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(BQ) Part 2 book “Essentials of nursing research” has contents: Qualitative designs and approaches, sampling and data collection in qualitative studies, analysis of qualitative data, trustworthiness and integrity in qualitative research,…. And other contents.
part Qualitative Research chapter 14 Qualitative Designs and Approaches LEARNING OBJECTIVES On completing this chapter, you will be able to: • Discuss the rationale for an emergent design in qualitative research, and describe qualitative design features • Identify the major research traditions for qualitative research and describe the domain of inquiry of each • Describe the main features of ethnographic, phenomenologic, and grounded theory studies • Discuss the goals and methods of various types of research with an ideological perspective • Define new terms in the chapter KEY TERMS Basic social process (BSP) Bracketing Case study Constant comparison Constructivist grounded theory Core variable Critical ethnography Critical theory Descriptive phenomenology Descriptive qualitative study Emergent design Ethnonursing research Feminist research Field work Hermeneutics Interpretive phenomenology Narrative analysis Participant observation Participatory action research (PAR) Reflexive journal Quantitative researchers specify a research design before collecting even one piece of data, and rarely depart from that design once the study is underway: they design and then they In qualitative research, by contrast, the study design typically evolves during the project: qualitative researchers design as they Decisions about how best to obtain data, from whom to obtain data, and how long a data collection session should last are made as the study unfolds THE DESIGN OF QUALITATIVE STUDIES Qualitative studies use an emergent design that evolves as researchers make ongoing decisions based on what they have already learned An emergent design in qualitative studies is a reflection of the researchers’ desire to have the inquiry based on the realities and viewpoints of those under study— realities and viewpoints that are not known at the outset Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design Qualitative inquiry has been guided by different disciplines, and each has developed methods for addressing questions of interest Some characteristics of qualitative research design tend to apply across disciplines, however In general, qualitative design: • Is flexible and elastic, capable of adjusting to what is being learned during data collection • Often involves merging together various data collection strategies (i.e., triangulation) • Tends to be holistic, striving for an understanding of the whole • Requires researchers to become intensely involved and can necessitate a lengthy period of time • Benefits from ongoing data analysis to guide subsequent strategies and decisions about when data collection is done Although design decisions are not finalized in advance, qualitative researchers typically advance planning that supports their flexibility That is, they plan for broad contingencies that may pose decision opportunities once the study has begun For example, qualitative researchers make advance decisions with regard to their research tradition, the study site, the maximum amount of time available for the study, a broad data collection strategy, and the equipment they will need in the field Qualitative researchers plan for a variety of circumstances, but decisions about how to deal with them must be resolved when the social context of time, place, and human interactions are better understood Qualitative Design Features Some of the design features discussed in Chapter apply to qualitative studies However, qualitative design features are often posthoc characterizations of what happened in the field rather than features specifically planned in advance To contrast qualitative and quantitative research design, we consider the design elements identified in Table 9.1 on page 150 Intervention, Control, and Blinding Qualitative research is almost always nonexperimental—although a qualitative substudy may be embedded in an experiment (see Chapter 18) Qualitative researchers not conceptualize their studies as having independent and dependent variables, and they rarely control any aspect of the people or environment under study Blinding is rarely used by qualitative researchers The goal is to develop a rich understanding of a phenomenon as it exists and as it is constructed by individuals within their own context Comparisons Qualitative researchers typically not plan to make group comparisons because the intent is to thoroughly describe or explain a phenomenon Yet, patterns emerging in the data sometimes suggest illuminating comparisons Indeed, as Morse (2004) noted in an editorial in Qualitative Health Research, “All description requires comparisons” (p 1323) In analyzing qualitative data and in determining whether categories are saturated, there is a need to compare “this” to “that.” Example of qualitative comparisons: Baum and colleagues (2012) explored the