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Part 1 book “Clinical ophthalmic oncology” has contents: Examination techniques, differential diagnosis in children, differential diagnosis in adults, imaging techniques, nonspecific orbital inflammation, orbital vascular tumors, benign orbital tumors, optic nerve tumors.
Julian D Perry · Arun D Singh Editors Clinical Ophthalmic Oncology Orbital Tumors Second Edition 123 Clinical Ophthalmic Oncology Julian D Perry • Arun D Singh Editors Clinical Ophthalmic Oncology Orbital Tumors Second Edition Editors Julian D Perry, MD Division of Opthalmology Cole Eye Institute Cleveland Clinic Foundation Cleveland, OH USA Arun D Singh, MD Department of Ophthalmic Oncology Cole Eye Institute Cleveland Clinic Foundation Cleveland, OH USA ISBN 978-3-642-40491-7 ISBN 978-3-642-40492-4 DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-40492-4 Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2013956346 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014 First edition originally published by © Saunders, 2007 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher's location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) To Clifford, Agnes, Jim, and Cliff for my foundation; to Bob, Norm, and Neil for my education; to Julian, Liam, and Remy for my inspiration (JDP) To my parents who educated me beyond their means, my wife Annapurna, and my children, Nakul and Rahul, who make all my efforts worthwhile (ADS) v Preface The management of patients with an ophthalmic tumor presents particular challenges Ophthalmic tumors are rare and diverse so that their diagnosis can be quite complex Treatment usually requires special expertise and equipment and in many instances is controversial The field is advancing rapidly because of accelerating progress in tumor biology, pharmacology, and instrumentation Increasingly, the care of patients with an ocular or adnexal tumor is provided by a multidisciplinary team, comprising of ocular oncologists, general oncologists, radiotherapists, pathologists, psychologists, and other specialists For all these reasons, we felt that there was a continued need for a textbook of ophthalmic oncology, which would amalgamate knowledge from several different disciplines, thereby helping the various specialists to understand each other better and to cooperate more efficiently eventually moving ophthalmic oncology in the realm of evidencebased medicine As several important studies have been published in recent years, the purpose of Clinical Ophthalmic Oncology (2nd edition) is to provide up-todate information of the whole spectrum of the eyelid, conjunctival, intraocular, and orbital tumors including basic principles of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, cancer epidemiology, angiogenesis, and cancer genetics Several chapters authored by radiation oncologists, medical physicists, pediatric oncologists, hematologist-oncologists, and medical geneticists have been included to provide a broader perspective Although each section of Clinical Ophthalmic Oncology now represents a stand-alone volume, each chapter has a similar layout with boxes that highlight the key features, tables that provide comparison, and flow diagrams that outline therapeutic approaches Each chapter has been edited (with author’s approval) to present a balanced view of current clinical practice, and special attention has been paid to make the text easily readable The authors followed a tight timeline to keep the contents of the book current As we undertook this ambitious task of editing a multiauthor, multivolume textbook, we were supported and guided by the staff at Springer: Sverre Klemp, Ulrike Huesken, Ellen Blasig, the staff at SPi Global, India Jennifer Brown kept the seemingly chaotic process under control vii Preface viii It is our sincere hope that readers will find as much pleasure reading this volume as we had writing and editing it If you find Clinical Ophthalmic Oncology informative, it is because (paraphrasing Isaac Newton), “we have seen further, by standing on the shoulders of the giants.” Cleveland, OH, USA Cleveland, OH, USA Julian D Perry, MD Arun D Singh, MD Contents Examination Techniques Sandy X Zhang-Nunes, Jill A Foster, and Julian D Perry Classification of Orbital Tumors Bryan R Costin, Julian D Perry, and Jill A Foster Differential Diagnosis in Children Sandy X Zhang-Nunes, Jill A Foster, Julian D Perry, and Paul L Proffer 15 Differential Diagnosis in Adults Bryan R Costin, Julian D Perry, and Jill A Foster 21 Imaging Techniques Patrick De Potter 31 Nonspecific Orbital Inflammation Roberta E Gausas, M.R Damani, and Kimberly P Cockerham 45 Orbital Vascular Tumors Bryan R Costin and Julian D Perry 55 Benign Orbital Tumors Bhupendra C.K Patel 