Economic Structures of Antiquity Recent Titles in Contributions in Economics and Economic History Development versus Stagnation: Technological Continuity and Agricultural Progress in Pre-Modern China Gang Deng Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism Gary Gerejfi and Miguel E Korzeniewcz, editors Global Telecommunications Policies: The Challenge of Change Meheroo Jussawalla, editor The State and Capitalism in Israel Amir Ben-Porat The Economy of Iraq: Oil, Wars, Destruction of Development and Prospects, 1950-2010 Abbas Alnasrawi The Economy in the Reagan Years: The Economic Consequences of the Reagan Administrations Anthony S Campagna Prelude to Trade Wars: American Tariff Policy, 1890-1922 Edward S Kaplan and Thomas W Ryley Projecting Capitalism: A History of the Internationalization of the Construction Industry Marc hinder Recent Industrialization Experience of Turkey in a Global Context Fikret §enses, editor The Chinese Financial System Cecil R Dipchand, Zhang Yichun, and Ma Mingjia The Sports Stadium as a Municipal Investment Dean V Bairn Food and Agrarian Orders in the World-Economy Philip McMichael Economic Structures of Antiquity Morris Silver Contributions in Economics and Economic History, Number 159 George Schwab, Series Adviser Greenwood Press Westport, Connecticut • London Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Silver, Morris Economic structures of antiquity / Morris Silver p cm — (Contributions in economics and economic history, ISSN 0084-9235 ; no 159) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-313-29380-5 (alk paper) Economic history—To 500 I Title II Series HC31.S555 1995 330.9'09'01—dc20 94-17306 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available Copyright © 1995 by Morris Silver All rights reserved No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 94-17306 ISBN: 0-313-29380-5 ISSN: 0084-9235 First published in 1995 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984) 10 To my wife Sandy, who made everything possible This page intentionally left blank Contents Acknowledgments Author's Notes Transcriptions and Phonetics xi xiii xiii Symbols xv Abbreviations xv References xvi Chronological Table xvii Introduction xxi Part I Structural Characteristics of the Ancient Economy 1 Gods as Inputs and Outputs of the Ancient Economy A The Contribution of Gods to Economic Growth B Syncretism as an Investment in Trust C Oaths and the Gods 10 D The Contribution of Temples to Economic Growth 18 E Contribution of Economic Growth to the Gods: An Application of Behavioral Economics 34 viii Contents Adaptations of Markets and Hierarchical Relationships to Transaction Costs 39 A Symbolic Action and Recitation in the Contractual Process 39 B Code of the Merchant: Investment in Name Capital 42 C An Alternative Interpretation of "Gift Trade" 45 D Importance of Family Firms 50 E Family Ties and Innovation 53 F Women as Businesspersons and Entrepreneurs 54 G Employment of Slaves and Adoptees 64 H Size of Firm and Versatility of Firm 66 Who Were the Entrepreneurs? The Problem of "Public" Enterprise 73 Commercial Transport, Gains from Trade, Storage, and Diffusion of New Technology 81 A Land Transport 82 B Water Transport 85 C Storage and Monopoly Power 88 D Diffusion of Technology 91 Part II Markets in Antiquity: The Challenge