CCĨITEMĨS ?RE?ACE A gTRODUCTION I Lexicơlogy , i t s s i i b j e c t 'm a t t e r and task I I The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f le x i c o lo g y L exicology ỉn i t s r e l a t i o n and s t y l i a t i c s to pnonology IV, Some g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t ỉ c s o f the Exỉglỉah lạnguage B «ORD SĨRƯCTURE ANDPORKATION 11 I Word a t r u c t u r e 11 II 7ord í*orraation 15 c S£iiiÃ33ũIiOGỵ (sem aạtioa I Typea o f meanixig ) 53 53 II The components o f l e x i c a l ựieanỉng 54 III* The ty p e s’ o f lex ỉcaX mẹaning 57 r/ M o tiv a tic n of word3 57 V, Polysemy and sem antic t'ru c tu re 59 VI, ĩlie a t y l i s t i c a a p e c t o f E n gliah v o cabu lary V II, Polysemy , homonym> and c o n te x t VIII,Homonyraa 59 S7 '6 E í Synonyms 72 X, Antoayma 75 XI, Semantic change 77 D FriRAS£OLŨGY 92 - A D ^ í n ì l i o n and o n a r a c t e r i - S t í c fe e t u r o n 11« C la ssiíic a p io n 94 IIIo Proverfcs td io m í , c^ưctaTLons , c l i c n e s and s a y i n a s rỳ E p s 9ố e t e)ípỉ:e?5Ìon5 v e r s u s coBipound v/ords 98 Emoi306V 100 I Basic &ssun',p'tijns lOC II A s s im ila tic i: o f borrovvings 102 I I I B arbarism s (u u assi.T iìla te d 'bo rroivỉn gs; 103 rv B ty m o lo gical doaib lets 103 V I n t e r n a t i o n a l worda 104 VI, Causes o f borro'.vlng 1C4 L2>:iC0GVe b e n e í i t e d g r e a t l y from t a l k a and d iscu asỉox ỉs w ith o u r c o ĩle a g u e a L«t u s h e r e thank a l l o f them f o r Vnat th sy havB d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y c o n t r l b u t e d Hoàng T ĩrưồTig A DÍTRODXTION I / L^ẫclcologv ỉ t a Bub^ect m a tte r and t a s k L ị n g u ỉs t ỉc c a a te r ia l Ì8 g e n e r a lly a rr a n g e d ln to phonology , grarmnạr and l e x ỉ s ( o r Tocabulary ),T h e e e t h r e e d.l8tÌJict diraenslona a r e the e u b je c t m a t t e r o f tho Y arlõ u s liD ^ u ÌB tlc t>raQChes, The word " l e x ic o lo g y " o r i g ỉ n a t e e from Greek and i s compoeod o f two p a r ta t ” l« x l« " raeaning "word" and " lo g o s " meaning " clen ce , l e a r n in g **, thuB " le x ic o lo g y " l i t e r a l l y neana " th e Bcỉence o r th e a t u j o f the word" HovreTar, t h ỉ s Ì8 Ju » t a vague n o t i o n about the 8tỉbject matter aBd task of lexlcolog; Bince all the oth® r branches o f l i n g u i s t i c s c ỉe a s e a le o r e fi» r to tho wordl Ắa a tr a u c h o f le x ic o lo g y h a s ỉ t a a p e c i í l c aliBs and methoda of c i e n t i f ỉ c r e s e a r c h , * í8 en tỉal taak b e ln g th e study and a y a te m a tỉc d s a c r i p t l o n o f tha Yocabulary o f a gí ven laníịuage By "vooabụI s r y * o r " le x ỉo " i e rneant the aum t o t a l o r th e aystei^, o f a l l th e wordđ t h a t a language poeaesBda and by ia I««ant d l a l * c t l c a l u n it^ o f fortn and c o n t a n t , irtdepeDd*nt aa.it o f languaigs capable to íonr, a u e n te c c e by i t a « l f ( i t ahould