THE PRIMACY OF REGIME SURVIVAL State Fragility and Economic Destruction in Zimbabwe Mark Simpson and Tony Hawkins The Primacy of Regime Survival “The destruction of Zimbabwe’s economy and institutions over the last four decades has been nothing short of spectacular This carefully researched book shows that the cause of this carnage is the attempts of Robert Mugabe’s regime to survive by polarizing society, rewarding the regime’s cronies and weakening the economy A mustread for anybody interested in learning from Zimbabwe’s mistakes so that we can better defend against other autocrats doing the same.” —Daron Acemoglu, Elizabeth and James Killian Professor of Economics at MIT, and co-author of Why Nations Fail - The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty “If you want an authoritative, dispassionate and forensic analysis of Zimbabwe’s catastrophic economic decline, set in political context, go straight for this definitive work by Hawkins and Simpson Their exposure of the way the country’s ruling Zanu-PF party turned a once-thriving economy into a milch cow for an elite, whilst systematically subjugating dissent and enforcing an increasingly despotic regime, makes for an engrossing read The authors pose some awkward questions about the performance of the IMF and the World Bank: should they have done more to expose Mugabe’s venal regime? And above all, are they in danger of making the same mistake when dealing with the new regime of President Emmerson Mnangagwa?” —Michael Holman, former Africa editor of the Financial Times “The book describes the economic and political history of post-independence Zimbabwe It focuses on the causes of the country’s economic collapse, and details the policies and processes that drove it It is the only volume I’ve seen of its kind that covers the entire post-independence period The referencing is outstanding and it shows genuine scholarship It is a book that an interested layman would find fascinating and I’d see the international diplomatic and economic community being genuinely interested It is also well referenced, bringing in both general theory and local documents Both authors have impeccable credentials.” —Tony Leiman, School of Economics, University of Cape Town “At a time of momentous change in Harare and across Southern Africa, this timely study is a must read for anyone who wants to know if economic prospects are set to take a turn for the better.” —Ed Balls, Senior Research Fellow, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard and former UK Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer (2011–2015) Administrative map of Zimbabwe Mark Simpson • Tony Hawkins The Primacy of Regime Survival State Fragility and Economic Destruction in Zimbabwe Mark Simpson University of London London, UK Tony Hawkins University of Zimbabwe Harare, Zimbabwe ISBN 978-3-319-72519-2    ISBN 978-3-319-72520-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72520-8 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018932363 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Cover illustration: Image Source / Alamy Stock Photo​ Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing AG part of Springer Nature The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland To Natalie Inês and Nicholas Tiago who were also there, and above all to Allison who shared the space at the coalface M.S To Glynne who shares the frustrations and disappointments of life in a fragile state, as well as the hope of better days to come T.H “As usurpation is the exercise of power, which another has a right to; so tyranny is the exercise of power beyond right, which nobody can have a right to And this is making use of the power any one has in his hands, not for the good of those who are under it, but for his own private advantage When the governor, however intitled, makes not the law, but his will the rule; and his commands and actions are not directed to the preservation of the properties of his people, but the satisfaction of his own ambition, revenge, covetousness, or another other irregular passion” —John Locke, Two Treatises on Government (1689) Preface The military coup of November 2017, which eventually forced the resignation of Robert Mugabe and led to the evisceration of the ZANU-PF faction associated with his wife’s political ambitions, was the logical conclusion of the creeping militarization of the Zimbabwean state, a dominant aspect of the country’s political, social and economic regression The new President’s reimbursement for the long-standing support of the military and War Veterans – essential props in the maintenance of the extractive political and economic institutions that had long determined the country’s trajectory and