67 Optic Nerve Tumors Jonathan J Dutton 93 10 Lacrimal Gland Tumors David H Verity, Omar M Durrani, and Geoffrey E Rose 105 11 Lacrimal Sac Tumors Jacob Pe’er 115 12 Orbital and Adnexal Lymphoma Mary E Aronow, Brian T Hill, and Arun D Singh 123 13 Malignant Orbital Tumors Bhupendra C.K Patel 141 ix Benign Orbital Tumors associated bone destruction Fluid-filled levels may be seen with varying levels of signal intensity, depending upon the state of the blood within the cyst [54] a 89 8.16.4 Treatment Complete surgical curettage is usually curative The prognosis is usually excellent Visual b c Fig 8.14 Fibroma arising from fibrous dysplasia Left hypoglobus and proptosis with superonasal mass at age 15 years (a and b) Right optic nerve swelling with evidence of compression of the right optic nerve (c) T1-weighted MRI scan shows typical low signal in the ethmoid and sphenoid sinus, typical of fibrous dysplasia (d) At low magnification you can see fascicles of dense irregular fibrous connective tissue (e, 40× and f 200×) These findings are consistent with a dense fibroma Normal bone is seen on the far left with marrow space, osteoblasts, and vessels Fibrous dysplastic bone is on the right (g, 40×) B.C.K Patel 90 d e f g Fig 8.14 (continued) a b c d Fig 8.15 Aneurysmal bone cyst Eleven-month-old child with 3-week history of right proptosis and nasal obstruction (a) CT scan shows expansile lytic mass (b) MRI with contrast shows fluid levels with heterogenous signal intensity Fresh blood is hyperintense on T2-weighted images (c) Trabeculated bone with cavernous spaces filled with thick fibrous septa, blood, and cellular areas (d) Benign Orbital Tumors compromise is very rare Radiation, used in the past, is inadvisable because of potential risk of radiation-induced sarcoma References Singh AD, Traboulsi EI, Reid J, Patno D, 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Histopathology Treatment Prognosis 97 98 98 98 98 98 9.4 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.4.4 9.4.5 Optic Nerve Sheath Meningioma Clinical Features Diagnostic Evaluation Histopathology Treatment Prognosis 98 99 100 100 101 102 References 102 Primary tumors of the optic nerve include anterior visual pathway gliomas and optic nerve sheath meningiomas Both are relatively rare lesions that result in significant visual morbidity Together they account for less than % of all orbital tumors There has been controversy about the natural history and appropriate management of these lesions, resulting from small sample sizes and short follow-up periods Other tumors, such as gangliogliomas and primary lymphomas, have also been described but are extremely rare (Table 9.1) 9.2 Anterior Visual Pathway Glioma Optic pathway gliomas (OPG) are uncommon benign lesions classified as pilocytic astrocytomas They represent 1.5–4 % of all orbital tumors and 50–55 % of all primary optic nerve tumors [1, 2] 9.2.1 J.J Dutton Department of Ophthalmology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA e-mail: jonathan_dutton@med.unc.edu Introduction Clinical Features 9.2.1.1 Age Distribution Gliomas have been described in patients from birth to 79 years of age However, 71 % of cases occur in children in the first decade of life and 90 % within the first two decades The overall J.D Perry, A.D Singh (eds.), Clinical Ophthalmic Oncology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-40492-4_9, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014 93 J.J Dutton 94 Table 9.1 Diagnostic features of optic nerve tumors Lesion Optic nerve glioma Mean age Sex 8.8 years F = M Malignant optic glioma 48 years Optic sheath meningioma 41 years Location Prognosis ON, OC, MB Vision = fair to good Life = 36 % mortality 65 % M OC +/− ON Vision = blindness Life = 100 % mortality 60 % F ON Vision = poor Life = % mortality ON optic nerve, OC optic chiasm, MB midbrain mean age at presentation is 8.8 years for all optic gliomas 9.2.1.2 Sex Distribution The sexual distribution for all optic pathway gliomas shows approximately equal numbers of males and females For gliomas confined to the optic nerve, 65 % occur in females, compared to 35 % for males For tumors involving the optic chiasm, there is no sex predilection 9.2.1.3 Location About 20–25 % of optic gliomas are confined to the optic nerve alone, but in three-quarters of cases the chiasm is involved [3, 4] Of the tumors that involve the chiasm, 40 % eventually extend into the adjacent hypothalamus or third ventricle Several studies have shown that the orbital optic nerve is involved more frequently in patients with NF1 (21.5 %) than in those without NF1 (5.5 %) [5] 9.2.1.4 Association with Neurofibromatosis Type Optic pathway gliomas may be sporadical or syndromic, the latter mostly associated with neurofibromatosis