 1984 Culture: Panacea or Problem? American Antiquity 49 (2): 393–400 Woolley, Sir C.L 1953 A Forgotten Kingdom London: Penguin Yazdi, L.P 2004 Southern Turkmenistan and North Iranian Khorassan In Turkmenistan is a Native Land of Anau Culture and White Wheat (Ak Bugday) Abstracts of Reports of the International Scientific Conference (October 22–23, 2004) Ashgabat, pp 194–196 Yoffee, N 2005 Myths of the Archaic State: Evolution of the Earliest Cities, States, and Civilizations Cambridge: Cambridge University Press P1: FCW 052184780Xref CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 References Yoffee, N and J J Clark (eds.) 1993 Early Stages in the Evolution of Mesopotamian Civilization: Soviet Excavations in Northern Iraq Tucson: University of Arizona Press Young, T.C 1967 Iranian Migration into the Zagros Iran 5: 11–34 Zdanovich, D.G 1995 Mogil’nik Bol’shekaraganskii (Arkaim) i mir drevnikh indoevropeitsev Uralo-Kazakhstanskikh stepei In G.B Zdanovich (ed.), Arkaim: Issledovniya, poiski, otkrytiya Chelyabinsk: Trudy Zapovednika Arkaim Nauchno-Populyarnaya Seriya, pp 43–53 Zdanovich, D.G 2002 Introduction In K Jones-Bley and D.G Zdanovich (eds.), Complex Societies of Central Eurasia from the 3rd to the 1st Millennium BC: Regional Specifics in Light of Global Models, vol I, pp xix–xxxviii Zdanovich, G.B (ed.) 1995 Arkaim: Issledovniya, poiski, otkrytiya Chelyabinsk: Trudy Zapovednika Arkaim Nauchno-Populyarnaya Seriya October 18, 2006 6:16 289 Zdanovich, G.B 1995 Arkaim: Arii na Urale ili nesostoyashayasya tsivilizatsiya In G.B Zdanovich (ed.), Arkaim: Issledovniya, poiski, otkrytiya Chelyabinsk: Trudy Zapovednika Arkaim Nauchno-Populyarnaya Seriya, pp 21–42 Zdanovich, G.B 1997 Arkaim – kul’turnyi kompleks epokhi srednei bronzy yuzhnogo zaural’ya RA 2: 47–62 Zdanovich, G.B 1999 Yuzhnoe zaural’e v epokhu srednei bronzy In Kompleksnie Obshchestva Tsentral’noi Evrazii v III–I tis n.e., pp 42–45 Zdanovich, G.B and I.M Batanina 2002 Planography of the Fortified Settlements of the Middle Bronze Age in the Southern TransUrals According to Aerial Photography Data In K Jones-Bley and D.G Zdanovich (eds.), Complex Societies of Central Eurasia from the 3rd to the 1st Millennium BC: Regional Specifics in Light of Global Models, vol I, pp 121– 138 P1: FCW 052184780Xref CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 290 October 18, 2006 6:16 P1: FCW 052184780Xind CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 October 19, 2006 5:39 INDEX Abashevo, 146, 200 Adams, R McC., 11, 12, 214, 221, 231 Afghanistan, 21, 62, 108, 164, 165, 182, 183, 186, 187, 189, 203, 204, 212, 214, 216, 217, 221, 222, 224, 227, 249 agriculture, 13, 35, 39, 53, 71, 75, 76, 91, 94, 120, 121, 127, 144, 145, 146, 156, 157, 158, 161, 162, 187, 188, 189, 193, 205, 206, 208, 212, 218, 226, 245, 253, 256 Ai Bunar, 32, 34, 56 Akcha Darya delta, 188 Akhundov, T., 69, 75, 117 Algaze, G., 54, 98, 216 Alikemek tepesi, 68, 69 Altai, 