enabled his move into State House – was both immediate and generous The Commander of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces was rewarded with the post of Vice-President, the Major-General who had acted as spokesperson for the military during the November events took over the Foreign Ministry, and the Commander of the Air Force became the Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs The leader of the War Veterans, who had helped orchestrate demonstrations of support for Mnangagwa during the bitter succession struggle between the latter and the President’s wife which eventually triggered the putsch, took on the role of Special Advisor to the President Hopes were quickly dashed that ZANU-PF’s new leader would reach out to the opposition parties and form a coalition government to oversee the necessary reforms to pave the way for free and fair elections scheduled for later this year In addition to the dominant ix x  Preface ­ resence of securocrats in the new Cabinet, all other posts were distribp uted to old ZANU-PF notables linked to the Mnangagwa faction Retribution was also swift, with the full prosecutorial powers of the state deployed to settle scores with opponents within the ruling party While Mugabe and his immediate family were allowed to remain in the country, and granted a series of privileges and immunities, a number of senior ranking officials from the former administration were not so favoured Former Ministers and their minions who had not slipped out of the country have been targeted by the country’s anti-corruption agency, and those who did manage to escape have had their assets seized The highly selective singling out of individuals on charges of corruption and abuse of office – which many in the new dispensation would be hard-­ pressed to mount a credible defence against should the net be widened – has also provided further and extraordinary insights into the extent of the plundering under Mugabe Photos of police charge sheets listing hundreds of properties accumulated by insiders from the Mugabe era, reports of stashes of foreign currency found in the homes of those who had gone to ground, and footage of the palatial mansions of beneficiaries of the former patronage networks (including a 54 room mansion that allegedly belonged to the former Minister in charge of Indigenisation), circulated widely within the country They have shocked even those Zimbabweans who had seemingly become inured to the venality of their leaders Notwithstanding such highly visible, and widely trumpeted, demonstrations of good intent by the new administration, a huge leap of faith is required to buy into the government’s narrative that the military coup heralds a ‘New Dispensation’ and ‘New Economic Order’ Two elements stand out in the post-coup economic narrative  – that only one man, Robert Mugabe, and only a small handful of his close associates, are responsible for the country’s protracted economic decline, and that ‘bold reforms’ promised by the Mnangagwa administration will turn the economy around overnight While there is an apparent consensus amongst many domestic and foreign observers that the Mnangagwa administration is more likely to implement economic reforms than its predecessor, with the ruling party in electoral mode expectations are being stoked with scant regard to  Preface     xi the economic and social reality on the ground An extreme example was Mnangagwa’s recent claim that $3 billion in foreign investment had been secured in just seven weeks to February 2018 In this heady atmosphere, the new administration is planting the seeds of another future crisis of expectations, not least because it portrays the post-coup mantra of ‘re-­ engagement with the international community’ as all gain and no pain That the economy will benefit from the removal of the obdurately anti-reform Mugabe and some of those around him is undeniable, but the state and party architecture, and the dirigiste mind-set within which it operates, will continue to determine any reform trajectory The extension and expansion of the ‘command agriculture’ programme referenced in this book, a pet project of the new President, carried out with the extensive involvement of the military when he was Mugabe’s deputy, and now backed up by the former Major-General in charge of the portfolio, is a clear sign of the strong elements of continuity at work This is also obvious already in the rejection of political reform, most notably foot dragging in terms of granting the significant (and potentially decisive) number of Diaspora Zimbabweans an opportunity to exercise their right to vote in their current countries of residence There is virtually no new blood at political level, while the