experiences of 30 Israeli mothers of very-low-birthweight babies when the babies were still in neonatal hospitalization The researchers discovered that there were three patterns with regard to attribution of blame for not carrying to full term: those who blamed themselves, those who blamed others, and those who believed that premature delivery was fortunate because it saved their baby’s life Research Settings Qualitative researchers usually collect their data in real-world, naturalistic settings And, whereas a quantitative researcher usually strives to collect data in one type of setting to maintain constancy of conditions (e.g., conducting all interviews in participants’ homes), qualitative researchers may deliberately strive to study phenomena in a variety of natural contexts, especially in ethnographic research Example of variation in settings and sites: Bohman and colleagues (2011) studied the experience of being old and in care-related relationships in a changing South African context Interviews with elders were supplemented with observations in a variety of community contexts where the care of elders takes place and in participants’ homes Timeframes Qualitative research, like quantitative research, can be either cross-sectional, with one data collection point, or longitudinal, with multiple data collection points designed to observe the evolution of a phenomenon In terms of the retrospective/prospective distinction, most qualitative research is retrospective: an “outcome” or situation occurring in the present may give rise to inquiries into previously occurring factors that led up to or contributed to it Examples of a longitudinal qualitative study: Taylor and colleagues (2011) conducted a longitudinal study over a 12-month period of the experience of surviving colorectal cancer treatment and dealing with fears about recurrence Causality and Qualitative Research In evidence hierarchies that rank evidence in terms of its support of causal inferences (e.g., the one in Figure 2.1 on page 23), qualitative inquiry is often near the base, which has led some to criticize evidence-based practice initiatives The issue of causality, which has been controversial throughout the history of science, is especially contentious in qualitative research Some qualitative researchers think that causality is not an appropriate concept within the constructivist paradigm For example, Lincoln and Guba (1985) devoted an entire chapter of their book to a critique of causality and argued that it should be replaced with a concept that they called mutual shaping According to their view, “Everything influences everything else, in the here and now” (p 151) Others, however, believe that qualitative methods are particularly well suited to understanding causal relationships For example, Huberman and Miles (1994) argued that qualitative studies “can look directly and longitudinally at the local processes underlying a temporal series of events and states, showing how these led to specific outcomes, and ruling out rival hypotheses” (p 434) In attempting to not only describe but also to explain phenomena, qualitative researchers who undertake in-depth studies will inevitably reveal patterns and processes suggesting causal interpretations These interpretations can be (and often are) subjected to more systematic testing using more controlled methods of inquiry QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TRADITIONS Although some features are shared by many qualitative research designs, there is a wide variety of approaches One useful taxonomic system is to describe qualitative research according to disciplinary traditions These traditions vary in their conceptualization of what types of questions are important to ask and in the methods considered appropriate for answering them Table 14.1 provides an overview of several such traditions, some of which we have previously introduced This section describes traditions that have been especially prominent in nursing research TABLE 14.1 Overview of Qualitative Research Traditions Ethnography Ethnography is a type of qualitative inquiry that involves the description and interpretation of a culture and cultural behavior Culture refers to the way a group of people live—the patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures (for example, the values and norms) that give such activity significance Ethnographies typically involve extensive field work, which is the process by which the ethnographer comes to understand a culture Because culture is, in itself, not visible or tangible, it must be inferred from the words, actions, and products of members of a group and then constructed through ethnographic writing Ethnographic research sometimes concerns broadly defined cultures (e.g., the Maori culture of New Zealand), in what is sometimes referred to as a macroethnography However, ethnographies sometimes focus on more narrowly defined cultures in a microethnography or focused ethnography Focused ethnographies are fine-grained studies of small units in a group or culture (e.g., the culture of an intensive care unit) An