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ECONOMIZATION OF EDUCATION “Excellent Needed The arguments made for education in our times require a book like this to understand what has been happening People have uncritically accepted the new educational goals Joel Spring lifts the veil hiding dangerous educational trends His cogent analysis points out the powerful forces shaping educational policy today and which endanger both our system of education and our democratic government The book is timely.” —David C Berliner, Regents’ Professor Emeritus, Arizona State University, USA “Spring’s work has been very valuable on globalization and education and this volume offers a unique perspective relative to his prior work on the subject I don’t know of another text that focuses on the supranational organizations like this one does A great introduction and overview, and counterpoint to dominant economics of education texts.” —Kenneth Saltman, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, USA In this timely, cogent analysis of trends and powerful forces shaping global educational policy today, Joel Spring focuses on how economization is making economic growth and increased productivity the main goals of schools, and the ways these goals are achieved—including measuring educational policies by their costs and economic benefits, shaping family life to ensure productive workers and high-achieving students, introducing entrepreneurship education into curricula from preschool through higher education, and increasing the involvement of economists in educational policy analysis Close attention is given to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the World Bank, the World Economic Forum, and multinational corporations, which, as advocates of economization, want schools to focus on teaching hard and soft skills needed by the global labor market Economization raises questions about the effects of economically driven agendas for schools: Will education policies advocated by global organizations and multinational businesses corporatize and standardize human personalities and families? What type of global worker is being sought by global organizations and multinational corporations? What education programs are supported to educate the ideal global worker? What is the ideal family life for economic growth and development? Detailing and analyzing the politics and motivations driving economization, the book concludes with an assessment of the impacts of the confluence of business interests, economic theories, governments, and educators Joel Spring is Professor at Queens College/City University of New York and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, USA Sociocultural, Political, and Historical Studies in Education Joel Spring, Editor Spring r &DPOPNJ[BUJPO PG &EVDBUJPO )VNBO $BQJUBM
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BOE5SVUIJOFTT ix 105 Economization of the Family and Childhood: Educating the Corporate Personality 126 &DPOPNJ[BUJPOPGUIF'BNJMZ+BNFT$PMFNBOBOE4PDJBM$BQJUBM &DPOPNJ[BUJPOPGUIF'BNJMZ(BSZ#FDLFS )FDLNBOBOEUIF&DPOPNJD#FOFêUTPGUIF1FSSZ1SFTDIPPM 1SFTDIPPM
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BOEUIF$PSQPSBUJ[BUJPOPG1FSTPOBMJUZ 1SFTDIPPMGPSUIF8PSME5IF$VMUVSBM*NQFSJBMJTNPG 4VDDFTTJOUIF$PSQPSBUJPO $PODMVTJPO4IBQJOHUIF(MPCBM$PSQPSBUF'BNJMZBOE1FSTPOBMJUZ The Confluence of Business Interests, Economic Theories, Governments, and Educators: Go to School to Learn Job Skills 146 *OEFY 150 142 Economization of the Family and Childhood was central to the McGuffey Readers which were the most popular school books in nineteenth-century America.78 Coleman’s ideal would require major changes in the world’s religions to conform to his market-oriented ethics Using rational choice theory, Gary Becker arrives at a similar conclusion on family size He uses the same concept of social capital as Coleman, only adding the argument that government education programs, particularly compensatory education programs for the poor, will result in the family reducing their investments and attention given to their children For Becker the economically efficient family is small, has the right social capital and genetics and is committed to childhood learning This argument contributes to a global ideal for family life James Heckman provides his ideal of a family’s social capital to give children the right soft skills If the family isn’t doing this then, he argues, children should be sent to preschool His list of personal characteristics will, he claims, lead to success in school and work This list includes being organized, not careless, ambitious, not lazy, perseverance, delay of gratification, impulse control, and a good work ethic Missing from this list are behaviors like empathy, compassion, and altruism As argued by Gary Becker, these emotions only come into play when