bureaucracy was untouched by the putsch As a result, it is hardly surprising that after the initial public euphoria that accompanied Mugabe’s relinquishing of office, many now view the November 2017 coup as a domestic spat, with septuagenarians replacing a nonagenarian, all being hewn from the same wood In espousing what he calls the ‘China model’ of economic development, Mnangagwa hopes that Zimbabwe will emulate the bad-politics, good-economics strategies that have proved so attractive to many African leaders Some foreign investors, IFI staff and bilateral donors are only too willing to accept this ‘good enough governance’ stance for Zimbabweans, their justification being that a bad solution is better than none, a replay of the myopia of their earlier efforts during the 1980s and 1990s at promoting reform To the very limited extent that it has been articulated, the economic reform menu is essentially similar to that of the unsuccessful Economic Structural Adjustment Programme, and other reform programmes of the past Then as now, the authorities have committed themselves to public 376  M Simpson and T Hawkins properly enforced, and the Government does not expropriate without adequate compensation); Civil Justice (with sub-factors such as the access of people to affordable civil justice, the extent to which it is effectively enforced, and free of corruption and undue government interference) Criminal Justice (including the effectiveness of the criminal investigation system, and the extent to which the criminal justice system is free of corruption and improper government influence) 18 Regarding the Youth Fund, just three months prior to the Monetary Policy Statement, the Parliament Portfolio Committee on Youth Development, Indigenization and Economic Empowerment conducted an inquiry into the Fund’s operations, concluding that US$40 million could not be accounted for, and that 95 percent of projects for which funds were disbursed were either non-existent or had collapsed (NewsDay 2017a) 19 Known amongst Zimbabwe’s wits as ‘DisGrace’, ‘Grasping Grace’ or the ‘First Shopper’, following her 1996 marriage to the President, First Lady Grace Mugabe rapidly acquired a reputation for ostentatious living and acquisitiveness, the former through her foreign shopping trips and mansions she was reported to have built around the country, and the latter through her seizure of a number of white-owned commercial farms during the FTLRP.  In an effort to build credibility within ZANU-PF, in 2014 she secured a PhD in Sociology from the University of Zimbabwe (of which her husband was Chancellor) The academic qualification was achieved in record time a few months after registering for the programme, (though the subsequent efforts of investigative journalists to track down a copy of the doctoral thesis in the university libraries proved fruitless) Streets around the country were soon being renamed in honour of Dr Grace Mugabe 20 Further evidence of the country being turned into a family business was provided by the appointment of Mugabe’s nephew to the post of Minister of Youth, Indigenisation and Economic Empowerment in the new Cabinet 21 The costs of these celebrations were regularly estimated at over US$1 million a time, with wildlife, including elephants, being shot to feed the tens of thousands of invited guests, and private companies being ‘encouraged’ to make financial contributions to support the festivities   The Transitions That Weren’t    377 References AFRIK NEWS 2010 China Warns Zimbabwe: We Are Not ‘Friends’, February 22 Bulawayo24 2014 Salarygate  – Zimbabweans Sold a Dummy, March 28 http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-opinion-sc-columnist-byo-45082.html Business Day 2013 Bennett Wants Tsvangirai to Quit as MDC-T Leader, September 11 Harare Daily News 2014a Leadership Renewal Only Way to Save MDC, February 24 Harare ——— 2014b Zimbabwe Government Clueless, as Economy Burns, March 21 Harare ——— 2014c Zimbabwe Government Appeals to the Private Sector, April Harare ——— 2014d Brazil Rules Out ZimAsset Funding, May 20 Harare ——— 2016 China Warns Zimbabwe over Mine Grabs, March Harare ——— 2017a Command Agriculture: Govt Ropes in Soldiers, August 22 Harare ——— 2017b Probe, Arrest Mnangagwa, November 10 Harare Financial Gazette 2014 Zimbabwe Government Fails to Account for US$140 Million, March 27 Harare ——— 2017 US$50m Bond for Command Agriculture, July15 Harare GOZ 2013 Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation (Zim Asset) ‘Towards an Empowered Society and a Growing Economy’ October 2013–December 2018 Harare ——— 2015 Strategies for Clearing External Debt Arrears and the Supportive Economic Reform Agenda, September Harare IMF 2014 Zimbabwe – Staff