type The reported incidence of neurofibromatosis type (NF1) among patients with optic gliomas varies from 10 to 70 %, with an overall incidence of 29 % [1] Although some reports have shown no difference in the course and prognosis of optic pathway gliomas with and without NF1, others have suggested a more indolent course and a better prognosis in patients with OPG and NF1 [6–8] When associated with NF1 the glioma may present at a somewhat later age and show progression for a long time, justifying regular ophthalmological monitoring of this population over a long period [9, 10] Fig 9.1 External photograph of a child with a left orbital optic nerve glioma showing axial proptosis 9.2.1.5 Signs and Symptoms The specific findings of optic pathway gliomas depend principally on the location of the tumor Regardless of location, 85 % of patients lose some vision, with about 25 % retaining good vision between 20/20 and 20/40 About 60 % of patients show vision of 20/300 or worse Proptosis is a presenting sign in 95 % of patients with an optic nerve glioma (Fig 9.1) With gliomas of the optic chiasm, proptosis is much less common, seen in fewer than 20 % of patients, and all with concomitant intraorbital involvement Limitation of ocular motility is seen infrequently with optic gliomas It is reported in 30 % of intraorbital lesions and 20 % of gliomas involving the chiasm Pain and headache are present in up to 30 % of patients with chiasmal tumors Other rare symptoms seen with CNS invasion include nystagmus, spasmus nutans, seizures, hypothalamic signs, and hydrocephalus On funduscopic examination 60 % of patients demonstrate some degree of optic atrophy Disc edema, primarily associated with intraorbital gliomas, is seen in half of such cases Disc edema occurs in Optic Nerve Tumors Box 9.1: Optic Pathway Glioma • • • • Early visual loss 88 % Optic disc swelling 35 % Optic disc atrophy 59 % Proptosis, orbital tumors 94 %; chiasmal tumors 22 % • Nystagmus 24 % • Hypothalamic signs 26 % • Increased intracranial pressure 27 % 95 the optic nerve (Fig 9.2), but occasionally they may be more rounded or even tubular Calcification occurs only occasionally 9.2.2.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has proved superior to CT for evaluation of chiasmal, hypothalamic, and optic tract lesions Gliomas demonstrate normal to slightly prolonged T1 relaxation times, which image isointense to slightly hypointense compared to normal optic nerve The T2 relaxation time is prolonged, giving a hyperintense image on T2-weighted sequences 9.2.3 Fig 9.2 Axial CT scan shows a fusiform glioma of the left optic nerve only 20 % of patients with chiasmal tumors, and in these cases the tumor is usually contiguous with the intraorbital optic nerve (Box 9.1) 9.2.2 Diagnostic Evaluation Imaging studies reveal enlargement of the optic canal in up to 80 % of patients with a glioma involving the optic nerves Enlargement and J-shaped excavation of the sella turcica may be associated with chiasmal gliomas but are reported in only 25 % of patients 9.2.2.1 Computed Tomography Computed tomography (CT) imaging typically demonstrates enlargement of the optic nerve and/ or chiasm Contrast enhancement ranges from imperceptible to moderate but generally is less than with sheath meningiomas Typical optic gliomas show a well-outlined fusiform swelling of Histopathology Although optic gliomas were formerly considered congenital nonneoplastic hamartomas with self-limiting growth, their histologic features, rates of growth, rare malignant potential, and a clear tendency to invade the leptomeninges show that these tumors are true neoplasms that have the ability to invade locally Optic gliomas arise from supporting astrocytes of the optic nerve and along the visual pathway Most are classified as benign pilocytic astrocytomas in which proliferating neoplastic astrocytic cells predominate Proliferating astrocytes may extend through the pia mater into the arachnoid and subarachnoid space, where they provoke an exuberant reactive proliferation of fibrovascular tissue and meningothelial cells This so-called arachnoidal hyperplasia may extend beyond the limits of the tumor itself, simulating tumor extension Enlargement of optic gliomas may occur as a result of proliferation of neoplastic cells, reactive arachnoidal proliferation, or an accumulation of extracellular, PAS-positive mucosubstance secreted by the astrocytes 9.2.4 Treatment Options Anterior visual pathway gliomas are neoplasms with the potential to spread into contiguous areas of the optic nerve, chiasm, and adjacent brain J.J Dutton 96 Glioma Optic nerve Stable Observation Visual loss, proptosis Optic chiasm Posterior progression Surgery Stable Observation Midbrain Progression Stable Progression 10 years