they help social organizations to function efficiently Becker argues that selfishness makes markets more efficient while altruism makes families more efficient Thus emotions become a form of social capital that helps families and individuals become more economically productive It could be argued that altruism in the marketplace could lead to a more socially just society However, the economists considered in this book are focused on economic growth and worker productivity and not social justice Therefore, at least in Becker’s case, compassion has no positive function in the marketplace Emotions are simply considered as utilitarian to the functioning of the economic system In summary, the corporate personality envisioned by these economists has the determination and grit to economically succeed with their emotions determined by their value in the workplace Anger is not valuable in the workplace, but feelings of corporate loyalty would be This economized personality shows all the characteristics needed for economic success but without the motivation to struggle for political and social justice Their households are organized by the social capital needed for breadwinners to succeed and children prepared to learn how to be good workers Notes Patrick Flanery, Fallen Land (New York: Riverhead Books, 2013) Brian Keeley, Human Capital: How What You Know Shapes Your Life (Paris: OECD Publishing, 2007) James S Coleman, “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital,” The American Journal of Sociology,Vol 94 (1988), pp 95–120 Ibid., p 98 Ibid., pp 100–101 Economization of the Family and Childhood 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 143 Ibid., p 110 Ibid., p 111 Ibid., p 111 Ibid., p 112 Gary S Becker, A Treatise on the Family: Enlarged Edition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991) Ibid., p ix Ibid., p 10 Ibid., Milton Friedman backcover endorsement Ibid., p 231 Ibid., p 230 Ibid., p 241 Ibid., p 230 Ibid., p 179 Ibid., p 135 Ibid., p 299 See Frances A Campbell et al., “Adult Outcomes as a Function of an Early Childhood Educational Program: An Abecedarian Project Follow-Up,” Developmental Psychology (2012),Vol 48, No 4, 1033–1043 and Waisman Center, Chicago Longitudinal Study Issue 1, August 2000, retrieved from http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/cls/NEWSLETN.PDF on November 21, 2013 Lawrence J Schweinhart et al., “The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study Through Age 40: Summary, Conclusions, and Frequently Asked Questions,” (Ypsilanti Michigan, High/Scope Press, 2005) Retrieved from http://www.highscope.org/file/Research/ PerryProject/specialsummary_rev2011_02_2.pdf on November 13, 2013 Schweinhart et al., “The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study ,” p Ibid., pp 7–8 Ibid., p 11 Ibid., p 13 Ibid., p 42 Ibid., p 43 See High/Scope, “About Us.” Retrieved from http://www.highscope.org/Content asp?ContentId=761 on March 17, 2014 Schweinhart et al., “The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study , p Ibid., pp 3–4 Ibid., p James Heckman and Tim D Kautz, “Hard Evidence on Soft Skills” (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2012), p Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., p 18 Ibid., p.13 Ibid., p 13 James J Heckman and Yona Rubinstein, “The Importance of Noncognitive Skills: Lessons from the GED Testing Program,” The American Economic Review,Vol 91, No (May, 2001), p 145 Ibid., p 145 Ibid., p 146 144 Economization of the Family and Childhood 43 Ibid., p 148 44 Ibid., pp 148–149 45 James J Heckman, “Policies to Foster Human Capital,” National Bureau of Economic Research (August, 1999), p i Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w7288 on February 10, 2014 46 Ibid., p 13 47 Ibid., p 13 48 Ibid., p 14 49 Ibid., p 18 50 Ibid., p 19 51 World Economic Forum, Education and Skills 2.0: New Targets and Innovative Approaches (Geneva: World Economic Forum, January 2014), p 18 52 Sophie Naudeau, Naoko Kataoka, Alexandria Valerio, Michelle J Neuman, and Leslie Kennedy Elder, Investing in Young Children: An Early Childhood Development Guide for Policy Dialogue and Project Preparation, (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2011) and World Economic Forum, Education and Skills 2.0 53 World Economic Forum, Education and Skills 2.0 , p 18 54 Naudeau et al., Investing in Young Children , p 19 The reference is cited by Naudeau as P Carneiro and J Heckman, “Human Capital Policy.” NBER Working Paper 9495 (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2003) 55 Ibid., p 19 56 Ibid., p 57 Ibid., p 58 Bruce Fuller, Standardized Childhood:The Political and Cultural Struggle over Early Education (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2008) 59 Naudeau et al., Investing in Young Children , p 60 Ibid., p 61 Ibid., p 53 62 Ibid., p 15 63 Ibid., p 15 64 The World Bank, “Countries.” Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/country on March 12, 2014 65 Ibid., p 18 66 Ibid., p 23 Regarding the Schweinhart reference in the World Bank publication see the previous endnote Lawrence J Schweinhart et al., “The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study ” 67 Naudeau et al., Investing in Young Children , “Why Invest in ECD? The Economic Argument,” p 21 The key readings include, Heckman, J J., and D V Masterov, “The Productivity Argument for Investing in Young Children.” Review of Agricultural Economics, Vol 29, No 3(2007), pp 446–93; Heckman, J J., S H Moon, R Pinto, P A Savalyev, and A.Yavitz, “The Rate of Return to the High/Scope Perry Preschool Program.”Working Paper 200936 (Geary Institute, University College Dublin, 2009) http://www.ucd.ie/ geary/static/publications/workingpapers/gearywp200936.pdf 68 Ibid 69 Ibid., p 22.The five articles are: J J Heckman,“The Case for Investing in Disadvantaged Young Children,” in Big Ideas for Children: Investing in Our Nation’s Future, edited by First Focus (Washington, DC: First Focus, 2008), pp 49–58; J J Heckman, “Schools, Skills, and Synapses,” Economic Inquiry,Vol 46, No (2008), pp 289–324; J J Heckman and Economization of the Family and Childhood 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 145 D.V Masterov, “The Productivity Argument for Investing in Young Children,” Review of Agricultural Economics,Vol 29, No (2007), pp 446–493; J J Heckman et al., “The Rate of Return to the High/Scope Perry Preschool Program ”; J J Heckman, J Stixrud, and S Urzua, “The Effects of Cognitive and Noncognitive Abilities on Labor Market Outcomes and Social Behavior,” Journal of Labor Economics, Vol 24, No (2006), pp 411–482 Naudeau et al., Investing in Young Children , “Why Invest in ECD? The Survival and Health Arguments,” p 32 Naudeau et al., Investing in Young Children , “Why Invest in ECD? The School Readiness and School Achievement Arguments,” p 32 Xiaoyan Liang, Yu Fu, and Yinan Zhang, Challenges and Opportunities: Early Childhood Education in Yunnan (World Bank Document, November 18, 2013) Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2013/11/20116721/china-early-childdevelopment-early-childhood-education-yunnan on October 5, 2014 Ibid., p 40 Ibid., p 39 Brian Keeley, Human Capital (Paris: OECD, 2007) Ibid., p 42 Ibid., p 42 See Joel Spring, The American School A Global Context: From the Puritans to the Obama Administration Ninth Edition (New York: McGraw Hill, 2014), pp 154–160 THE CONFLUENCE OF BUSINESS INTERESTS, ECONOMIC THEORIES, GOVERNMENTS, AND EDUCATORS Go to School to Learn Job Skills Sparked by the fears of the Cold War and the destruction of World War II, world organizations were formed and economic theories developed that led to a world culture of education to serve the employment needs of global businesses Born in the Chicago School of Economics, human capital and rational choice theory provided an argument that could be used to economize education and make its primary goal to be educating workers for a global economy “Go to school to learn the skills that will get you a job” became the global clarion call of politicians, business, and educators There was no conspiracy that led to this result It was a product of an entangled set of interests and ideas The message given by some economists that education will cause economic growth and reduce income was quickly adopted by politicians and business interests Faced with economic slowdowns or desiring to grow their economies, politicians could claim that investing in education would solve the problem without alienating the business community Blaming education for economic problems is a safe path for politicians Businesses endorsed human capital theory because it gave them an argument that schools should be teaching the hard and soft skills that they wanted Since soft skills were high on their list of needs, human capital theory offered the opportunity for businesses to demand schools teach work habits and dutifulness wanted by global corporations Both politicians and businesses benefited from an economic theory that offered solutions to income inequality and failed or slow economic growth Responding to complaints about growing income inequality, which might lead to progressive taxation for redistribution of wealth, it could be answered that providing a skill-based schooling would solve the problem Politicians loved this solution because it didn’t antagonize many citizens More education sounds benevolent Also, the argument that personal investment will lead to higher incomes became Interests, Theories, Governments, Educators 147 a justification in countries like the US to reduce government aid to higher education and rely on student loans to pick up the slack This pleased bankers because student