ồe n o tsd h e re t h a t an e x c t d e f ỉ n i ' t l o n o t th e word haa 80 Ỉ&T n o t b»>«n a r r i v e d at> Thua the « ttb j« ct m a tte r of le x ic o lo g y i a the word, i t a a t r u otxir«, fo rm a tlo a , BiBonlng 'u id to ry ' Ẳpnrt rroni tho ae i«w:±»uiogy a ĩs o ỉriT e s tlg a te a s e t e ip r e a a io n a henca phrtifl«ology ftXỉd the a r t o f compỉĩiíig d í c t i o n a r i o a hence l a i l ’ eography L«xleology cannot eicludie le x ỉc o g p h y beoaustỉ Lutt lii.ttu r Ì4 &, p r a c t l c a ) ».pD ltcetion o f th e form ar axid le x leo g p h srs aro In erlta b ly guid«d in th « lr vork by the p r ln c ỉp le la ld dowQ by l« z lc o lo g ls t « R egional Y a r le tl« s o f th« word are d a a lt w ith la le x le o lo g y aa »«11 T«kt s ^ ia b fo r exaaple, a o t oalỉT 1« ther« B r i t lih Ensllaỉĩ but there I s iB « rlea a , Ầuat r a lia n , lA dian, Caxiadlan Eagllah and ềO t o r t t a s Sn^llah 1« axtr«fflely vrldely used i a tỉi9 «orld» In th e broad aease, lexloology e&a 1ỉ« M id to c o n sỉa t o f ĩ l v e essentiáL branchaa t 1} Word 8tructux*«í and foriB atlon I X a v a s tl c a t a s «11 th e p ro b lem s coD ceralng th e q t r u e tu r * o f th ô o r d and thtt way I t I s ĩorsted 2) Semaalolog:/ ( o r aem ajatlcữ)i fo c u s « a on th« laeaaỉns o f the Kord o h ie fly the le x lc & l canlng b«ọaua* thũ granmatlcAl nieanlag atudled graọựutr* (Thi« w lỉl be d e a lt wltb lc part C)« I t dịacuas«a th« txp«a o ĩ meaning, the charige and deTttỉopiB«nt o f ni«tLiiliiga tb t groupỉn^ Of wcrda and -đữ on 3) Phr&sRoloỉiy: Gọes i n t o a a t ( f l x « d ) •xprev8ỈX>xui wbich ar« reproduced In spaech aa ready •> aadv Thera may b« Bta:iciardllz0d Kord oom blnatloas, Idlonấi^ proverbv e te froro onlỵ tno «ord pbra««a to Tttxy loaiE sayỉxỉge In ẸtiglỈBh th«re sueh «et «zpr«aeioaế ũm *'goođ heaT«na, diatạood cu ts dlamond, no paliM oo gA«t «a stTon^ as a hora«» t«0 kea,>>^ «re b « tt« r than one, he liio cb att«r« to you w U l c h a tttr o f you* aad i t l l l o th era ) Stymolot^; ReCera to ttie h lsto x ^ t o r l^ ln o f vorda Btymologlata lỉlvldo th« E oglléh Yoeabulary In to two naln la y tra: n tỉv e «ordfl and borrom d vord ỉ ỉ ) Lexlcography: Studlas tha probleaa rela t» d to d ietiù n a ry oom plllng, tầey are the pxoblena o f tb« typõs o f dị « r a l &ndj:apeclal Lexlcology: treai ithe vocabũlax ~of a s ly e n ĩangunge .Svery.óp«elal-:l0xloology is baeed on the f u n d a ỉn e n ta l'p r ln c lp le s o f g e n e r a l l e x l c o l o g y , Yhioh Ỉ8 a b a s lc p art f th e g e n e r a l Science o f la n g tia g e H i a t o r ỉ c a l le x ic o lo g y đ i s c u s s e s tlie v o c a b u la ry ỈXI th e d ỉa c h r o n ịc a s p e c t I.t s t u d l e s th e o r i g l n o f woxtlB and t b e l r deTelopment, i n T e a t l ^ a t e s tb e n o n - l ỉ n ^ ỉ s t l c acd l l a ^ i a t i c Toroes roodifylng th e a t r u o t u r a o f worda, th e lr-m e a n iu g and ueage I t s u r