168, 170, 238 Altyn-depe, 142, 186, 202, 205, 207, 212, 219, 220 Amiranis-Gora, 90 Amu Darya, 182, 184, 188, 189, 192, 194, 200, 206 Anatolia, 26, 29, 31, 35, 50, 54, 58, 62, 64, 65, 68, 70, 74, 75, 79, 80, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 108, 111, 132, 213, 216, 232, 236, 251, 258, 259, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266 Anau, 183, 184, 194 Ancient Near East, 15, 57, 58, 65, 97, 99, 127, 131, 163, 166, 168, 199, 214, 215, 217, 220, 223, 245, 247, 248, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 257, 258 Andronovo, 152, 156, 157, 170, 182, 186, 189, 194, 199, 200, 221, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 260 Anglo-American archaeology, 2, 3, 4, 6, animal husbandry, 15, 39, 53, 75, 158 Anthony, D W., 15, 16, 20, 37, 38, 39, 44, 48, 51, 54, 75, 139, 142, 147, 151, 153, 157, 178, 250 Anthony, E E., 54, 77, 126, 162, 164, 175, 176, 177 Arabian Sea, 214, 219, 229 Aral Sea, 50, 158, 184, 188, 189, 193, 200, 206 Ararat plain, 65, 68, 76, 87, 88, 89, 95, 96 Aratashen, 68 Aratta, 230 archaeological culture, 4, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 32, 53, 103, 110, 113, 121, 129, 130, 131, 133, 166, 206, 234, 238, 259 Arich, 90, 95, 267 Arkaim, 13, 146, 149, 150, 151, 152, 155, 156, 178, 247 Armenia, 2, 21, 65, 67, 68, 87, 90, 94, 95, 108, 117 Arsenical copper/bronzes, 54 Arslantepe, 58, 74, 75, 90, 91, 92, 96, 97, 223, 254, 261, 263, 266 Aruz, J., 214, 220, 227, 230 Aryan, 141, 152, 231, 234, 235, 237, 259 Aryans, 19, 152, 205, 216, 233, 235, 236, 251 Askarov, A., 186, 205 atak, 188 Azerbaijan, 2, 21, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 75, 76, 86, 88, 89, 96, 102, 103, 107, 109, 112, 113, 114, 117, 123, 264 Bactria, 18, 126, 131, 184, 186, 187, 192, 193, 199, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 209, 210, 212, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218, 233, 237, 251 Bactria Margiana Archaeological Complex, 18, 184, 201, 212, 237 Bactrian camels, 142, 143, 209 Balkans, 15, 21, 28, 31, 32, 34, 35, 39, 46, 48, 50, 52, 54, 56, 70, 71, 78, 130, 133, 134, 135, 136, 163, 167, 168, 236, 244, 254, 258, 259, 265 Baluchistan, 18, 187, 199, 203, 204, 214, 217, 229, 237 Bampur, 217, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230 barley, 44, 45, 94, 145, 156, 157, 231 Bedeni, 70, 107, 108, 112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 224, 262 bent bows, 210, 245 Berikldeebi, 69, 114, 265 Beth Shean, 99 Beth Yerah, 99 Black Sea, 24, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 39, 47, 52, 59, 64, 91, 108, 126, 157, 251, 254 BMAC, 18, 19, 131, 186, 189, 193, 196, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 212, 213, 214, 217, 219, 227, 233, 235 291 P1: FCW 052184780Xind CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 October 19, 2006 5:39 292 Bochkarev, V S., 129, 168 Boroffka, N., 144, 201, 209, 221, 223 Botai, 28, 49, 50, 139 Bulgaria, 23, 27, 30, 