underlying assumption of the ethnographer is that every human group eventually evolves a culture that guides the members’ view of the world and the way they structure their experiences Example of a focused ethnography: MacKinnon (2011) used an ethnographic approach to explore the work of rural nurses, with specific focus on their safeguarding work to maintain patient safety Ethnographers seek to learn from (rather than to study) members of a cultural group—to understand their world view Ethnographic researchers refer to “emic” and “etic” perspectives An emic perspective refers to the way the members of the culture regard their world—the insiders’ view The emic is the local language, concepts, or means of expression that are used by the members of the group under study to name and characterize their experiences The etic perspective, by contrast, is the outsiders’ interpretation of the experiences of that culture—the words and concepts they use to refer to the same phenomena Ethnographers strive to acquire an emic perspective of a culture and to reveal tacit knowledge—information about the culture that is so deeply embedded in cultural experiences that members not talk about it or may not even be consciously aware of it Three broad types of information are usually sought by ethnographers: cultural behavior (what members of the culture do), cultural artifacts (what members make and use), and cultural speech (what they say) Ethnographers rely on a wide variety of data sources, including observations, in-depth interviews, records, and other types of physical evidence (e.g., photographs, diaries) Ethnographers typically use a strategy called participant observation in which they make observations of the culture under study while participating in its activities Ethnographers observe people day after day in their natural environments to observe behavior in a wide array of circumstances Ethnographers also enlist the help of key informants to help them understand and interpret the events and activities being observed Ethnographic research is labor-intensive and time-consuming—months and even years of fieldwork may be required to learn about a culture Ethnography requires a certain level of intimacy with members of the cultural group, and such intimacy can be developed only over time and by working directly with those members as active participants The product of ethnographies is a rich and holistic description of the culture under study Ethnographers also interpret the culture, describing normative behavioral and social patterns Among health care researchers, ethnography provides access to the health beliefs and health practices of a culture Ethnographic inquiry can thus help to foster understanding of behaviors affecting health and illness Leininger coined the phrase ethnonursing research, which she defined as “the study and analysis of the local or indigenous people’s viewpoints, beliefs, and practices about nursing care behavior and processes of designated cultures” (1985, p 38) Example of an ethnonursing study: Schumacher (2010) explored the meanings, beliefs, and practices of care for rural people in the Dominican Republic Leininger’s theory of culture-care diversity and universality was the conceptual basis for the study, and her four-phase ethnonursing methods were adopted Interviews were conducted with 29 informants Ethnographers are often, but not always, “outsiders” to the culture under study A type of ethnography that involves self-scrutiny (including scrutiny of groups or cultures to which researchers themselves belong) is called autoethnography or insider research Autoethnography has several advantages, including ease of access and recruitment and the ability to get candid data based on pre-established trust The drawback is that an “insider” may have biases about certain issues or may be so entrenched in the culture that valuable data are overlooked Phenomenology Phenomenology, rooted in a philosophical tradition developed by Husserl and Heidegger, is an approach to exploring and understanding people’s everyday life experiences Phenomenologic researchers ask: What is the essence of this phenomenon as experienced by these people and what does it mean? Phenomenologists assume there is an essence—an essential structure—that can be understood, in much the same way that ethnographers assume that cultures exist Essence is what makes a phenomenon what it is, and without which it would not be what it is Phenomenologists investigate subjective phenomena in the belief that critical truths about reality are grounded in people’s lived experiences The topics appropriate to phenomenology are ones that are fundamental to the life experiences of humans, such as the meaning of suffering or the quality of life with chronic pain Phenomenologists believe that lived experience gives meaning to each person’s perception of a particular phenomenon The goal of phenomenologic inquiry is to understand fully lived experience and the perceptions to which it gives rise Four aspects of lived experience that are of interest to phenomenologists are lived space, or