loans provided them with another source of income OECD became a major player in this tangled web of human capital ideas and global organizations In its early form as OEEC and later as OECD, the organization focused on economic development and readily adopted human capital arguments It pushed the human capital agenda by translating the call for schools to teach hard and soft skills into global tests The launching of PISA in the 1990s and later PIAAC created a global academic Olympiad that pit nation against nation as to which education system was doing the best job in teaching work skills In turn, the PISA’s global Olympiad contributed to making human capital ideas sound like commonsense The mantra became: invest in education and educate students in the right job skills and the economy will grow and income inequality will be reduced World Bank loans and policies created a confluence of corporate global interests, free market economic and rational choice theories, local education leaders, and local politics Loans were to support education initiatives that would give local populations the knowledge needed to make choices in a free market, to become politically empowered, to stop the misuse of Bank loans, and to have the skills to join the world’s workforce The World Bank joined the race to measure skills by collecting data beginning in 2012 for its Step Skills Measurement Program Loaning money to developing countries, the Bank spread human capital education ideas which were sometimes in conflict with traditional schools created by European colonialists It contributed to the mindset that education was primarily an economic tool Thinking like bankers, World Bank officials originally focused on educating local populations to ensure proper use of its loans to build local infrastructures The conceptualization of education as an economic tool was sustained when it adopted the goal of making a world free of poverty In addition, the Bank further extended the economic function of education by declaring it a necessity for individuals to operate in a free market and a tool to end government corruption that was hindering economic growth In this manner, the Bank was able to entangle the neoclassical economics of the Chicago School with its education loans Pushing its free market and rational choice agenda, the Bank argued that education was necessary for making rational choices in a competitive market Bank leaders saw lifelong learning as compensating for job loss resulting from competition and technological developments Worried about corruption and misuse of Bank loans, the World Bank gave an economic function to empowering the poor Theoretically education was to result in citizens demanding an end to political corruption Bringing together business interests and research, the World Bank economized knowledge with the creation of the Knowledge Bank Now economic growth was seen as a function of the production of knowledge The value of 148 Interests, Theories, Governments, Educators knowledge was to be gauged in economic terms resulting in a greater emphasis on education that contributed to technological advances In colleges, liberal arts declined as money and students poured into math, science, and engineering courses considered important for economic development Students were to be taught the knowledge supposedly needed for economic growth, and ideas that might result in greater social and economic justice were not emphasized The confluence of economic interests and education policies was strengthened with the founding of the World Economic Forum to represent the world’s leading corporations Its strategy of multistakeholder partnerships guaranteed business domination of local school policies by linking business to educators and government Making knowledge a function of business interests, particularly in the exploding technology sector, the organization promoted the use of ICT in global schools The World Economic Forum’s multistakeholder partnerships helped reinforce the mantra that education can cause economic growth and reduce income inequalities In particular, this was achieved by the organization’s creation of a Human Capital Report and a Human Capital Index The Human Capital Index joined with OECD’s PISA to enhance the global Olympiad to determine which nation had the best workforce This competition was to enrich global corporations by supplying them with workers with the “right” hard and soft skills In addition, the World Economic Forum introduced the idea of entrepreneurship education as another source of economic growth and poverty reduction The confluence of business interests, politicians, government officials, and educators resulted in the attempt to control the social capital of families Families, despite the wide variety of the world’s family structures, were to be changed to meet economic