33, 34, 56, 123 C14 determinations, 19, 233, 263 calibrated dates, 19, 20, 102, 107, 108, 131, 132, 240 camels, 63, 140, 141, 142, 143, 159, 162, 164, 166, 176, 179, 192, 196, 200, 209, 245, 250 Carpatho-Balkan Metallurgical Province, 15, 20, 28, 31, 46, 50, 54, 71, 133, 136, 167, 254 Caspian, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 71, 86, 88, 89, 96, 102, 103, 105, 106, 112, 114, 119, 125, 126, 127, 136, 146, 159, 163, 182, 183, 188, 190, 191, 200, 232, 233, 265, 266 Catacomb, 58, 59, 119, 128, 146, 160, 210, 212, 261, 262, 266, 267 C atalhăoyăuk, 29, 52 Cattle, 78, 95, 121, 126, 141 C ayăonău Tepesi, 29 cereal cultivation, 156, 157, 222 cereals, 128, 153, 156, 157, 231, 246 cheekpieces, 78, 79, 80, 134, 140, 142, 144, 151, 209 Chernykh, E N., 11, 14, 19, 20, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 67, 73, 74, 77, 78, 80, 82, 84, 109, 117, 122, 130, 132, 133, 150, 156, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 173, 174, 176, 179, 204, 238, 240, 253, 256, 265 Childe, V G., 4, 10, 28, 73, 141, 244, 253, 260 China, 2, 82, 141, 168, 182, 206, 233, 238, 240, 244, 253, 255, 256, 257 chronologies, 19, 21, 131 Cimmerians, 65, 255 Circumpontic Metallurgical Province, 15, 50, 54, 84, 109, 167 civilization, 26, 49, 186, 189, 193, 214, 215, 216, 217, 224, 230, 240, 255, 259 Country of Towns, 148, 149, 150, 152, 156, 178 See Strana gorodov, Cucuteni-Tripol’ye, 34, 37, 38, 40, 45, 46, 49 cultural communities, 58, 84, 146 Cultural evolution, 258, 259 Cyprus, 101, 232, 258 Daghestan, 21, 64, 67, 71, 82, 86, 88, 89, 94, 96, 102, 103, 107, 118, 123, 124, 125, 188, 264 Dales, G F., 214, 215 Danube, 32, 39, 40, 126, 135, 144, 156, 267 Darreh Gaz plain, 62, 194, 196, 205 Dashly, 186, 201, 204 Dashly 3, 204 Dasht-i Lut, 217, 230 Derbent, 66, 109 Dereivka, 28, 51, 134 Dilmun, 214, 232 Djarkutan, 209, 212 Djavakheti, 65, 68, 91, 94, 113, 120, 121 Djeitun, 186 Index Dnieper, 21, 23, 28, 32, 34, 38, 39, 40, 44, 127, 130, 133, 136, 146, 156, 266 Don, 16, 38, 49, 59, 75, 84, 133, 144, 146, 170, 177, 200, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267 Donbass, 167, 170 Donets, 128, 261, 262, 263, 264, 266, 267 donkeys, 140, 141, 142 Durankulak, 24, 27, 46, 47, 48 Dzhavakhishvili, 70 Dzhraovit, 76, 89 Euphrates, 54, 58, 65, 83, 90, 96, 97, 104, 216, 232 Eurasian Metallurgical Province, 122, 168, 238 Eurasian steppes, 2, 8, 12, 14, 15, 18, 19, 21, 32, 52, 53, 54, 61, 62, 63, 76, 82, 84, 85, 103, 108, 111, 117, 119, 121, 122, 128, 129, 130, 131, 134, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143, 144, 146, 157, 162, 166, 167, 178, 184, 192, 193, 200, 206, 212, 235, 236, 237, 244, 245, 248, 250, 252, 253, 254, 255, 257, 259 Farukhabad, 1, 212 felt, 8, 140, 164, 165, 166, 231 Fergana valley, 199 fiber revolution, 222 Francfort, H.