Report for the Article IV Consultation-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Zimbabwe, IMF Country Report No 14/202, July Washington, DC ——— 2017a Zimbabwe – Staff Report for the Article IV Consultations – Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Zimbabwe, IMF Country Report No 17/197, July Washington, DC ——— 2017b Zimbabwe – Staff Report for the Article IV Consultations-Debt Sustainability Analysis, June16 Washington, DC Magaisa, Alex 2017 Big Saturday Read: Battle for Hearts and Minds of Rural Zimbabwe, June 10 https://www.bigsr.co.uk/single-post/2017/06/10/ Big-Saturday-Read-Battle-for-hearts-and-minds-inrural-Zimbabwe 378  M Simpson and T Hawkins Mugabe, R.G 2013a Transcript – Mugabe’s Inauguration Speech 22 August 2013 http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/news/transcript-mugabes-inaugurationspeech-22-august-2013/ ——— 2013b Mugabe’s 2013 UN Speech  – Full Transcript 26 August 2013 http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/news/mugabes-2013-un-speech-fulltranscript/ Nehanda Radio 2014 Tendai Biti’s Harare Home Petrol Bombed, Again, February 25 http://nehandaradio.com/2014/02/25/bitis-harare-home-petrolbombed New Zimbabwe 2014 Fresh Waves Flee Worsening Economy, March 22 ——— 2017 Mnangagwa Fired from Zanu PF, November NewsDay 2014a Zimra Warns of Company Closures, January 24 ——— 2014b Zimbabwe Records 75 Company Closures, over 9,000 Jobs Losses, February 21 ——— 2014c Former MDC-T Ministers Were in Government to Make Up Numbers, March 15 ——— 2017a Youth Disillusioned as Empowerment Fund Is Looted, July ——— 2017b Mnangagwa Allies Cry Foul, October 30 ——— 2017c Mnangagwa Out-Grace, November ——— 2017d Airforce Bemoans Low Budgetary Allocation, November 15 Office of the Auditor General 2015 Report of the Auditor-General, 2015 Harare Parliament of Zimbabwe Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No.1) Bill 2017 Harare RBZ 2017 Mid-Term Monetary Policy Statement, August Harare Reuters 2014 Zimbabwe’s Mugabe Fires Deputy, Seven Ministers, December h t t p s : / / w w w r e u t e r s c o m / a r t i c l e / u s - z i m b a b w e - m u j u r u idUSKBN0JN0P420141209 Sunday News 2017 War Vets to Earn $500 Per Month, August 20 Harare The Herald 2014 PSMAS Shock Salary Schedule, January 23 Harare ——— 2015 President Appoints Permanent Secretaries, April 16 Harare ——— 2017a Amendment Bill Passed-Zanu-PF Flexes Majority Muscle-­ President Set to Appoint Judges, July 26 Harare ——— 2017b In Defence of the Revolution, People’s Rights, November 15 Harare ——— 2017c Zanu-PF Unfazed by Chiwenga…Raps Him for Treasonous Statements…Reaffirms Primacy of Politics over Gun, November 15 Harare   The Transitions That Weren’t    379 ——— 2017d EDITORIAL COMMENT: Custodians Returning Revolution to Source Harare The Standard 2017 General Warns of Security ‘Threat’, November 12 Harare The Zimbabwean 2017a WATCH: BREAKING: Zimbabwe Army Chief Warns Mugabe’s Party After VP Sacked, November 15 http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/news/watch-breaking-zimbabwe-army-chief-warnsmugabes-party-after-vp-sacked ——— 2017b Zimbabwe: Choosing Between the Devil and Lucifer, November 23 Harare Transparency International 2015 People and Corruption: Africa Survey 2015 Berlin UN-OCHA 2014 Humanitarian Bulletin: Southern Africa, No 14, February New York: UN-Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ——— 2016a Humanitarian Needs Overview 2016  – Zimbabwe, March New York: UN-Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ——— 2016b Zimbabwe Country Profile, October https://www.unocha.org/ legacy/southern-and-eastern-africa/country-profiles/zimbabwe WJP 2013 Rule of Law Index Report 2012–2013 Washington, DC: World Justice Project ——— 2015 Rule of Law Index 2015 Washington, DC: World Justice Project World Bank 2016 Doing Business 2016: Measuring Regulatory Quality and Efficiency-Economy Profile Zimbabwe Washington, DC ——— 2017 Macro Poverty Outlook for Zimbabwe, April Washington, DC ZANU-PF 2013 Team ZANU-PF 2013 Harare ZEC 2013 Harmonised Elections Report 2013 Harare ZESN 2013 Advance Harmonised Election Report 2013 Harare: Zimbabwe Elections Support Network Zimbabwe Independent 2014a No Chinese Money for Desperate Chinamasa, January 24 Harare ——— 2014b Democracy Must Not Be a Mere Slogan, February 21 Harare ——— 2014c Wadyajena, Kasukuwere War Opens Can of Worms, August 14 Harare ——— 2015 Gov’t Farm Invasion Threats Spark Anxiety, March 13 Harare ——— 2016a Tobacco Farmers Languish in Poverty, April Harare ——— 2016b Army Resistance Shocks Mugabe, April 29 Harare ——— 2017a Cabinet Rejects Mnangagwa Proposal, November Harare ——— 2017b Ousted VP Faces Arrest, November 10 Harare Index1 A Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA), 