needs While some sociologists in the US context promoted stay-at-home moms as important for a family’s social capital, most global organizations promoted female education to reduce family size and ensure the entrance of women into the workforce The global ideal was small families whose social interaction supported success for the family’s breadwinners and the teaching of soft skills to children for their success in school and work Global corporations might applaud the soft skills advocated by economists like James Heckman and taught in preschools What boss wouldn’t want workers who are conscientious, efficient, organized, ambitious, work hard, control their impulses, and have a good work ethic? But what is missing in these soft skills? As I’ve suggested throughout this book the missing soft skills that seem to find no room in corporate work or in the market are compassion, altruism, and empathy; all key ingredients to initiating struggles for social justice Economists, like Gary Becker, consider the choice of soft skills dependent on their economic efficiency with selfishness making markets efficient and altruism making families efficient What happens if this confluence of business interests, economic theories, governments, global policy organizations results in the economization of schools, families, and childhood? Will it result in families and schools educating obedient Interests, Theories, Governments, Educators 149 workers who blindly accept their economic position in life and any economic misfortunes without striking back? Will this become a world of the rich and poor where compassion, altruism, and empathy are simply considered as tools for efficiency in families and not as energizers for campaigns for social and economic justice? Will governments simply follow the dictates of organizations like OECD, the World Bank, and the World Economic Forum? If this confluence of interests succeeds this could become a world of human worker robots and economic masters who live on a slowly deteriorating planet where the economization of the environment or, as it is called, sustainable development, results in human inaction to protect the environment and other species Maybe, humans will join the ranks of other declining species which the World Wildlife Federation estimated in 2014 to be declining at a rate of 50 percent over 40 years, involving: “10,000 representative populations of mammals, birds, reptiles and fish Two human generations; half the animals gone.”1 Note Michelle Nijhuis, “The WWF’s report on the shockingly rapid decline in wildlife should surely move us to action,” The Guardian/Observer (October 4, 2014) Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/oct/05/wwf-report-wildlife-decline-should-make-us-act on October 10, 2014 INDEX ability 18 accountability 65–6, 91 achievement: early childhood education 140; test scores 22, 30–2, 38, 43, 44–51, 99, 121, 135, 147; see also Programme for International Student Assessment Adecco 57 adult education 40 Africa 87, 88, 139 African Americans 8, 131, 132, 139 Alger, Horatio 130 altruism 131, 142, 148, 149 anti-Communism 3–4, apprenticeships 76 Asher, Robert 85 Asia 87, 88, 139 Atinc, Tamar Manuelyan 99 Autor, David 25 BCG see Boston Consulting Group Becker, Gary 1, 2–3, 4–5, 17–20, 22, 51; family 8–9, 128, 129–31, 142; OECD 30, 34; rational choice paradigm 7, 8–10, 23–4; soft skills 148; vouchers 15 Belgium 108 Benavot, Aaron 48 best practices 47–8 Boston College 121 Boston Consulting Group (BCG) 74 brain circulation 64 Brazil 60, 61–2 Bruton, Richard 61 Buckley Jr., William F Bureau of Labor Statistics 75–6 Canada 108 capabilities 92 Carneiro, P 138, 140 Carnevale, Anthony P 75 Cascione, Silvio 62 Chambers, John 111, 112 charter schools 6, 11 Chicago School 1–3, 4, 8, 36, 146; Cold War influence 32; education credentials 51; Friedman 12; investment rhetoric 25; neoclassical economics 147; OECD 30; Schultz 16, 17 China 46, 47, 108 Chinese Taipei 46, 108 choice see rational choice paradigm; school choice Choksi, Armeane M 96 Cisco 109, 110–13 City University of New York (CUNY) 59, 105, 117, 118 civil rights movement 4, 11 cognitive ability 135, 136, 137 Colbert, Stephen 122 Index 151 Davis, Michelle R 119 decentralization 93 Denison, Edward 19 Denmark 108 desegregation 11, 14–15 developing countries: migration of talent from 42, 64; skills 65; UNESCO/WEF partnership 115; women in 90, 101; World Bank 82, 84–8, 91–3, 97, 99, 100–1, 120, 139, 147 development 83, 85, 87, 93, 94 dropouts 18, 88, 128, 135, 137, 138 dystopian vision 6–7 economic growth 2–3, 10, 11–12, 142, 146; Becker 4–5, 18, 19; Common Core State Standards 72; developing countries 42; entrepreneurship education 67, 116, 122; European human capital 36; knowledge taught for 94, 148; Kuznets’ curve 21; OECD 30, 33, 34–5, 43; PISA 48–9, 50, 99; Schultz 16; skills 56, 63, 65, 