-P., 186, 187, 189, 199, 202, 204, 210, 211, 215 Frangipane, M., 74, 90, 92 Gadzhiev, M G., 66, 71, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 119, 124, 125 Galyugai, 76, 77 Garakepektepe, 76, 89 Gei, 15, 16, 85, 109, 118, 119, 130 Georgia, 21, 64, 65, 67, 68, 71, 75, 78, 84, 87, 88, 90, 91, 94, 96, 101, 107, 108, 113, 114, 115, 116, 120, 121, 170, 253, 266, 267 Geoy Tepe, 88, 97 Gershkovich, J P., 158, 255, 267 giant settlements, 23, 52 gigantic settlements, 40, 42, 44, 45, 51, 52, 53, 236 Gimbutas, M., 46, 48, 131, 133 Ginchi, 71, 102, 107, 124, 261, 264, 267 globalization, 260 goats, 45, 46, 53, 78, 91, 95, 121, 159, 162, 163, 164, 175, 192, 210, 211, 221, 223, 245 Godin, 87, 97, 261, 267 Gonur-depe, 198, 199, 201, 204, 209, 212, 223, 224, 227, 230 Gorgan, 62, 190, 192, 194, 203, 217, 219, 235 Gorny, 150, 153, 157, 171, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 247 Gorodtsov, V A., 128, 129, 145 Halaf, 69, 123 Halil Rud, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230 Hammurabi, 232 Harappa, 187, 216 Hassuna, 67, 123 Helmand, 187, 215 P1: FCW 052184780Xind CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 Index Herodotus, 65 Hiebert, F T., 126, 129, 160, 188, 189, 194, 196, 204, 205, 233, 235 Hindu Kush, 62, 182 Hissar, 194, 220, 233 Hittites, 96 homeland, 70, 96, 152, 233, 234, 236, 237, 252, 259 horse, 12, 14, 15, 45, 50, 51, 63, 69, 78, 128, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146, 151, 153, 158, 159, 160, 162, 166, 175, 176, 179, 192, 193, 198, 200, 208, 209, 210, 230, 231, 237, 238, 240, 241, 245, 250, 255, 256, 257 harnessing, 14, 15, 45, 141, 142, 144, 146, 153, 162, 179, 209, 210 horse domestication, 137 riding, 14, 15, 78, 128, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 140, 142, 143, 144, 146, 159, 162, 179, 210, 237, 255 Hurrians, 19, 96 Hyrcania, 190 Indo-Aryans, 235 Indo-Europeans, 233 Indo-Iranians, 215, 233, 236 Indus Valley, 49, 199, 203, 214, 215, 216, 217, 223, 224, 231, 255, 259, 282 Indus Valley Civilization, 214 interaction spheres, 32 Intercultural Style vessels, 220 Iran, xv, 18, 21, 26, 27, 49, 54, 61, 62, 65, 69, 71, 80, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 96, 97, 99, 112, 123, 143, 168, 182, 183, 187, 189, 190, 194, 196, 199, 200, 203, 204, 205, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 224, 225, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 237, 251, 257, 258, 260, 261, 262, 263, 266, 267 Iranian Plateau, 214 Iranians, 233, 251 iron, 12, 15, 23, 82, 84, 85, 90, 91, 120, 122, 131, 140, 143, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 160, 161, 179, 184, 186, 191, 195, 203, 223, 232, 236, 240, 244, 245, 250, 252, 253, 255, 257 irrigation, 63, 95, 127, 162, 187, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 203, 205, 206, 208, 212, 218, 245, 251 Irtysh, 146, 156 Itina, M A., 186, 192, 193, 206 Jaz Murian, 215, 217, 218, 219, 225, 227, 229, 230 Jiroft, 215, 217, 219, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230 Kakheti, 65, 78, 107, 170 Kalmykia, 85, 145, 160, 161, 162, 163, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267 