r o y s Xhe T o c a b u la 27 as a a y B té m -in -it8 a r o l u t i o n ; d eacrito lng i t s éhaníse ãữd ■deT elopm ent.iiì thci.co u rsa o f tia e » -D e«criptỉve la x ỉc o ló g y a tu d le a :t.he vocabulaiT^ ÌE t h e synehronic & apect, l e a t a g iv e n s te g e o f l t deTelopm ent I t deaÌB w ith worde ỉ n t h o ỉ r n o r p h o lo g i c a l and Bem antlcal 8truot\ir®B, i n T e a t i g a t l n g tỉi« in to rd ep en d en o e b etn een th e s e two le v e lõ ^ Xôt I t a Im p o rtan t to n o te t h a t , b e in g a c o c ỉ a l pheaomenoà, laagu&ge đeTelops t o g e t h e r w ith s o c i e t ý ĩk a Yocabulaxy o f a language l alvaya in « a t a t e o f o o a ã ta ỉit'd e r e lo p m e n t Alroost ®very aew o b j a c t o r pbenomcnon i a huaan a o c ie ty «md a o t l Y l t y , &s Boon a s i t appeara, -fin d s i t s placa In -the yocabiilỉirsr Ằ B h\tman aooiety đeTelope, a great many naw words ai'9 needed to expresB hew I d e a a ,: new c o n ce p tlo n a and n8w w anta The -Tocabxilnry caxrvbe s a ỉd to be a B Ì r r o r t h a t r e f l e a t « man'« o h a r a c to r , m s n t a l i t y and R c t i T i t y T hor«ĨOT^ b o t h 't h e d la c h r o n lc and eynchronlc a p p ro a c h ea *u*o to b« comblned, Brary l i n ^ l s t i c eu.rre haK to a t r l k e a reaaoriable baluuce betvveea th a two I I / Thẹ Ìi^nifIcancQ o f le x lc o lo g y : Au m entioned above, vocabuịary 1« one o f 141« th re e maili diinenolona o f lAỉigxiage, ao X exỉcology th e o re tlc a X ly v u lu a b le in t h a t i t Torma tii« atiỉdy o f t h ỉ s dimenaion Lexicoloỉj;ỵ I s ỉBpeclally praetX calX y u e fu l in foreiè;n Inn^^uMge te a c h in g , I t ầ e l p a a tim u l a t e a ayatem atic approacb to fttc ta ooiiceimdUcig v o c a — b u la r y I t i a a la o v a lu a b le In b u ỉlđ lo g vqp v ocabulary by e f f e c t i v - l y s* heo tlh g , ẹ ro u p ln g and a n a l ỉ a l n ^ ne# worda A c l e e r undơratnodlng o f th« word forrning syatem r u m ln h e s 8UQ In stro m en t «G«Wing a tu d e n ta to gueaa and r e t ả t n In t h o l r memory th a meanlng o f new worda on thd b a s ỉ s o f t h e i r ino tiv atỈA ii o r by comparlng axid c o n a tr íia tin g them «fith th a P3P*Vloualy l e a r n t e lem en ts and p a t t e r a a U ỉs ta k e a oan be reduced by draw lng s t u u e n t a 'a t t e n t i o n tố th e i l s t r i b u t i o n / i l f e a t r e a o f worda Lexicology « la o h e lp e a tu d e n ts distifi H * % »M > • • •« M M One i«ìfâi o f ll.rtg u ia tlc B tr u c tu re can,"t b a w ell t r e a t e d Ịù i.o o ia tio n froro th e o t h e r No p a r t o f a ĩa;aguage can b« a u f f i c i ô u t l y i n v e a t i g a t e d A ith o u t rt'f*íi'iíièi Iv U.1 ‘' tiÀar partSi, The sunrey o f words iiì l : ; r l c ữ i c ^ iô a o t to be Beparatod from t h a t o f the o t h e r elủĩBeattì i n the laroguage eysteia to which words oeioxằg BÌXLce a l l th o se eleiĩients a r e , in f a c t , t n t e r ” vi«iiw,úcac and c io e a ly r e l a t e d , p^oĩiClGgical f e a t u r e s take pa 2’t tn th e co n d l t l o i i i n g o f woĩ‘Cl u n ity and markỉxig word Ragardiiig SííẨllsh, th e re a re two main p h o ỉio lo g ic a l feat;a3!