231, 281n12, 315 A1 farms, 97, 105, 107, 108, 332n10 A2 farms, 97, 106, 107, 365 Afghanistan, 20, 357 African Development Bank (AfDB), 76, 172, 173, 176, 189n9, 189n12, 304n3, 362 African Union (AU), 202, 206, 209, 210, 222n13, 243, 338, 371 Agricultural Mechanisation Programme, 112 Agro-Ecological Regions, 89, 96 Ahmadinejad, 183 Albania, 46 Angola, 20, 53, 64, 221n12 Anjin, 300, 304n9, 375n13 B Bennett, Roy, 222n15, 242, 341 Bilateral donors, ix, 22, 67, 84n5, 156, 177–182, 189n10, 218, 230, 233 Biti, Tendai, 234–236, 242, 297, 299, 300, 311, 341, 342, 363, 373n5 Bond notes, x, 361–363 Bosnia, 20, 40n1 Botswana, 32, 148, 188n2, 221n12, 228, 327, 347, 348, 358, 372n4  Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes © The Author(s) 2018 M Simpson, T Hawkins, The Primacy of Regime Survival, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72520-8 381 382  Index Bretton Woods Institutions (BWIs), 12, 66–68, 70, 71, 73, 78, 84n5, 167–169, 174, 176, 180, 189n11, 216, 228, 235, 236, 347, 349, 373n5 Bulawayo, 123, 131, 136n7, 144, 145, 321, 336 Bureaucratic capacity, 25, 33–36 C Cambodia, 20 Carrington, Peter, 114n2 Central Committee, 47, 62, 330n1, 371 Central Intelligence Organisation (CIO), 102, 117n11, 166, 213, 244n4, 267, 280n5, 289, 298, 304n9 Chavez, Hugo, 183 Chiadzwa/Marange diamond fields, 297, 354, 374n13, 256 Chief Justice, 102, 206, 336, 356 China, 13, 42n9, 46, 59n3, 183–187, 191n20, 191n22, 244n5, 344, 349 China Import-Export Bank, 185 Chinamasa, Patrick, 205, 349, 362, 369 Chinese aid, 185 Chiwenga, Constantine, 201, 259, 370, 371 Civil Service Organisation (CSO), 249, 256, 268, 274, 316–319, 341 Civil Society Monitoring Mechanism (CISOMM), 262–263 Cohabitation, 14, 212, 217, 227–245, 248, 259, 275, 286, 303, 311 Cold War, 4, 19–21, 66 Coltart, David, 242, 245n12, 313 Command Agriculture, ix, 365, 366, 368 Commercial agriculture, 3, 63, 100, 110 Commercial Farmers Union (CFU), 91, 98 Commonwealth, 166, 182, 191n18 Communal agriculture, 90 Communal Land Act, 90 Communal Land Development Plan, 93 Constitutional amendments, 10, 11, 56, 80, 96, 100–101, 103, 270, 271, 276, 310, 356 Constitutional Commission (CC), 80, 81, 318 Constitutional Court, 266, 336, 356, 372n2 Constitutional Parliamentary Select Committee (COPAC), 260–265, 271, 281n7, 282n14, 309, 318, 331n9 Constitutional referendum, 319, 325 Corruption, viii, 16, 22, 31, 32, 34, 35, 41n8, 57, 99, 129, 216, 240, 241, 248, 279n1, 290, 296, 309, 318, 322, 323, 327, 345, 352, 354–358, 369, 375–376n17 Cotonou Agreement, 181, 190n16 Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA), 23, 40n3 Cumulative causation, 30  Index     D Daily News, 79, 84n8, 100, 319, 342, 349, 350, 352, 366, 369, 373n7 Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), 179 Dead capital, 104–108, 117n13, 208 Debt arrears, 237, 288, 344 Debt relief, 167, 176–177, 180, 183, 188n1, 189n11, 190n12, 190n13, 191n21, 234–236 Declaration of Rights, 1, 2, 265 Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), 12, 20, 32, 73, 74, 76, 80, 83n4, 168–170, 188n5, 221n12, 265 Demographic and Health Survey, 145 Demographics, 72 de Soto, Hernando, 117n13, 125, 135n3 Development Assistance Committee (DAC), 187n1 Diamonds and parallel revenue flows, 297–303 Diaspora, ix, x, 99, 134, 271, 272, 332n9, 358 Diaspora remittances, 133–134, 153–154, 157, 344, 361 Dirigisme, 93, 327, 348, 363, 364 Dollarization, 14, 223n17, 228, 229, 299, 300, 304n5, 325, 349 Draft constitution, 81, 82, 96, 260–264 E Eastern Europe, 6, 63 Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP), ix, 10, 383 64–74, 76, 79, 84n6, 95, 123, 168, 173, 174, 235 Education Trust Fund (ETF), 230, 245n12 Education system, 151, 200, 278 Egypt, 210 Elections, vii, xi, 1, 2, 8, 13, 15, 16, 17n3, 22, 54, 55, 61, 62, 67, 77, 80–82, 97, 105, 106, 131, 132, 140, 147, 161n6, 177, 178, 180–182, 187, 188n2, 189n8, 190n17, 195–223, 229, 234, 237, 238, 241, 243, 249, 250, 252, 255, 256, 259–261, 263, 264, 266, 271, 272, 274, 275, 277, 278, 280n4, 282n14, 285–286, 288–293, 295, 301–303, 304n10, 308, 309, 311, 313–315, 319, 320, 322, 323, 325, 327–330, 330n3, 331n6–8, 332n10, 332n12, 332n17, 335–340, 342, 343, 354, 356, 357, 364–368, 372, 373n5, 374n8, 375n15 Electoral reform, 15, 243, 249, 252–253 Employment, x, 5, 7, 9, 11–13, 24, 28, 29, 31, 40n5, 47, 48, 51, 63, 70–74, 77, 100, 110, 113, 121–124, 126, 127, 130, 134, 134n1, 135n4–6, 140–143, 147, 148, 152, 215, 239, 253, 286, 293, 294, 313, 315, 316, 325, 326, 332n15, 343, 352, 374n10 Environmental Management Agency (EMA), 351 Equatorial Guinea, 21 384  Index European Union sanctions, 181 Exchange rate policy, 76 Executive Presidency, 15, 265, 319 Extractive institutions, 219, 302 F Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP), 10, 11, 15, 46, 48, 87–117, 121, 126, 127, 132–134, 140, 146, 147, 157, 158, 177, 178, 180, 200, 203, 256, 266, 268–271, 282n14, 289, 291, 292, 295, 303n1, 303n2, 307, 309, 310, 315, 319, 320, 325, 326, 345, 353, 354, 365, 376n19 Fifth Brigade, 55 Fiscal contracts, 9, 26, 31, 241 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 97, 145, 146, 157, 158 Foreign currency allocations, 198 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), 52, 67, 75, 208, 239, 243n2, 288, 295, 296, 315, 326, 347, 349, 361 Fragile states, 5, 8, 21, 23, 24, 31, 36–38, 40n2, 154, 290, 355 Freedom House, 320–322, 324 FRELIMO, 64, 116n6 264, 268–270, 276, 280n3, 280n5, 285, 288, 299, 302, 304n10, 309, 317, 326, 329, 338, 342 Gono, Gideon, 112, 197, 223n17 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 63 Government of National Unity (GNU), 210, 250 Grain Marketing Board (GMB), 92, 111–112, 115n4, 131, 157, 159, 280n2, 320, 353, 365, 366 Green Bombers, 211, 213, 222n14 Gross Domestic Product (GDP), x, 28, 29, 34, 35, 40n5, 41n6, 50–52, 65, 68–70, 72, 74, 77, 78, 87, 98, 109, 110, 112, 113, 122, 126, 134, 140, 153, 175, 189n7, 196–198, 227, 228, 234, 235, 297, 300, 317, 325, 326, 332n14, 345, 348, 363, 364 Growth with Equity, 47 Gubbay, Tony, 102 Guinea-Bissau, 21 Gukurahundi, 55, 57, 67, 73, 80, 214, 217, 266 Gumbo, Rugare, 259 Gutu, Obert, 300, 352 H G Ghost workers, 237–239, 374n10 Gini coefficient, 154 Global Political Agreement (GPA), 195, 210–215, 217, 223n18, 231–234, 242, 243, 248, 249, 251–255, 257, 258, 260–262, Haiti, 21 Harare, 12, 13, 27, 55, 59n5, 63, 73, 74, 76, 84n5, 89, 95, 103, 115–116n6, 123, 128–131, 144–146, 160n4, 166, 167, 170, 171, 173, 177, 178, 180–182, 184–187, 188n2,  Index     191n18, 205, 209, 221n9, 234, 262, 275, 277, 279n1, 296, 313, 321, 336, 339, 344, 349, 362, 371, 373n7 Harare Declaration of 1991, 182 Health indicators, 199 Herald, The (newspaper), 166, 183, 187, 238, 351, 356, 358, 371 Homelink, 154 Human Development Index (HDI), 7, 17n2, 32, 33, 84n7, 146, 147 Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus and Acquired Immuno-­ Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/ AIDS), 84n7, 130, 149, 151, 170, 179, 198 Humanitarian emergency, 358–360 Hyperinflation, x, 13, 14, 37, 99, 142, 165, 178, 198, 215, 278, 304n4, 314, 317, 328, 344 I Inclusive Government (IG), 14–16, 105, 106, 110, 196, 210–219, 227–240, 242, 243, 245n9, 245n10, 248, 249, 251, 254–260, 265, 275, 276, 285–289, 291, 293, 295, 296, 298–300, 302, 303, 304n10, 307, 308, 310–313, 316–321, 324–327, 332n16, 340–342, 347–350, 352–358, 360, 363, 364, 373n5, 374n10, 374n13 Incumbency, 328–330 Independence, xi, 1–3, 5, 7–9, 15, 49, 51–55, 58, 58n2, 59n3, 61–63, 75, 77, 79, 82, 85n9, 385 88, 89, 91, 97, 99, 102–104, 114n1, 122, 125, 142, 144, 147, 151, 200, 217, 221n10, 222n13, 223n16, 250, 264, 268, 269, 277, 289, 293, 307–309, 313, 346, 355, 363 Indigenization and Economic Empowerment Act (2008), 208, 296 Inflation, x, xi, 7, 13, 14, 37, 65, 68, 70, 73, 74, 77, 81, 99, 111–113, 122, 126, 127, 136n8, 140–143, 145, 146, 152, 165, 170, 172, 175, 178, 196–199, 215, 219, 228, 278, 304n4, 314, 317, 328, 344, 345 Informalization, 39 Informal sector, x, 12, 14, 34, 47, 110, 121–130, 133, 135n3, 135n5, 135n6, 142, 143, 148, 156, 316, 326, 345 International Council of Advocates and Barristers, 103 International Development Association (IDA), 23, 40n3, 173, 176, 190n13 International Labour Organization (ILO), 123, 125, 129 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 4, 68, 70–71, 73–78, 83n2, 83n4, 110, 141, 144, 155–157, 166–173, 175, 176, 180, 188n6, 189n8, 189n11, 189n12, 190n13, 196–198, 227, 234, 236–239, 244n6, 244n8, 326–328, 332n14, 345–348, 361–365, 373n5, 374n10 386  Index Investment-GDP ratio, 52 Iran, 183 Ivory Coast, 20, 35 J Joint Monitoring and Implementation Committee (JOMIC), 251, 252 Joint Operations Command (JOC), 203, 204, 216, 220n7, 258 Judicial Services Commission, 56, 266, 281n9, 356 K Kabila, Joseph, 221n12 Kabila, Laurent, 12, 73, 83n4, 169 Kariba draft constitution, 261, 262, 276, 281n6 Kasukuwere, Saviour, 289, 296, 354, 355, 367, 368, 372 Kenya, 35, 210 Khupe, Thokozani, 212 Kibaki, Mwai, 210 Kleptocratic elites, 37, 57 L Lancaster House Agreement (1979), 1, 54, 55, 88 Land Acquisition Act, 92, 96, 101, 102 Land audit, 117n11, 211, 256, 270, 271, 311, 316, 354 Land Commission, 270, 271, 316 “Land is the economy”, 82 Land reform, 2, 9, 11, 13, 46, 48, 63, 81, 82, 84n6, 91, 93, 94, 100, 103, 106, 115n3, 116n8, 166, 180–181, 183, 209, 222n15, 269, 309, 319, 326, 332n10, 340, 353 Land resettlement donor conference, 95–96 Land Tenure Commission, 93, 94 Late-comer, Leadership Code, 57 Lesotho, 197 Liberation war, 