70; teacher quality 50; World Bank 86, 91, 93, 96– 7, 98–9, 101; World Economic Forum 106–7, 148 economic value of education 15–17 economization, definition of 1–2 Edding, Friedrich 35 Edison, Thomas 135 Education For All (EFA) 114–15 education inflation 38, 51 Education Knowledge Management Systems (EKMS) 95 Education Reform for the Knowledge Economy 112 edupreneurs 119 EFA see Education For All Egypt 113, 114 Eisenhower, Dwight EKMS see Education Knowledge Management Systems e-learning 82–3 elitism 36 Elvin, Lionel 35 emotions 142 empathy 142, 148, 149 empowerment 91, 92, 93, 101 enrollments 36, 107, 121, 136 entrepreneurship education 17, 46, 63, 66–7, 105, 116–20, 121–2, 148 environmental issues 42, 92, 98, 101, 149 equal access 39 equality of opportunity 39 Europe: entrepreneurship education 67, 118; OECD 35–7 early childhood development (ECD) 138, 139–40 early childhood education 100, 131–4, 136, 137–41; see also preschool education Fallen Land (Flanery) 6–7, 55, 126 family 56, 141–2; Becker 129–31; character traits 135; corporatization of the 5; Perry Preschool study 131–4; Cold War 3, 32–3, 146 Coleman, David 73 Coleman, James 1, 126, 127–9, 136, 141–2 college education 18, 19, 24–5, 136–7 Common Core State Standards 51, 72–4 communication 57, 59, 67 Communism 4, compassion 131, 141, 142, 148, 149 compensatory education 8–10, 39, 129, 142 competition Comprehensive Development Framework 98 conscientiousness 69, 134–5 consumer choice 2; see also school choice corporate personality 70–2, 76, 126, 142 corporatization 5–6 cost-benefit analysis 1–2, 5, 7, 134, 137 crime 23–4, 134 cultural differences 93, 139 cultural imperialism 126, 131 CUNY see City University of New York curriculum: PISA 44–5; Poland 62–3; skills-based 76 152 Index rational choice paradigm 8–9, 23; social capital 126, 127–9, 142, 148; socioeconomic advantage 68; soft skills 70, 71; World Bank 88–90 family planning 87, 88–90, 100 Ferrall Jr.,Victor E 25, 58–9 financial literacy 45, 46–7 Finland 50, 108 Flanery, Patrick 6–7, 55 forecasts 44 for-profit schools 2, 6, 11, 13–14 free market ideology 3–4, 6; economization of the family 129; entrepreneurship education 118–19, 121–2; Friedman 11–14; Mont Pelerin Society 12; Schultz 16; World Bank 91, 95, 96–7, 100, 101, 147 free trade Freeman, Richard 38 Friedman, Milton 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 11–15, 129 Fu,Yu 140 Fuller, Bruce 139 hard skills 5, 55, 56; entrepreneurship education 66, 119; family 126; global competition 148; required by businesses 57, 58, 59–60, 120; World Bank’s Step Skills Measurement Program 70; see also skills Hayek, Friedrich von 12 health 92, 93, 107 Heckman, James 1, 3, 23, 71, 126–7, 131–8, 140–1, 142, 148 High/Scope 132, 133, 134, 140 Hong Kong 46, 108 human capital 1, 3, 4–5, 22, 146; Becker 19, 20; Coleman 127–8; income data 10; mathematics 4; noncognitive skills 135–6; OECD 30, 34, 35–7, 38, 39, 40–3, 51, 147; Perry Preschool study 133; PISA 30, 31, 46, 47, 48–9, 50, 147; rational choice paradigm 7, 11; Schultz 16, 17; skills 76; World Bank 82–3, 90, 91, 96, 98; World Economic Forum 106–8, 111–12, 121 Human Capital Index 106–8, 121, 148 Hutton, Graham 32 GEI see Global Education Initiative gender equality 43, 86, 90, 126 Germany 108 Gewertz, Catherine 73 Global Agenda Councils 64 global capital 95–6, 97, 100 Global Education Initiative (GEI) 66, 105, 109, 110–14, 116, 119–20 globalization: educational standards 38; of markets 95, 97; offshoring 68–9; test scores 47 GNP see Gross National Product goals: OECD 34, 39; World Economic Forum 106 Goldman, Michael 83–4, 85 Goldman Sachs 10, 000 Small Businesses Education Center 118 Goodwin, Craufurd Great Global Recession (2008) 99, 116 Gross National Product (GNP) 86, 87 Gurría, Angel 34, 46 Iceland 108 ICT see information and communication technology ideology 4; see also free market ideology IEA see International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement immigrants 40, 41; see also migration income 10, 146–7; entrepreneurship education 119; family 130; inequalities 11–12, 16, 20–1, 91, 146; redistribution of 129–30; wage differentials 20, 76 India 65, 83, 113, 139 inequalities 4, 10, 11, 20–1, 50, 91, 146; Becker 20, 129–30; OECD 42; Schultz 16; skills and 68; World Bank 93; World Economic Forum 148 information and communication technology (ICT) 68, 111, 112, 113, 148 innovation 63, 116, 119; see also entrepreneurship education International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) 30, 31 Hacker, Andrew 16, 75 Hanushek, Eric A 30, 31, 46, 48–50 Index International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 37–8, 43 investment: Becker 3, 18, 19–20; college rating system 25; Friedman 2; knowledge creation 94; OECD 35, 36; personal 146–7; preschool education 133, 137, 140, 141; Schultz 15–16; World Bank 96 IQ 18, 135, 136 Ireland 60, 61, 