*sa aasoc ỉ a t e d w ỉth woi*da, they a r e Bt r e so and juiiCvura Xt i a 8tr®33 t h a t o f t e n h e lp a d i a t i n g u i a b compound words and f r 80 wcrd groupa such as *''darir.lỉìg g i r l ” and "ủancing g l r l " o r ”b la c k le g " and ‘^ b ia c k - le ^ " I t ia JiJiìCture t h a t e/iab les us to r e a iỉi íe ih« ÙArraricuce bôtỡnrtỡân word groups t h a t a re alm o at horaoriymous l i k e "a n a tio n " and ” an Asian" ai2đ so cn Á a h i í ’x o f Bt r e sa i s a lB o u e f u l t n m a k i n g new worda l.tke " re c a rd " (v erb ) and " r e c o r d ” (n o u n ) ■i’be c o a n e c tio a o f le x ic o lo g y w ith gratnmar i e v e i^ Íniportaiít aa w e ll, Seldoin words o c c u r in i a o l i i t i o i i They a r e produced in c e r t a i n p a t t e r n a Bhowin^ the i 'e la t.io s oetvveen the thlxụ53 they íand f o r thua posBesairig soíne grami-natical men.ninp; a lo n g s ld e with t h e i i ' l e x i c a l meaniri^ These twQ ty p e s of rĩ?e^nlag a re u s u a ll y -ỉnterdep en den t ? o r i n s t a n c e , t,h« r u n c t i o n a o f a l i n k verb with a p re d ỉc a tiV '9 eX” p ree a ed by an a d j e c t l v e caiinot be f u l f i l l e d by a l l i n t r a n s ỉ t ỉ v e y e rb a b u t a re UBually j u a t ta k e a up by v erb a of m otion o r perceptioQ : "riiB s h o r t , go nTong tu r n y e l l Wi, g e t angry'* s tc and raany o t h e r s i m i l a r oombixiationa coĩiYeying tha meaxiing o f '*become ath** Oiĩ th e o t h e r hacd the gram matical forra à,ad fúỉae-' t l o n o f the word a f f e c t a i t a l e x i o a l meaniiag í "vrtien H a lla and B a x te r were goiiig to r e a l i s e every-* t h í n c i t waa a lriia d y too l a t e doke waa ẩone and ao waa t h e i r car", The 3eme verb "go” h e re a c q u i r e s d e f.ln ite ly d iffo re n t, lex ỉC Q l rn ứ an ỉu ga A n otb er Iriĩer- e t i n ^ example Ì8 thtì v a ríe d -rng o f th e v e rb "boÌ3.” l.n the f o ilo w ln g : ”The w ater ia b o ỉ l i n g , th e w ater Ì3 beiĩxg b o ỉle d , th e w a ter la b o ile d v ate r” , ■Word foi*mlag p a t t e r n a i^íve eiiou^h evidencH to aa,y t h a t w o rd -fo rm tio n can be w e ll 3Ì5ned to both l.e x ic a l and ;i^rarruna.tỊcaI ì i e l d s The l e x l c a l i s a t l o i l o f a grarrùía.tica.1 foj;ra i s r a l a ò w c r t) i m e n t i o n i r g A‘ f o n n thai; o r ĩ g i n a l l y in d ỉcated gra.nT.atical míianinịr tu rn a ir:tò R baf'Í3 f o r a nííW' l e - c ic a l rneanlní', t a k e 3uch exaraplaa an nouna U36(i ỉn the p l u r a i havin g a a p e c i a i senae: s o e c t a c l e s , a ủ v ỉc e s c c lo u r ii, cuatoma e t c ĩ h e ' tiífix -a in thea e words a i nal.i a new wo'rd wlth a completely new 3eaJliag ■ C oncrete noiuia a r e so!T!etimeB