1, 3, 4, 81, 82, 280n4 Liberia, 20, 223n19 Libya, 21 Life expectancy, 17n2, 24, 51, 84n7, 220n5 Locke, John, i Look East policy, 184–186, 373n7 Low Income Countries Under Stress (LICUS), 23–24, 40n2 M Machel, Samora, 2, 115n6 Made, Joseph, 352 Madhuku, Lovemore, 319 Makarau, Rita, 275 Makoni, Simba, 111, 203, 220n6 Malawi, 58n2, 126 Mangoma, Elton, 242, 245n11, 311, 341–342 Manicaland Province, 109, 336 Marxism-Leninism, 4, 46–47, 49, 55 Mashonaland Central Province, 104, 325 Masvingo Province, 99, 105, 106, 144, 336 Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR), 24, 150 Mbeki, Thabo, 210, 242, 261  Index     Millennium Economic Recovery Programme (MERP), 160n1, 178 Mineral rich economies, 32 Mnangagwa, Emmerson, vii–ix, xi, 191n22, 365, 367–369, 371–372 Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), 10–12, 14, 15, 17n3, 55, 67, 77, 79–82, 95–97, 103, 129, 131, 135n6, 149, 166, 178, 203, 206, 211, 213, 214, 218, 219n1, 223n16, 229, 233, 239–243, 244n4, 249, 251, 256, 258, 259, 261, 262, 265–269, 271, 272, 274, 275, 281n7, 286–288, 295–297, 299, 301, 303, 308, 309, 311–313, 315, 316, 318, 323, 324, 328, 330, 331n8, 332n16, 341, 342, 350 Moyo, Jonathan, 82 Mozambique, 2, 3, 20, 53, 54, 64, 88, 116n6, 126, 221n12, 296–298 Mugabe, Grace, 367–369, 372, 376n19, 376n20 Mugabe, Robert, vii–ix, 1–4, 7, 8, 11, 13–15, 17n1, 46, 52–53, 55–57, 59n4, 62, 64, 66–68, 73, 75–82, 115n3, 166, 169, 178, 183, 184, 188n2, 191n19, 195, 200–210, 212–214, 219, 221n11, 221n12, 222n15, 223n16, 223n17, 234, 242, 245n11, 252, 254–256, 264, 275–279, 281n6, 282n13, 285–287, 303, 309, 311, 320, 323, 324, 387 329, 330n3, 335, 336, 339–341, 343, 346, 355–357, 361, 365–367, 369–372, 372n2, 376n20 Mujuru, Joice, 367 Multi-currency system, 314, 361 Murambatsvina, 127–134, 136n7, 136n8, 143, 147, 154, 156, 158, 166, 179, 191n19, 203, 214, 217, 298, 313, 315 Mutambara, Arthur, 13, 17n3, 212, 219n1, 332n16 Mutasa, Didymus, 149 N National Constitutional Assembly (NCA), 80, 261, 318–319, 331–332n9, 341 National Health Strategy (NHS), 230 National Land Acquisition Committee, 95 National Security Council (NSC), 212, 234, 257, 258, 268 Ndebele, 54, 89, 114n1, 136n7 Nigeria, 3, 35 Nkomo, Joshua, 1, 55, 79 Non-Government Organizations (NGOs), 40n1, 67, 103, 130, 132, 136n7, 161n6, 166, 178, 179, 207, 216, 308, 329, 332n11 North Korea, 55 O Odinga, Raila, 210 Official Development Assistance (ODA), 40n3, 75, 167, 228, 288 388  Index Operation Chikorokoza Chapera (End to illegal panning), 298 Operation Chimumumu (Operation Dumbness), 263 Operation Dzikisa Mutengo (Reduce Prices), 112, 158, 315 Operation Hakudzokwi (‘You will not return’), 298 Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), 22, 24–26, 187n1 Organ on National Healing, Reconciliation and Integration (ONHRI), 254, 255, 273 P Paris Club, 172, 176 Parliamentary Representation, 332n12, 336 Patriotic Front (PF), 1, 2, 55, 88, 308 Per Capita income, 23, 30, 50, 51, 72, 74, 77, 170 People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), 64 Politburo, 47, 62, 220n6, 322, 367, 368 Poverty reduction, 9, 22, 24, 28–34, 36–39, 40n3, 41n6, 72, 140, 160n4, 167, 168, 188n1, 188n3, 189n11, 213, 248, 326 Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF), 74, 171, 362 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), 167, 168, 176, 188n1, 188n3, 189n11 Premier Service Medical Aid Society (PSMAS), 350 Public finances, 27, 71, 78, 216, 228, 229, 241, 360 Public Order and Security Act (POSA), 148, 201, 232, 281n12, 315 Public sector reform, 33, 66, 67, 69, 70, 188n3 Q Quasi Fiscal operations, 156 R Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ), x, 76, 111–113, 134, 136n8, 143, 154, 156, 157, 161n5, 196, 197, 207, 219n2, 222n15, 228, 229, 301, 304n5, 361, 363–365 Resource curse, 15, 31, 32, 35, 36, 198, 299, 300, 328 Rhodesia, 2, 58n2, 79, 88 Role of the military, 202, 368 Rule of law, 7, 9, 27, 57, 87, 99–104, 106, 109, 116n10, 167, 177, 180, 181, 211, 213, 216, 222n13, 223n16, 267, 272, 345, 354–358, 375n16 Rwanda, 20, 40n1, 217 S SADC Tribunal, 103 Salarygate, 350, 352 School leavers, 51, 123 Scoones, Ian, 98, 99, 105–106, 116n9  Index     Securocrats, viii, 15, 16, 190n15, 201, 204, 207, 221n8, 237–239, 255–258, 260, 289, 303, 354–358, 369 Shona, 54, 55, 89, 112, 114n1, 127, 136n7, 158, 319 Short, Clare, 95, 116n8 Short-Term Emergency Recovery Programme (STERP), 227–229 Sierra Leone, 20, 217, 223n19 Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), 72, 124, 129 Social indicators, 5, 19, 51, 79 Solidarity Peace Trust, 131, 132, 136n7, 207, 217, 317 Somalia, 21, 40n1 South Africa, xi, 3–5, 50, 53, 58n2, 79, 85n9, 114n1, 135n4, 148, 154, 184, 217, 222n15, 232, 254, 298, 327, 341, 344, 347, 348, 358, 361, 369 Southern