62, 74, 108 ISCED see International Standard Classification of Education Japan 46, 55, 60, 61, 62, 108 Jensen, Arthur Johnson, Lyndon B Jordan 109, 110–13, 119–20 Kamat, Sangeet 86 Kamens, David H 47–8 Kautz, Tim D 134 Keeley, Brian 40–1 Kenya 93, 139 Knight, Frank 11 Knowledge Bank 94–6, 101, 147–8 Koch, Charles G 105, 117, 118, 122 Korea 46, 47, 108 Kristensen, Thorkil 35 Krugman, Paul 74–5 Kuznets, Simon 20–1 labor shortages 61, 62, 63, 65, 107 languages 139 Latin America 87, 139 Lewin, Tamar 73 Liang, Xiaoyan 140 Liben, David 73 liberal arts 25, 57, 58–9, 77, 148 Liechtenstein 46, 108 lifelong learning 39–40, 42, 66, 97, 100, 116, 119, 147 literacy 57, 58, 59–60, 76; Common Core State Standards 72, 73; OECD 67, 68, 69; PIRLS 107, 108, 121; World Bank 88, 97 loans 83–4, 85–6, 88, 113, 120, 147 longevity 92 luck 130 153 Macao 46, 108 manpower planning 32–3, 35–6, 37, 43–4, 51, 99 ManpowerGroup 57, 58, 60, 62 market economies 95, 97, 100; see also free market ideology Mason, Edward 85 mathematics 4, 45, 50–1, 148; Common Core State Standards 72, 73; OECD 67; skills 57, 59–60, 75, 76 McNamara, Robert 22, 23, 82, 84, 87–90 Mediterranean Regional Project 37 Meyer, Dirk 120 Meyer, Hans-Dieter 48 migration 41, 42, 64, 100 military service Mill, John Stuart 128 Mont Pelerin Society 12 Morisse, Dominique 115 Morocco 92 multinational corporations 23, 65, 90, 110, 115 multistakeholder partnerships 106, 108–10, 111–12, 114, 116–17, 120, 148 Murphy, Kevin M 19 A Nation at Risk (1983) report 22–3 National Association of Colleges and Employers 56–7 National Defense Education Act (1958) 33 national education planning 34–5, 36–7, 47 National Science Foundation 3, 33 natural capital 98 “neighborhood effects” 14 neoclassical economics 84, 86, 95, 96, 100, 118, 121–2, 147 neoliberalism 84, 109, 110 Netherlands 46, 108 New Zealand 108 Norway 108 numeracy 67, 68, 69, 97 Ĩ Riain, Sến 55 OECD see Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development offshoring 68–9 154 Index Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 18, 21, 30–54, 99, 147, 149; economization of education 32–5, 39–40; education inflation 38; European human capital 35–7; expanding human capital 41–3; family social capital 126; global standardization of childhood 139; ISCED 37–8; preschool education 126–7, 137, 140–1; skills 55, 56, 67–9, 72, 76, 89; test scores 30–2, 38, 43, 44–51, 99; see also Programme for International Student Assessment Osttveit, Svein 114–15 oversupply of graduates 38, 43 parents 13–14, 127–8, 139 partnerships 65, 105–6, 121; multistakeholder 106, 108–10, 111–12, 114, 116–17, 120, 148; UNESCO/ WEF 114 Pearson Commission 87, 89 Perry Preschool study 126–7, 131–4, 139–41 personality characteristics 69, 70, 71–2, 134–5, 142 Peterson, Paul E 30, 31, 46, 48–9, 50 Pew Research Center 21 physical capital 127 PIAAC see Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies Piketty, Thomas 21 Pimentel, Susan 73 PIRLS see Progress in International Reading Literacy Study PISA see Programme for International Student Assessment Poland 62–3 population growth 86–7, 88–9, 90, 100 poverty 4; skills and 68; World Bank 82, 83–4, 87, 91–3, 94–5, 96, 98–9, 101 preschool education 70, 100, 136, 137–41, 148; OECD 67; Perry Preschool study 126–7, 131–4, 139–41 private schools 13, 128 privatization 24, 36, 91, 98; Education For All 114; multistakeholder partnerships 109, 110 productivity 2–3, 5, 32, 142; Common Core State Standards 72; OECD 35; rational choice paradigm 11; social capital 127 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 30, 31, 44–51, 83, 99, 107–8, 121, 147 Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) 44, 68–9, 72, 147 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 107, 108, 121 progressive education progressive taxation 16, 129–30 propaganda 32 Protestant ethic 141–2 psychology public good public schools 13, 15, 128 public-private partnerships 110, 111, 112, 114; see also multistakeholder partnerships quality of life 92 race 18, 130–1 racial segregation 11, 14–15 Rand Corporation 38 Rapoza, Kenneth 61–2 rates-of-return in education 3, 36, 38; college education 18, 19, 25; preschool education 138, 140, 141 rational choice paradigm 7–10, 23, 146; college education 18; crime 23–4; family 129, 130, 131, 142; Friedman 11, 12–13; wage differentials 20; World Bank 147 reading 45, 50–1, 70, 73; see also literacy Reagan, Ronald 24 redistribution of income 129–30 religion 128, 129, 139, 141–2 Resmovits, Joy 118 Rubinstein,Yona 135–6 Russia 65 Ruta N Medellin 121–2 school, definition of 17–18 school choice 1–2, 12–14, 93; see also vouchers Index Schultz, Theodore 1, 2–3, 4, 7–8, 15–17, 19, 22, 30, 34 Schwab, Klaus 106, 107, 109, 111–12, 116, 120 science 45, 50–1, 117, 148 scientific management segregation 11, 14–15 self-interest 7, 12–13 selfishness 131, 141, 142, 148 Sen, Amartya 92 