Kanesh, 221 Kara Kum, 62, 63, 126, 159, 183, 189, 200, 250 Karashamb, 115, 116, 117, 254 Karbuna Hoard, 35, 37, 38 Kargaly, 56, 148, 157, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 247 Karnut, 90, 95 October 19, 2006 5:39 293 Kartamysh, 170 Katakombnaya, 82, 128 Kazakhstan, 28, 50, 63, 126, 127, 139, 140, 157, 158, 182, 184, 199, 221, 253 Kelleli, 204 Kelteminar, 50, 189, 206 Khazanov, A M., 82, 158, 159 Khirbet Kerak, 87, 96, 97, 98, 99, 102 Khorassan, 182, 183, 189, 194 Khoresmia, 184, 187, 193, 199, 208 Khosrow I, 66 Khvalynsk, 34, 37, 49, 51, 263, 264 Kiguradze, T, 67, 69, 70, 89, 265 KMK See Kul’tura mnogoralikovoi keramiki, 146 Koban, 84, 121, 254, 267 Kodzadermen-Gumelnitsa-Karanovo VI Verband, 33, 49 Kohl, P L., 5, 7, 11, 40, 41, 42, 43, 66, 90, 91, 94, 105, 108, 184, 185, 189, 194, 195, 196, 203, 205, 209, 212, 213, 226, 246 Konar Sandal A, 217, 219, 226 Konar Sandal B, 226 Konstantinovka, 61, 75, 266 Kopet Dagh, 62, 126, 183, 186, 188, 189, 190, 193, 195, 202, 205 Korenevskii, S N., 73, 74, 75, 76 Koryakova, L N., 82, 257 Krivoi Rog cemetery, 38, 136 Kuban, 55, 63, 72, 73, 75, 77, 84, 86, 112, 115, 119, 200, 261, 262, 263, 266, 267 Kuftin, B A., 87, 186 Kul’tura mnogovalikovoi keramiki, Kura-Araxes, 18, 52, 54, 57, 58, 61, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74, 76, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 112, 113, 114, 117, 120, 121, 125, 213, 216, 223, 251, 254, 258, 259, 262, 263, 266 kurgan archaeology, 16, 128 kurgans, 15, 16, 18, 43, 58, 59, 62, 65, 72, 73, 74, 75, 78, 82, 85, 86, 91, 96, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 128, 134, 144, 145, 147, 155, 161, 166, 179, 213, 223, 246, 248, 251, 254, 257, 260, 266 Kushnareva, K Kh., 58, 68, 69, 71, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 112, 113, 114, 117, 120, 166 Kuzmina, E E., 130, 131, 132, 152, 192, 233, 236, 237 Kvatskhelebi, 87, 90, 95 Kvemo Kartli, 68, 107 Kyrgyzstan, 182 Kyul Tepe I, 68, 69 Kyurduluk, 117 Kyzyl Kum, 50, 62, 63, 126, 183, 188, 250 Lamberg-Karlovsky, C C., 149, 201, 214, 216, 233, 235 lapis lazuli, 196, 226, 228 Lebedeva, E Yu., 77, 128, 156 Leila-depe, 68, 69, 264 P1: FCW 052184780Xind CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 October 19, 2006 5:39 294 Linduff, K M., 237, 238 Lyonnet, B., 57, 61, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 84, 106, 157, 199, 200, 203, 204, 214, 221 Madjidzadeh, Y., 220 Magan, 214, 224, 255 Magomedov, R G., 66, 86, 104, 105, 107, 110, 111 Maikop, 19, 54, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 91, 103, 104, 123, 132, 134, 223, 254, 258, 259, 262, 265, 266 Majdanetskoe, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45 Margiana, 18, 126, 131, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 192, 193, 199, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 212, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218, 231, 233, 235, 237 