vised bo ch ae laassnouria ( u n c o U n t a b l e nofOíij) ând HS thing-nouB S (c ữ u n - t a b t n o u n s ) In th e l e t t e r raeHni-nx; ĩHey meỵ f i f t y - f ỉ f t y , harum -■ Bcarum , h o i t y - t o i t y h o tc h - potch , gooèry - goody tíake up fo u r corapound • o rd s u a in g th e BUffixeí " - in g " and ” - ed Baáng y o u r a e ir on the knowledge g a in e d in th e l e c t u r e , e x p la in th e raeanixig o f th eo e worda : acandlemonger , m inibar, rainibike , e lf r taught^ a e l f - im p o rta n t Not u s in g a d i o tl o n a r y , b u i l d on® w ith each o f th e a e a f f l x a l worda í m ia i ; o e l f ỉ raan ; ĩ i k e la the dialogue below , the VtetnaineBe friend nade a m istak o , t h e r e f o r e th e A u atralieư i ĩ r i e n d d ỉd not u n d e ta n d hỉjn and waft o ffe n d e d , What i s t h a t mís" ta k e ? Gan you imagine th e B i t u a t ỉo n ? Bám I - Joỉuỉ , th e re ^ o a b l u e b o t t l e on th e ta b lB John; - Yea, I teon • Why ? Nam : - B l u e b o ttlo s a re d i r t y , you know Jolm : - Nonsense , I Ve washed i t c a r e í u l l y 8- CoiBmen.t on th e compound íormèd by • th e p a s a e r - by In th e fo llo w in g Btory and maỉce up two ihox« l l k e th a t ; Newsboy ; - Grcat m ia te ry ! 49 v ic tlm a , w h o 'l l be th e f i f t l e t h ? P a a s e r - by : - P ou rty nin e v ic tỉm s a lr e a d y ? How*b t h a t ? >ie«eboy ; - T h a t ' s a m ystery Buy one and y o u * lỉ miow P a s a a r - by ; “ Ck I ' l l g e t one ( mt\mr H >noment ) ồay boy I can*^t fin d the th irty Ềv^GVVSbcV - v ictỉn i I « Th n * ' - 4-1 n m ằ ĩh v L lĩ:: 9- SrplEỈ.-i the ô ô ;; \n etory = 3oke belov>- ! ( t v r y a t t e n t l v e ) , ,.y e t v e r go aud cee a n o th e r , ( t„0 men h=.d Ju t £ o t on- a c r o d b u , ) - ĩ h e l o „ s - h ^ l r e đ g l r l , ,0 g o t a s.noY White r a o e -lo o iln e She « - S h e 's a p ic k p o c k e t , you kno» - Good H ve„ , ( b e ln s en.phaWc) T'v= g o t ny D s t te r h o t í o o t i t "o Chooae th e r l g h t anawer and 'g iv e -re a so n a f o r y c ^ c n o ic e : In th e above c o n v e a tio n , tlie tv.'0 nen xxsế • - conipou.id Kords - compound w ord, - coapcM d worác coBpouiid wõrdẽ Ọ? 11 Comment on th e compounda i n thÌB pictur® s n if iTĩirrVT u^ '" 'ĩ n , ■} 1,2* P ic k o u t th e d e r l v e d and compounâ wordjs l a th a p i c t u r * below ; T *‘ ^ O ỉ i s ỉ *^ Shortening l a a la o a very pToducttve way o f i;ì:d ld in g r o r d n in Br,iglỉah* Nenr w :)T ủ s , forĩTied by Ghcx'teniJig a p p e a r Goatix.xixỉUíiIy » S h o r t e n l C i g i » 'ip e c ia lly px-oductlvc Ix; colloqula.1 spa' o f ĩ r e a t i n g r o o t s ( r o o t ;porphern«« ỳ axjacâ neiớ' raorphemea a r ô u?