Simon, Herbert 9–10, 20 Singapore 46, 108 skills 5, 24, 55–81; Common Core State Standards 72–4; entrepreneurship education 66–7, 116, 119; future skillneeds 44; multistakeholder partnerships 110; OECD 67–9; Perry Preschool study 133, 134; Poland 62–3; required by businesses 56–60; Schultz 17; skills gap 56, 57, 60–2, 63–4, 74–6, 77; Step Skills Measurement Program 70–2, 76, 147; test scores 31, 51; transferability 41; World Bank 70–2, 83, 88, 89–90, 97, 99, 147; World Economic Forum 63–6; see also hard skills; soft skills Smith, Adam Smith, Nicole 75 social capital 5, 136, 148; Becker 130–1, 142; Coleman 126, 127–9, 141; family 126; Keeley 40–1; Perry Preschool study 134 social class 39 social cohesion 98 social entrepreneurship 121–2 social justice 11–12, 76, 77, 142 social service 39, 40 socialism socio-economic goals 39 socio-economic status 68 soft skills 5, 55, 56, 76, 146; entrepreneurship education 66, 119; family 70, 71, 126; global competition 148; Heckman’s work 134, 135, 136, 142; OECD 67, 69; preschool education 67, 131, 139, 148; required by businesses 7, 57, 58, 60, 120; World Bank’s Step Skills Measurement Program 70; see also skills South Africa 60–1, 62 155 Soviet Union 32, 33, 86 Spain 60, 61, 62, 74 standardization 37, 47, 51, 138–9 Steiner-Khamsi, Gita 82 Step Skills Measurement Program 70–2, 76, 147 Strohl, Jeff 75 student loans 11, 147 success 136 summer camps 15 sustainable development 98, 101, 149 Svennilson, Ingvar 35–6 Sweden 36, 55, 108 Switzerland 46, 47, 108 talent migration 42, 64 Tamara, Robert 19 Tanzania 86 teachers 39–40; Common Core State Standards 73; developing countries 87; value of 49–50 teamwork 7, 55, 57, 60 technology 96, 97, 108–9, 110, 113, 117, 119; see also information and communication technology test scores 22, 30–2, 38, 43, 44–51, 99, 121, 135, 147; see also Programme for International Student Assessment Thatcher, Margaret 24 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 30, 31, 44–5, 47, 50, 83, 99, 107–8, 121 Trends Shaping Education 2013 (OECD) 41–3, 55 trust 69 “truthiness” 122 Tunisia 86 UN see United Nations unemployment 60–2, 63, 65, 70, 74 UNESCO see United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization United Kingdom 108 United Nations (UN) 84, 110, 138, 139 United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 37–8, 43, 114–15 156 Index United States: Cold War 3, 32–3; college rating system 24–5; Common Core State Standards 51, 72–4; desegregation 11, 14–15; entrepreneurship education 118, 119; expenditure on students 137; high schools 36; income inequalities 20–1; A Nation at Risk report 22–3; National Association of Colleges and Employers 56–7; OECD 33, 34; oversupply of graduates 38; PISA scores 48, 49–50, 108; poverty reduction 93; Protestant ethic 141–2; skills gap 74, 75–6; social capital 148; student loans 146–7; teamwork 55; unemployment 74 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 114 University of Pennsylvania 119 Van Overtveldt, Johan Vietnam 92 vocational education 2, 25, 63 vouchers 2, 11, 12, 13–14, 15, 93 wage differentials 20, 76 War on Poverty 4, 11 Washington Consensus 109 well-being 69, 107 Wilkie, Christina 118 Woessman, Ludger 30, 31, 46, 48–9, 50 Wolfensohn, James 93, 96 women 10, 87, 89, 90, 100–1, 121, 148 World Bank 18, 21–2, 23, 42, 82–104, 147, 149; cultural imperialism 131; Education Reform for the Knowledge Economy 112; Education Strategy 95, 96–100; family social capital 126; Global Education Initiative 112, 113, 119–20; global standardization of childhood 139; Knowledge Bank 94–6, 101, 147–8; loans 83–4, 85–6, 88, 113, 120, 147; McNamara years 87–90; Poland 62; preschool education 100, 126–7, 137–8, 139–40; skills 56, 70–2, 76; World Development Reports 91–3, 94 world culture of schooling 47–8, 51 World Development Reports 91–3, 94 World Economic Forum 18, 21, 105–25, 148, 149; entrepreneurship education 17, 46, 66–7, 116–20; family social capital 126; Global Education Initiative 66, 105, 109, 110–14, 116; global standardization of childhood 139; Human Capital Index 106–8, 121; preschool education 126–7, 137–8; skills 56, 63–6, 76; UNESCO partnership 114–15 Yale Youth Entrepreneurs 105 Yusuf, Shahid 94 Zhang,Yinan 140 Zimba, Jason 73 ... Political, and Historical Studies in Education series visit www.routledge.com /education ECONOMIZATION OF EDUCATION Human Capital, Global Corporations, Skills- Based Schooling Joel Spring First published... intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Spring, Joel H Economization of education : human capital, global corporations, skills- based schooling/ by Joel Spring pages... for an agenda of human capital development Gary Becker: Human Capital and Economization of the Family A good example of the economization of education is Gary Becker’s definition of a school as
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