spatiality; lived body, or corporeality; lived time, or temporality; and lived human relation, or relationality Phenomenologists view human existence as meaningful and interesting because of people’s consciousness of that existence The phrase being-in-theworld (or embodiment) is a concept that acknowledges people’s physical ties to their world—they think, see, hear, feel, and are conscious through their bodies’ interaction with the world In phenomenologic studies, the main data source is in-depth conversations Through these conversations, researchers strive to gain entrance into the informants’ world, and to have access to their experiences as lived Phenomenologic studies usually involve a small number of participants— often 10 or fewer For some phenomenologic researchers, the inquiry includes not only gathering information from informants but also efforts to experience the phenomenon, through participation, observation, and reflection Phenomenologists share their insights in rich, vivid reports that describe key themes The results section in a phenomenological report should help readers “see” something in a different way that enriches their understanding of experiences Phenomenology has several variants and interpretations The two main schools of thought are descriptive phenomenology and interpretive phenomenology (hermeneutics) Descriptive Phenomenology Descriptive phenomenology was developed first by Husserl, who was primarily interested in the question: What we know as persons? His philosophy emphasized descriptions of human experience Descriptive phenomenologists insist on the careful portrayal of ordinary conscious experience of everyday life—a depiction of “things” as people experience them These “things” include hearing, seeing, believing, feeling, remembering, deciding, and evaluating Descriptive phenomenologic studies often involve the following four steps: bracketing, intuiting, analyzing, and describing Bracketing refers to the process of identifying and holding in abeyance preconceived beliefs and opinions about the phenomenon under study Researchers strive to bracket out presuppositions in an effort to confront their data in pure form Phenomenological researchers (as well as other qualitative researchers) often maintain a reflexive journal in their efforts to bracket Intuiting, the second step in descriptive phenomenology, occurs when researchers remain open to the meanings attributed to the phenomenon by those who have experienced it Phenomenologic researchers then proceed to an analysis (i.e., extracting significant statements, categorizing, and making sense of the essential meanings of the phenomenon) Finally, the descriptive confidence intervals and, See also Confidence intervals interpretation of results and Prediction, as research purpose Predictive validity Predictor variable Pregnant women, as a vulnerable group Pretest Pretest-posttest design Prevalence Primary source Primary study Priorities for nursing research Priority, mixed methods research and Privacy, study participants and Probability Probability level See Level of significance Probability sampling, See also Sampling Probing Problem statement, See also Hypothesis; Research problem Process analysis Process consent Prochaska’s Transtheoretical Model Producer of nursing research Product-moment correlation coefficient (r), See also Correlation; Pearson’s r Professional conference Prognosis questions Program of research Prolonged engagement Proposal Prospective design longitudinal research vs Protocol intervention literature review Psychometric assessment Psychometrics Publication bias PubMed Purpose, statement of Purposive sampling Q Q-sort Qualitative analysis, See also Qualitative research analytic overview analytic procedures coding and computers and content analysis critiquing data management and organization ethnographic analysis grounded theory analysis literature reviews and phenomenological analysis trustworthiness and Qualitative content analysis Qualitative data, See also Unstructured data collection analysis of See Qualitative analysis coding of enhancement of quality methods of data collection mixed methods research and organization of secondary analysis Qualitative research, See also Qualitative data activities in analysis and, See also Qualitative analysis case studies causality in credibility of results critical research and critiquing data collection and, See also Unstructured data collection descriptive studies disciplinary traditions and ethical issues and ethnography, See also Ethnography grounded theory, See also Grounded theory historical research hypotheses and ideological perspectives and interpretation of findings literature reviews and metasynthesis, See also Metasynthesis mixed methods and narrative analysis paradigms and phenomenology, See also Phenomenology problem statement and quality and integrity in research design and, See also Research design, qualitative studies research questions and statement of purpose and systematic reviews and theory and, See also Theory triangulation in, See also Triangulation trustworthiness and, See also