African Development Community (SADC), 103, 149, 169, 188n2, 197, 202, 205, 209, 234, 242, 243, 252, 261, 264, 329, 338, 339, 371, 372n4 South Korea, 41n9 South Sudan, 20–21 Sovereignty gap, 26–28, 360 Sovereign Wealth Fund, 315, 344 Soviet Union, 63, 244n5, 344 Staff Monitored Programme (SMP), 236, 238, 244n6, 345, 373n5 State legitimacy, 9, 20, 24, 35–39, 121, 159 Sudan, 20–21 Swaziland, 197 Syria, 21 389 T Tekere, Edgar, 56 Third Chimurenga, 88, 114n1, 165, 166, 277, 289, 292 Total Consumption Poverty Line (TCPL), 143–145, 160n3 Transitional National Development Plan (TNDP), 49, 50, 90, 91 Transmission channels, 30, 33 Transparency International, 355 Tsumba, Leonard, 111 Tsvangirai, Morgan, 13, 17n3, 67, 80, 129–130, 201, 203, 205–206, 212, 214, 219n1, 221n12, 222n15, 241, 242, 252, 257–260, 280n4, 295, 311, 312, 316, 319, 321, 323, 324, 330n1, 330n3, 336, 338–342, 374n9 U Unemployment, 10, 11, 16, 46, 47, 52, 64, 65, 70, 74, 77, 79, 80, 99, 121, 124, 140–147, 211, 360 Unfulfilled expectations, 77, 79–82 Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), 50, 58n2, 89, 90, 125 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 45, 296 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 17n2, 77, 84n7, 90, 96, 98, 111, 126, 130, 142, 146, 147, 152, 233 United Nations (UN) sanctions, 52, 53 390  Index United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 124, 134n2, 156, 198 Unity Accord (1987), 55 Utete, Charles, 104, 108, 109 X Xi Jinping, 187 Xinhua Chinese news agency, 184 Y Yemen, 20 V Venezuela, 21, 183, 357 W Wages, 10, 34, 48–51, 63, 68, 77, 79, 80, 122, 124, 126, 127, 134, 135n4, 141–143, 145, 151, 152, 158, 170, 198, 230, 239, 250, 301, 317, 328, 350, 373n5, 374n10 War veterans, vii, 73, 76, 78, 81, 84n6, 95–97, 102, 107, 166, 169, 201, 215, 222n14, 250, 254, 276–278, 282n14, 286, 299, 309, 357, 365–367 Washington Consensus, 64, 66, 71, 83n2 Weberianness, 34, 35, 151 Willowgate, 57 World Bank, 4, 23–24, 26, 40n2, 40n3, 51, 64, 66, 68, 70, 73–76, 78, 83n2, 155, 166–168, 172, 173, 175, 180, 189n10–12, 236, 238, 244n6, 327, 345, 347, 348, 362, 363, 373n6 World Food Programme (WFP), 97, 100, 145, 146, 157, 158 Z Zaire, 35 Zambia, 3, 54, 58n2, 79, 85n9, 295 Zanufication, 14, 218, 239–243, 311, 324 ZIDCO, 62 Zimbabwe Accelerated Arrears clearance, Debt and Development Strategy (ZAADDS), 236, 237, 244n7, 362 Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), 1, 2, 4, 54–56, 59n3, 82, 87, 88, 114n2, 191n20, 337 Zimbabwe African National Union-­ Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), vii, viii, 6–8, 10, 55, 59n4, 61, 83n4, 84n8, 91, 114n1, 115n3, 116n8, 117n11, 121, 149, 161n6, 166, 191n19, 195, 220n5, 220n6, 221n11, 221n12, 222–223n15, 223n16, 223n19, 231, 243n1, 245n11, 247–279, 281n7, 282n14, 285–303, 303n2, 304n4, 304n5, 304n10, 307–330, 330n1, 331n4, 331n6, 335–340, 373n5, 375n15, 376n19  Index     Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU), 1, 2, 9, 54, 55, 79, 82, 88, 114n2 Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation (ZimAsset), 343 Zimbabwe Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Council (ZASMC), 310 Zimbabwe Conference on Reconstruction and Development (ZIMCORD), 48, 49, 90, 114n2 Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU), 67, 80, 135n6, 350 Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZIDERA), 180–181 Zimbabwe Elections Support Network (ZESN), 205, 252, 372n3 Zimbabwe Electoral Commission (ZEC), 202, 203, 205, 211, 252, 274, 275, 280n2, 281n8, 282n13, 336 391 Zimbabwe Investment Centre (ZIC), 65 Zimbabwe Lawyers for Human Rights (ZLHR), 130 Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), 54, 78, 310 Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), 54, 55, 57, 78, 310 Zimbabwe Programme for Economic and Social Transformation (ZIMPREST), 71–73, 79, 169, 173, 178 Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP), 132, 280n5, 298, 304n6, 304n8 Zimbabwe Revenue Authority (ZIMRA), 297, 350, 351 Zimbabwe’s Poverty Assessment Study, 142, 143, 145, 150 Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM), 56 Zuma, Jacob, 234, 242 ... regression in the form of the increasing centralisation of power in the Presidency, undermining of the rule of law and independence of the judiciary, growing constraints on the operations of the independent... shows, the imperative of regime survival – defined in terms of ZANU-PF’s monopoly of state power and until 2017 the maintenance of Mugabe as the country’s leader – and the political and economic institutions... Decade: Building the One-Party State and Controlling the Economy   45 4 Regime Interests and the Failure of Economic Reform in the 1990s  61 5 Regime Survival and the Fast Track Land Reform Programme  87