ôd aiằ f r tì r o c t e sxid car te ií.si aadixiga s e.Tara b ik e í r l d g e í f a a , movie TV , vo SCO , T ~ day , m m g bruach T h e r ô a r e raany t y p e s o f í s b o r t l n g Sữoe ling^iista alao c a l l flhorten;Ìjag " c l l p p l n g ; ” , t h i « is not a c c u r a te b scau se ” s h o rte n iii^ ” h a s a broader senae and includôffl '* blendir.g ” a » w e l l Thỉỉ f ũ l l o w i n g a r e t h ô p ecỉflc typea o f aỉiorten « Ing , i - * A b bi^v ỉatlo n : a) Acixỉir/TnB : 3.x'e word?5' b i Ị i l t fr\vm th® i n i t i a i a eỹ se v e l worda ; BBC , VŨA , ƯN35SGO y VIP etc I t ỉa in te r e a tic g JNO , t c i n c l u d e h e r e two s p e c i a l c a a e a o f acronymiB ỉ rwjxiogranj« and homonymy basecì âcixìnymo » líonogram s a r e two o r m o r e l ^ t t e r a cofỊibỉn«d i.n one cỉeaign* They a r e u í u ^ j y k erch ieĩa , D o te“ paper and ỉ« u a e d I n hand>r V ietn a m very conunon ỉu weddlng i n v i t a t i o n c a r d s Homonymy - based cci*onyni8 a r e baoed on the u se o f i d e n t i c a l souíida o f worde and l e t t e r s ; I u ( I owe you ) b) C lj.ppiiĩf, ; - i B Ì t i a l c ĩ ỉ p p i n g ; The f i r » t p a r t o f a word i.t c l i p p e d ĩ phone : c a r , p n e - P ln a l c lip p in g : the ĩaB t part o f a word ia c lỉ p p e d í exam , la b , eÌ8 , u n i , p r o f , doc - I : \ i t i o ~ f i n a l c ĩi p p in g ; b o th tb e f i i ' s t and tu e l a n t p a r t s e re c lip p e d ; f r i d g e , flxi , te c - M-edial c l i p p i n g t t h e roedial p a r t Ì8 c lip p e d : m athe Ị apeca , V - day t H - bomb - E l ĩ i p t l c o - c o n v e rs io n a i c llp p ÌD g ( p h r a s a l c i i p p i n g ỉ t h i s :iffl a s p e c i a l case in whlcb th e r e i s a c c m b in a tio r of e l l i p B Ì s , c o n v e rs io n and o lip p in g : s itá o w n ( a «ttdow s dem onstrA tion ) ; pop ( popul a r m usic ) ; pub ( p u b ltc houee ) ĩ perro ( pertuancnt wave ) *, ọ re lim ( p y e l lm ln a ry examiiỊB tion ) B e s id e a , t h e r e a re many mor® mlxed typeo of a b b r e v i a t i o n b u t i t ie n o t n e c e s s a ry to m ention thom becaume th e words of such ty p e s a re n o t numerous and đo no t fo llo w a f ỉ x e d r u ĩ e 3*3 Ẹ le n d in g ±« a o p e c ia l type of shorteniD g where p a r t s of worda merge in to one new word : brimch BiDog , m o tc l, medicare ỈSany iB C Ỉentifỉc tenuB e r e b u l l t b y b le n in g 43 - CỌỈfV£RSlON CỌNVERSION êlLênt e^y Converalon Ì3 a le o C alled ” •*ưnr +-( change " o r »' ZPT>0 ^ r le c :^ ;!::: ■'• - V hanđ i to drằp oũt - rdrlD" t r"* handed - h a n d in g ' " to h a d " " ũ ; í - '^ c tio n a l • ■' - tne Semantlc : th e v e r b " to h n õ „ nel, m e a n L g tsly b - i ; r u ■ r.2 r= : to ỉ r:°® ' i= p a r t o f “ c o n p le- P“ = »th t o th e boíy e í::;i.: T r to :ổ elbovv : t :; f oro t _^ ^ - = ^ to f o o t ; ’ b o t t le ^ to o t t l e ; honeym oon — 1-A t_ r ^ r T to honeymoon ; The re a so n f o r 3uch a w-ff?A lonment “ e p re a d d ev ea k i n - - o t I I T ,' _ e T ’ a f/f i Ix eI s" , e s p e c ỉ a l l y v erb - form ing a f f i x e s , T r a d ỉtỉo n a l_ a n d o c c a s io n a l c o n v e io n T r a d i t i o n a