Trustworthiness Quality Health Outcomes Model Quality improvement and risk data Quality, in qualitative research, See also Trustworthiness Quantitative analysis, See also Hypothesis testing; Statistic(s); Statistical test credibility of results critiquing descriptive statistics, See also Descriptive statistics inferential statistics, See also Inferential statistics interpretation of results measurement levels and multivariate statistics Quantitative data, See also Measurement; Quantitative analysis; Structured data collection analysis of, See also Quantitative analysis; Statistic(s) assessment of data quality measurement and, See also Measurement methods of data collections secondary analysis Quantitative research, See also Quantitative analysis; Quantitative data data collection and, See also Structured data collection experimental vs nonexperimental, See also Experiment; Nonexperimental research hypotheses and measurement and mixed methods research and research designs and research problems and research questions and sampling in scientific method and statement of purpose and steps in theory and, See also Theory Quasi-experiments advantages and disadvantages evidence hierarchy and internal validity Quasi-statistics Question(s) See also Item(s); Scale; specific question types background clinical closed-ended vs open-ended EBP and foreground grand tour PICO, See also PICO components research types of, structured Questionnaire, See also Self-report(s) anonymity and implied consent and Internet interviews vs mailed scales and, See also Scale surveys and Quota sampling R R r, See also Correlation R2 Random assignment, See also Randomization Random bias Random effects model Random number table Random sampling, See also Probability sampling Random selection random assignment vs Randomization, See also Experiment constraints on experimental designs and internal validity and quasi-experimental design and random selection vs research control and Randomized controlled trial (RCT), See also Clinical trial; Experiment; Intervention evidence hierarchies and Randomness Range Rank-order question Rating question Rating scale, See also Scale Ratio measurement Raw data RCT See Randomized controlled trial (RCT) Reactivity Readability Reasoning See Logical reasoning Recall bias Receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC curve) Records, as data sources Refereed journal, See also Peer reviewer References in research report screening for literature review Reflective (reflexive) notes Reflexive journal Reflexivity Regression analysis Relationality Relationship, See also Causal (cause-and-effect) relationship correlation and, See also Correlation hypotheses and qualitative analysis and statistical analysis of theories and Relative risk (RR) Reliability definition of intercoder internal consistency interrater stability and statistical test-retest validity and Reliability coefficient interpretation of Repeated measures ANOVA Replication Report See Research report Representativeness Representative sample Research aims of basic vs applied challenges in clinical correlational critical theory and critiquing of, See also Critique, research descriptive evidence-based practice and, See also Evidence-based practice experimental, See also Experiment health services intervention, See also Clinical trial; Experiment methodologic mixed methods (MM) nonexperimental, See also Nonexperimental research outcomes purposes of qualitative, See also Qualitative research quantitative, See also Quantitative research quasi-experimental, See also Quasi-experiments secondary analysis survey terminology of theory and Research, nursing See Nursing research Research control See Control, research Research critique See Critique, research Research design, See also Research design, mixed methods studies; Research design, qualitative studies; Research design, quantitative studies Research design, mixed methods studies, See also Mixed methods research notation for priority and sampling and data collection sequencing and Research design, qualitative studies, See also Qualitative research characteristics of critiquing disciplinary traditions and ethnographic features of grounded theory ideological perspectives and mixed methods and phenomenologic planning and Research design, quantitative studies causality and characteristics of good design construct validity and controls for external confounding factors controls for intrinsic confounding factors critiquing EBP questions and ethics and evidence hierarchy and experimental designs external validity and internal validity and key features longitudinal vs cross-sectional mixed methods and nonexperimental research quasi-experimental design statistical conclusion validity and Research Ethics Board Research findings, See also Interpretation of results; Results Research hypothesis, See also Hypothesis; Hypothesis testing Research methods, See also Methods, research Research misconduct Research, nursing See Nursing research Research problem communication of critique of development and refinement of paradigms and qualitative studies and quantitative