Marhashi, 230 Mari, 232 Mariupil, 49 Marki Alonia, 101 Mart´ınez-Navarrete, M I., 157 Martkopi, 108, 113, 117, 119, 224, 262, 266 Masson, V M., 45, 53, 69, 71, 142, 184, 186, 205, 207, 220 Mazanderan, 182, 183 McCorriston, J., 222 Meadow, R., 223, 231 Meluhha, 214, 219, 224 Merpert, N Ya., 29, 45, 53, 69, 71, 123, 129, 130 Meshoko, 70, 76, 77, 262, 263, 264 Mesopotamia, 11, 12, 13, 26, 27, 29, 54, 58, 67, 68, 71, 74, 75, 79, 84, 85, 98, 106, 110, 120, 142, 165, 189, 196, 199, 213, 214, 216, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 230, 231, 232, 247, 253, 254, 255, 259, 263, 266 Mesopotamian political economy, 222 metal working, 106, 152, 167, 174, 177, 204, 208, 237 metallurgical province, 31, 32 metallurgical provinces, 14, 32, 168, 247, 252, 253 metallurgy, 10, 28, 31, 53, 62, 70, 71, 74, 122, 189, 237, 240, 253 Metsamor, 90 Miatli kurgan, 86 migrations, 18, 97, 112, 133, 136, 235, 238, 250, 259 Mikhailovka, 28 millet, 44, 145, 157 Miri Qalat, 214, 229 mobile economies, 23, 63, 64, 128, 134 Mohenjo-daro, 187, 216 Mokhra-Blur, 89, 90, 95 Mongolia, 22, 56, 143, 168, 169, 182 mules, 141, 142 Munchaev, R M., 29, 57, 61, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83, 85, 102, 106, 122, 123 Mundigak, 187, 217, 219 Murghab, 62, 186, 189, 194, 201, 203, 208 Mycenae, 19, 113, 132 Nakhicevan See Nal’chik cemetery, 71, 72, 263 Index Namazga-depe, 186, 212 Narimanov, I G., 67, 68, 69 national traditions of research See research traditions Neo-evolutionary archaeology, 11 neo-evolutionary studies, 11 Neolithic, 29, 31, 40, 50, 52, 65, 67, 68, 71, 102, 128, 129, 130, 132, 143, 163, 184, 186, 187, 189, 192, 194, 195, 203, 204, 206, 218, 236, 258 nomadism, 12, 14, 53, 82, 84, 112, 130, 143, 144, 145, 157, 158, 159, 162, 164, 166, 223, 244, 245, 250, 252, 255 Norsuntepe, 96, 97, 262, 263 Novodanilovka, 49 Novosvobodnaya, 54, 58, 59, 61, 72, 74, 85, 119, 134, 210, 223 Novotitorovskaya, 82, 109, 112, 119, 212 Ob, 146, 156 obshchnosti, 14, 32 Old Europe, 27, 46, 72, 133, 140, 236 open steppe, 15, 16, 45, 50, 126, 145, 157, 159, 174, 246 Orenburg, 56, 146, 150, 170 Oshad kurgan, 72 Otchir-Goriaeva, M., 145, 160, 161, 163 oxen, xxi, 18, 45, 62, 86, 95, 96, 112, 119, 121, 133, 141, 142, 143, 144, 162, 178, 179, 200, 209, 212, 250, 260 Pamir, 182 Parzinger, H., 28, 50, 52, 53, 201, 221 Persian Gulf, 219 Petrovka, 146, 151, 200 pigs, 44, 45, 52, 78, 95 Pit Grave, 59, 128, 132, 144, 145, 146, 147, 159, 160, 263, 266 See also Yamnaya Possehl, G L., 26, 214, 215, 216 post-processual archaeology, 3, Potapovka, 146, 267 Potts, D T., 143, 214, 221, 230, 232 processual archaeology, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10 proto-Elamites, 216 Prut, 130, 261, 262, 263, 266 psalia, 78, 79, 80, 254 pseudo-cereals, 157 Pumpelly, R., 183, 184 Quijia, 238 Rassamakin, Yu, 12, 13, 19, 20, 28, 38, 39, 49, 58, 59, 60, 61, 71, 72, 75, 84, 130, 133, 134, 136, 138, 139, 240 Ratnagar, S., 214, 224, 232, 244, 250, 