l c o n v e rs io n T r a d í t l o n a l c o n v e rs io n means th e ty p e o f conv ersỉo n commonly a n d t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d by t h e p u b lic The words b u ỉ l t by t r a d ỉ t ỉ c c a l v e r s io n a re re c o rd e d ỉ n d i c t i o n a r ỉ e s The exarap ĩe s r.entioned ebove e r e a l l Cíisea o f t r a i t i o n a l c o n v e rs io n O cceaio n el c o n v e rs ỉo n r e f e r s to the ỉ n d i v i dual ụse o f c o n v e r s ỉo n ỉ n s c e c i a l s ỉ t u a t ỉ c n s , o c c a s i o n s ^ to e x p re s s one ' s i d e a v i v i d l y , humou r o u s ly e t c The woràs b u i l t by o c c a s i o n e l c o n v e rsio n a re i n ỉ v i d u a l co in a g e end c f course n o t p r e s e n t In d i c t ỉ o n a r i e s : f o r i n s t a n c e , wherj a person keep3 -saying " H e llo , d e a r " to aưsyone he meets , 'We can co in the v e rb " h e l ĩ o " d e a r " by say in g ; " 'ne h e l l o “ d e a r s everybody We ceií a ls o meke i t a noun : " I am t i r e d of h i s " -hello - d e ar P a r t ỉ a l c o n v e r s io n P a rtia l co n v ersio n i-í'-th e b u ild in g of some nouns from v e rb s ẹ These nouns u s u e l l y £0 vvith v e rb a l i k e " have , ta k e , make " to forrĩi v e rb a l o h r a s e s ‘i hey a r c not used G uite in d e c e n d e n tly ỉ Have a look / t a l k / smo-;e e t c Give a r i n g / kick / blow e t c Sorae o t h e r nouns a re used only in ỉ d io m a tic ph reses X Tc be i n t h e kno»v ; 117 t h e l o n g rujị , o t i u s tr a * l í a n ÌDitKe r/F>oX'^ ,4 S u b sta n tiv a tio n W hether s u b s te L n tiv a tio n belongs to converaion i s s t i l l a m a t t e r o f c o n tro v e rc y One o f o u r r e a o o n s f o r in c lu d in g ỉ t h ere ÌB t h a t i t a d h e r e s e x a c t l y to the d e f i n i t ỉ o n of c o n v e r s io n , i e th e fo n n atio n o f a neir word w ith o u t a d d in g eưiy e le m e n t, As a m a t t e r of f a c t , a u b a te a tiv a tio n i s th e forraation o f nouno from a d j e c t i v e s In o t h e r wọrd8 , i t t a th e t r a n s l t i o n i n t o nouns ; n a t i v e ỳ- a n a t i v e ; n a t i v o s ỉ the n a tiv e ( fe ) m a l e > a ( f e ) m alô; (fe) m aleo; th e ( f e ) m ale A part from th e se , we have is u a ta n tỉv a tio ii from e llip s ÌB : d a i l y n e v v s p a p e r ^ a d a il y e l a a t i c c o rd — -ỳ’ 'ID e l a s t ỉ c We a ls o have p a r t l a l s u b s t a n t i v a t i o n s r i c h > the r ic h ; h a p p y -the happyv b l i n d th e b l i n d ; g o o d - th e good The se nouna alw aỵs go w ith " the ” and a r e n o t ỉ n f l è c t e d f o r th e p l u r a l and in g e n era l c a n n o t be uoed i n th e p oaseaaive' c a s e They (ĩo n o t undergo m o rp h o lo g ic a l changes ( they not have a new paradỉgm ) They have p r o p a r tia o o f b o th noune and a d j e c t l v e f i " The very u n fo rtim a te , th e u n u s u a lly (ỉood ” e t c T h is