studies and significance of sources of terms relating to Research program Research question, See also Research problem Research report, See also Dissemination abstracts in content of critiquing, See also Critique, research discussion section in IMRAD format introduction in journal article, See also Journal article locating method section in qualitative studies and quantitative studies and reading references in results section in as source of research questions style of tips on reading titles of types of Research review See Literature review Research setting, See also Setting, research Research utilization, See also Evidence-based practice Researcher Researcher credibility Respect for human dignity Respondent, See also Study participant Response alternative Response bias Response rate nonresponse bias and questionnaires vs interviews Response set bias Results credibility of dissemination of, See also Dissemination of research results; Research report evidence-based practice and, See also Evidence-based practice generalizability of, See also Generalizability hypothesized interpretation of, See also Interpretation of results mixed nonsignificiant qualitative statistical transferability and unhypothesized utilization of Results section, research report Retrospective design Review See also Critique, research blind ethical issues and literature, See also Literature review peer systematic, See also Systematic review Rights, human subjects, See also Ethics, research Rigor qualitative research and, See also Trustworthiness quantitative research and, See also Reliability; Validity Risk description of indexes of, See also Odds ratio minimal Risk ratio (RR) Risk-benefit ratio Rival hypothesis ROC curve Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations Theory Roy’s Adaptation Model S Sample, See also Sample size; Sampling representativeness of Sample size power analysis and qualitative studies quantitative studies standard errors and statistical conclusion validity statistical power Type II errors and Sampling, See also Sample size basic concepts bias and consecutive construct validity and convenience critiquing ethnography and external validity and grounded theory studies and inference and items, in measuring instruments in meta-analysis in metasynthesis mixed methods research nonprobability observational phenomenological studies and probability purposive qualitative research and quantitative research and quota random sample size and, See also Sample size snowball strata and systematic theoretical Sampling bias Sampling distribution Sampling error Sampling frame Sampling interval Sampling plan, See also Sampling critiquing Sandelowski and Barroso metasynthesis approach Saturation, data Scale internal consistency and Likert rating, observational response set bias and summated rating visual analog Schematic model Scientific merit, See also Reliability; Validity Scientific method, See also Quantitative research Scientific research See Research Scientist See Researcher Score(s) obtained (observed) scales and true Screening instrument Search, electronic literature Search engine, Internet Secondary analysis Secondary source Selection, random Selection threat (self-selection) Selective approach, phenomenological analysis Selective coding, grounded theory Self-administered questionnaire, See also Questionnaire Self-determination Self-efficacy theory Self-report(s), See also Interview; Questionnaire; Scale critiquing evaluation of method interviews Q sort qualitative methods and quantitative methods and questionnaires vs interviews response bias and scales, See also Scale structured types of question unstructured and semistructured vignettes Self-selection (selection bias) Semistructured interviews Sensitivity Sensitivity analysis Sequential design, mixed methods Setting, research qualitative research and quantitative research and Shared theory Significance level Significance of research problems Significance, statistical, See also Statistical significance Simple hypothesis Simple random sampling Single positioning Site Skewed distribution Snowball sampling Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura) Social desirability response bias Social issues, source of research problem Social-psychological scales, See also Scale Space triangulation Spatiality Spearman’s rank-order correlation (Spearman’s rho) Specificity, screening instruments and Spradley’s ethnographic method Stability of measures Stakeholder Standard deviation (SD) Standard error Standard error of the mean (SEM) Standardized mean difference (SMD) Statement of purpose Statistic(s) bivariate critique of descriptive, See also Descriptive statistics inferential, See also Inferential statistics multivariate, See also Multivariate statistics parametric vs nonparametric tips on understanding Statistical analysis, See also Quantitative analysis; Statistic(s); Statistical test Statistical conclusion validity, See also Power Statistical control Statistical heterogeneity, meta-analysis Statistical hypothesis See Null hypothesis Statistical inference, See also Inferential statistics Statistical