252, 255 Renfrew, C., 3, 30, 138, 236 research traditions, See national traditions of research Rezepkin, A D., 58, 72, 76 Romania, 26, 27, 34, 39, 50, 258 Royal Cemetery, 79, 118, 198, 263 P1: FCW 052184780Xind CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 Index Sabatinovka, 144, 156, 158, 267 Sagona, A G., 88, 89, 96, 97, 265 Salvatori, S., 187, 195, 202, 203, 204, 205, 208, 209, 212, 215, 233 Sapallitepa, 205, 212 Sarazm, 61, 196, 200 Sargon, 224, 230 Sarianidi, V I., 19, 142, 184, 186, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 204, 209 Sasanians, 66, 191 Satkhe, 90, 91, 113 scepters, 38, 39, 47, 49, 51, 133, 134, 135, 136, 139 Scythians, 65, 73, 255 S´e Girdan, 85, 112 Sea of Azov, 49, 128 secondary products revolution, 164 secondary states, 84, 213, 218, 220, 223, 224, 232, 246, 247, 255 Seima-Turbino, 168, 237 Serker-tepe, 103 Shahdad, 217, 219, 224, 230, 233 Shahr-i Sokhta, 187, 214, 217, 218, 219 Shah-tepe, 194 Shang Dynasty, 238, 241 sheep, 44, 45, 46, 53, 78, 91, 95, 121, 139, 158, 159, 162, 163, 164, 175, 192, 209, 210, 211, 221, 222, 223, 245, 250 Shengavit, 90 Sherratt, A G., 46, 141, 164 Shida Kartli, 64, 69, 70, 87, 88, 96, 114, 121, 122 Shishlina, N I., 159, 210, 223 Shortughai, 214, 215 Shortughaă, 204 Shulaveri-Shomu, 67, 68, 263, 264 Sialk, 217, 219, 233 Siba, 238 Siberia, 15, 28, 50, 55, 126, 127, 156, 158, 184, 199 sickles, 95, 156, 170, 208, 254, 255 Sintashta, 13, 14, 132, 143, 146, 147, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 178, 247, 262, 267 Skelya, 38, 49, 71, 133, 136, 138, 139 Sos Hăoyăuk, 88, 89 Sredni Stog, 37, 262, 265, 266 Srubnaya, 128 Sumer, 42, 182, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 223, 224, 225, 230, 231, 232, 246, 255, 257, 258 surplus production, 165, 221 Syr Darya, 182, 188, 189 Tadjikistan, 61, 182, 189, 193, 194, 199, 208, 209 Takhirbai, 204, 208 Tal’janki, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45 Tappeh Gijlar, 88, 89 Tedjen, 62, 189, 194, 195, 203 Telegin, D Ya., 19, 20, 51, 131, 133 Tell Abraq, 108 Tell Sotto, 29, 67 October 19, 2006 5:39 295 Tepe Yahya, 214, 225, 226, 229 Terek, 67, 76, 77 terraces, 94, 105, 106, 178, 186 textiles, 46, 165, 221, 222, 223, 245, 249, 256 Three Island, 177 Tien Shan, 182 Timber Grave, 128, 129, 144, 146, 156, 157, 158, 170, 177, 178, 259, 262, 267 tin, xxi, 29, 62, 108, 118, 122, 168, 170, 182, 193, 196, 199, 201, 221, 222, 230, 232, 236, 244, 245, 249, 252, 253, 255 Tin-bronzes, 122, 170 Tli cemetery, 84, 121, 254 Tobol, 146, 148 Tocharians, 233, 234 Todorova, H., 23, 24, 27, 30, 35, 46, 47, 48, 50, 52 Togolok, 186, 201, 204 Tolstov, S P., 184, 186 Tosi, M., 143, 200, 203, 214, 215, 219, 229 traditions of archaeological research, 1, Transcaucasia, 18, 52, 58, 62, 65, 68, 69, 70, 74, 76, 79, 80, 82, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 112, 113, 114, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 154, 159, 163, 166, 200, 213, 224, 232, 