I,muaư 'j c o m b ln a tio n ỉ a a good means of exprefSflion» SũưND suund i m i t a t i o n i s tin g B^ITATION the way to form words by i r a it a ^ s o u n d a p r o d u c e d "by a c t i o n s , th in g s and 30 on ThÌ3 i a eúuSO c a l l e d p h o n e t i c a l m o t i v a tio n 5.1« Word3 3howing aưiỉmals; baaed on th e soxinds produced by the aniínals th em selves : crow ; cuckoo 5*2„ Worda showing movement o f water- : f l u s h , s p la a h , b a b b le Words shovving a c tio n s made by man : g ig g le , c h a t t e r , grumble , murmvir , w h is p e r Words showing 30und3 made by a n im a ls : c a c k le , moo , r o a r , howl Some words formed by sound i m ỉ t a t i o n have áevelop ed f i g u r a t ỉ v e m ea n iag s P o r exainple " to croeik ” means " to make a deep , h a r s h sound ” , so i t ia a ls o u sed a b o u t a p e rso n ^ a v o ic e " To r c a r " i s o f t e n r a e ta p h o r ic a lly u se d : " The hungry boy ỉ a r o a r l n g i n th e k i t c h e n "o " The whole room l a r o a r ỉ n g w ith l a u ^ t e r Sometimes we can meủce u se o f aound ỉ m i t a t i o n to c r e a t e v i v i d words f o r s p e c ỉ a l o c c a a io n s BACK_I>ẸRIVATION £ BACK PỌRMATION^) r Back - d e r i v a t ỉ o n o r back - fo rm a tio n ifl the buildiTig o f new word3 by s u b a t r a c t i n g a r e a l o r aupposeà a f f i x from e x i s t i n g w ords, ThlB ỈB tr.í* - 4Ơ - o p p o * ite piroceBS to a f f ix & tio ii Por i n s t a a c e , " to beg " wa» b u i l t from " b e g g a r " , " to baby - e ỉ t ” ĩmm " baby - e l t t e r ” ? h ỉ s mesns t h a t th e couns " beggttT , bttbsr - s i t t e r " appeared b o fo re the v e rb s fonn«à from theai h e n c e th e name *' back - e r ỉ v a t ỉ o n Soise consnon irorde b u l l t by back “ d e r ỉv a tỉo n are : to w indow - shop ( fro.T: v/inàow - eh o p p in g ) to ìxouee - k eep ( frojn housé - k eep in g ) to e d ỉ t e ( from e d ỉ t o r ) to e s c a l a t e ( from e s c a l a t o r ) I n modem E n g l is h , back - d e r iv a tio B i a f a i r l y p r o d u c tỉv e i n b t i i l d i o g compoxuià v e rb s froffl compound noxms wỉth - e r o r - ỉn g a& t h e ỉ r s u f f i x : to a i r - o o n d i t i o n ( from a i r - c o a d i t i o a e r ) to tape - recorủ ( froro tape - recorder ) to g a t e - cx«sửx ( from g a te “ c r a s h e r ) P o r t h l s pboĐomonon , we sugges*> ^be term " e a f f ỉ “ xatlon " aB opposed to ** affỉxatioix ĩ SOUHB AND^STRESS IIíTERCHANGE Sound l a t g r o h a n g e T hl* Iv a vexy unproductlve way o ĩ word f o r » l a g • tEte new worủ i s b u i l t by cbaaging th e r o o t v o » « l o r coBBOuant o f the o ld n c r ả ĩ f0o4 (a) — — ♦ f«ed (v); Bing (v) — spMiit {:»> — ĩ t m ự Im « ta v » g (adá;) 2* cjM«eh (n )i l i f e (a> v itỉi a f f ix a tio n ĩ Etrengtl^ (n) song (n) ^ liv e ị c t ercfattj3ffl> ĩỉtSj»‘ i a a l s o vergr u n p ro u c tiv e iBi E n g lis h (v) Xíotủ fo n ĩia tio n , The new wor