power, See also Power Statistical reliability Statistical significance clinical significance vs interpretation and level of power analysis and statistical conclusion validity tests of, See also Statistical test Statistical tables Statistical test, See also Inferential statistics; Multivariate statistics; specific tests guide to bivariate tests guide to multivariate tests Type I and Type II errors Stepwise replication Stetler model of research utilization Stipend Strata Stratified random sampling Strauss and Corbin’s grounded theory method Structured (quantitative) data collection, See also Measurement biophysiologic measures, See also Biophysiologic measures observations and, See also Observation self-reports, See also Self-report(s) Study, See also Research Study participant communication with controlling intrinsic factors and rights of Style See Writing style Subgroup analysis Subject(s), See also Study participant Subject heading, literature search description of MeSH Subjectivity See Objectivity Subject search, literature review Subscale Substantive theory Summated rating scale Survey research, See also Self-report(s) sampling and Symbolic interactionism Symmetric distribution Systematic bias Systematic review critiquing evidence-based practice and meta-analyses, See also Meta-analysis metasyntheses, See also Metasynthesis Systematic sampling T Table crosstabs (contingency) of random numbers statistical, tips on reading Tacit knowledge Target population Taxonomic analysis Taxonomy Telephone interview Temporal ambiguity, internal validity and Temporality Terminally ill patients as a vulnerable group Test statistic, See also Statistic(s); Statistical test Test-retest reliability Textword search Theme cultural in literature reviews method slurring and phenomenology and in qualitative analysis Theoretical code, grounded theory Theoretical distribution Theoretical framework, See also Conceptual model; Theory Theoretical notes Theoretical sampling Theory, See also Conceptual model; specific theory borrowed construct validity and critiquing development of explanatory research and grounded, See also Grounded theory hypotheses and intervention metatheory mixed methods research and nursing and phenomenology and qualitative research and quantitative research and research and shared as source of research problems substantive testing Theory of Human Becoming (Parse) Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen) Theory of Reasoned Action Theory of Stress and Coping (Lazarus and Folkman) Theory triangulation Therapy questions, See also Clinical trial; Experiment Thick description Threat to internal validity Time sampling Time series design Time triangulation Title, research report Tool See Instrument Topic guide Topic, research, See also Research problem Tradition, as knowledge source Tradition, disciplinary Transcriptions, of interviews Transferability definition of EBP and literature themes qualitative findings and trustworthiness of qualitative research and Translating Research Into Practice (TRIP) database Transtheoretical Model (Prochaska) Treatment, See also Experiment; Intervention; Therapy questions Treatment group Trial and error Triangulation corroborating evidence and data of data collection methods definition investigator method mixed methods designs person space time theory Triangulation design True score Trustworthiness, in qualitative research critiquing definition of interpretation of findings Lincoln and Guba’s standards strategies for enhancing t-test Two-way ANOVA Type I error Type II error Typical case sampling U Uncertainty in Illness Theory (Mishel) Unhypothesized significant results, interpretation Unimodal distribution Unit of analysis Univariate statistics Unstructured (qualitative) data collection critiquing evaluation of observation and self-reports and Unstructured interview Unstructured observation, See also Participant observation Utilization See Research utilization Utrecht school of phenomenology V Validity concurrent construct content credibility and criterion-related external, See also Generalizability face inference and internal measurement and mixed methods research and predictive qualitative research and reliability and statistical conclusion, See also Power Validity coefficient Van Kaam’s phenomenological method Van Manen’s phenomenological method Variability, See also Heterogeneity; Homogeneity; Variable control over See Control, research Variable(s) conceptual definition of confounding, See also Confounding variable core dependent, See also Dependent variable extraneous, See also Confounding variable independent, See also Independent variable mediating operational definition of Variance analysis of multivariate analysis of VAS See Visual analog scale (VAS) Vignette Visual analog scale (VAS) Vivid recording, qualitative integrity and Volunteer sample Vulnerable groups W Web-based survey Wait-listed control group Wildcard character Writing style of literature review of journal articles qualitative reports and quantitative reports and Y Yea-sayer ... 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