251, 254, 257, 259, 263, 264, 266 transhumance, 77, 78, 91, 144, 187 Trialeti, 65, 107, 113, 116, 119, 120, 132, 224, 262, 266, 267 Trifonov, V A., 19, 57, 58, 73, 78, 80, 85, 132, 240, 261, 263, 265 Trigger, B G., 6, 7, Tripol’ye, 12, 14, 25, 27, 28, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 57, 75, 78, 84, 99, 101, 111, 133, 134, 149, 162, 167, 200, 205, 236, 254, 256, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266 Troy, 19, 108, 118 Tsnori, 113, 114, 262, 266 Tugai, 201 Turan, xv, 183, 215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 225 Tureng tepe, 194 Turkmenistan, 18, 31, 62, 131, 142, 143, 182, 183, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 193, 194, 199, 202, 203, 204, 205, 212, 215, 217, 227, 235, 237 Ubaid, 23, 68, 71, 73, 123, 264 Ukraine, 22, 23, 28, 34, 39, 50, 56, 85, 127, 128, 133, 135, 136, 139, 140, 145, 167, 170, 200, 234, 236, 254, 258 Ur, 79, 118, 141, 221, 230, 231, 263 Ural, 13, 28, 56, 127, 130, 144, 146, 148, 151, 159, 170, 188, 200, 221 Urals, 21, 39, 50, 56, 126, 127, 130, 133, 143, 146, 148, 153, 156, 159, 167, 169, 170, 178, 189, 193, 199, 200, 206, 233, 234, 237, 247, 253, 258, 262, 266, 267 Urartu, 84 Urmia, 85, 88, 97, 266 Uruk, 54, 58, 69, 70, 73, 75, 83, 97, 104, 106, 213, 216, 222, 223, 263, 265, 266 P1: FCW 052184780Xind CUFX073/Kohl Printer: cupusbw 521 84811 October 19, 2006 296 Uruk expansion, 216, 222 Usatovo, 45, 53, 162 Uzbekistan, 182, 189, 208, 209 Varna, 24, 27, 33, 38, 39, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 78, 136, 254 Velikent, 61, 66, 71, 86, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 118, 119, 125, 150, 265, 266 Veselovskii, N I., 72, 73 Videjko, M Y., 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 49, 51, 52 Vinogradova, N M., 182, 192, 194, 195, 199, 208 Volga, 22, 28, 31, 32, 34, 38, 39, 46, 49, 56, 59, 71, 123, 126, 128, 133, 134, 135, 136, 144, 145, 146, 159, 160, 167, 170, 174, 188, 200, 254, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267 Weeks, L R., 108, 167, 168, 214, 232 wheat, 44, 45, 76, 94, 145, 157, 231 wheeled transport, 85, 110, 111, 128, 133, 141, 145 wheeled vehicles, 14, 15, 85, 96, 110, 112, 142, 143, 144, 179, 193, 210, 224, 230, 237, 240, 245, 250, 253, 256, 257 carts, 62, 85, 95, 96, 111, 144, 153, 162, 212 5:39 Index chariots, 111, 132, 151, 152, 153, 162, 179, 212 wagons, 18, 86, 96, 112, 115, 119, 120, 121, 140, 141, 142, 144, 162, 176, 178, 179, 196, 200, 209, 212, 250, 260 Wolf, E R., 1, 17, 258 wool, 46, 164, 192, 222, 223 wool-bearing sheep, 222, 223 world systems, 32, 246, 247 Xinjiang, 143, 182, 233, 238, 240 Yanik Tepe, 88, 97 Yarim tepe, 194 Yarim Tepe I, 29 Yarim Tepe III, 68 Yoffee, N., 10, 12, 123, 259 Yom tepe, 194 Yu.T.A.K.E, 186 Zagros, 87, 96, 225, 226, 229, 233 Zardchakhalif, 208, 209 Zdanovich, G B., 13, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152 Zeravshan, 170, 187, 188, 189, 193, 199, 200, 208, 221 ziggurats, 186