of the Evidence 95 The Existence of Markets 97 The Credibility of Markets 153 Part III The Response to Changes in Economic Incentives and Public Policy 179 New Markets and Land Consolidation 181 A Sumer 182 B Archaic Greece 184 C Babylonia 189 Contents ix Changes in Economic Policy and Organization 195 Concluding Remarks 201 Selected Bibliography 205 Index 243 Index Findly, Ellison B., 70 n.l8, 71 n.24 Finkelstein, J J., 70 n.19, 71 n.25, 114, 198 n.3 Finley, Moses, xiii, 38 n.12, 64, 67, 93 n.4, 109, 126, 139, 172, 175, 177 n.6, 193 n.12 firm, 50-53, 55, 57, 66, 68, 76, 110, 114 Fischer, Henry G., 57, 58, 108, 125, 159 Fish, T., 109, 135 fish, trade in, 45, 54, 144, 152 n.22, 154, 155, 166, 190 Florence, 43 Forbes, R J., 192 nn.2, Fomara, Charles W., 15, 24 Foster, Benjamin R., 56, 77, 106, 113, 150 n.ll, 158, 197 Foxhall, Lin, 61 Frayne, Douglas, 85 freedom, 38 n.12, 58 Freeman, Donald B., 148 n.l free trade, 196, 198 n.3 French, A., 117, 184 Friedman, Milton, 165 Fritz, Kurt von, 187, 188, 189 Gad, 32 Gadde, 31 Gardiner, Alan H , 26, 29, 33, 36 n.2, 58, 61, 147, 151 n.18, 167, 177 n.4 Garelli, Paul, 49, 85,111 Garlan, Peter, 29, 65, 121, 133, 134, 151 n.19, 192 n.12 Garland, Robert, 30, 31 Gasur, 106 Gavin, Carney E S., 202 Gaza, 10, 89, 154 Gebelein, 57, 108, 171 Gelb, I J., 34, 47, 77, 93 n.3, 118, 119, 123, 126, 127, 136, 150 nn.10, 11, 151 n.13, 190 Gematen, 120 Geniza documents, 72 n.27 Genoa, 71 nn.23, 24 Gerar, 127, 150 n.12 Gemet, Louis, 22, 24, 40, 49, 69 n.ll, 127, 188, 189 Gerstenblith, Patty, 48 de Geus, C.H.J., 51 249 Gezer, 44 Gibeon, 145, 146 Gibson, J.C.L., Gideon, 32 Giddy, Lisa L., 82, 109, 154 Gilead, 76 Gilgamesh, 26, 45, 73, 83, 87, 99, 135, 155 Girsu, 21, 54, 66, 118, 136, 143, 144, 183, 191 Gitin, Seymour, 146 Giveon, Raphael, 138 Giza, 57, 84 Giza monument, 161 Glanville, S.R.K., 162 glass, 91, 92, 147, 202 Glassner, Jean-Jacques, 36 n.l, 123 Gledhill, John, xxiii Glotz, Gustave, 109 Godley, A D., 101 gods: craftsmen and, 4; occupational specialization of, Goedicke, Hans, 83, 174 Goetze, Albrecht, 70 n.19, 131, 147, 149 n.9 Goitein, S D., 69 n.12, 72 n.27 gold, 20, 49, 82, 104, 106, 114, 146, 158-66 passim, 183 Gold Coast, 79 n.2 Goldsmith, Raymond W., xxiii, xxiv, 160 Goldwasser, Orly, 89 Gomi, Tohru, 202 Goody, Jack, 61 Gordon, Cyrus H , 59 Gortyn, 62 Gortyn Code, 24, 72 n.28, 117 Gould, Thomas, 41 Graham, A J., 166 grain, 33, 86-91, 102, 167, 202; carryover of, 88, 90-91; cost of storage, 105; trade in, 9, 59, 82, 83, 85, 90, 93 n.6, 103, 104, 106, 107, 111, 154, 155, 156, 158-59, 166, 182-83, 185, 190; yields, 202 granaries, 77-78, 107, 108 Granovetter, Mark, xii, 196 Gravisca, 19 Gray, John, 170 250 Grayson, Albert K., 17, 49 Greenberg, Moshe, 60 Greenfield, Jonas C , 42, 60, 160 Greengus, Samuel, 111, 168 Grierson, Philip, 177 n.3 Grimal, Pierre, 6, 21 Grosz, Katarzna, 60 Gruber, Mayer I., 174 Gudea, Cylinder A of, 16, 37 n.3, 73 guild, 5, Gulick, Charles B., 54 Gumey, O R, 134 Gurob, 58, 109, 147 Gurob Fragment, 109 Gwaltney, W C, Jr., 49 Hadad, 163 Hades, 17 Hagg, Robin, 27 Hahn, Istvan, 75, 181, 185 Haifa, 13 Halicamassus, 24 Hall, Kenneth R., 38 n.12 Halliday, W R, 14 Hallo, William W., 41, 71 n.22, 87, 116, 124, 158, 165, 192 n.2, 193 n.16, 204 Halstead, Paul, 76 Hammershaimb, E., 41 Hammurabi, 23, 79 n.5, 99, 110, 111, 131, 166, 169, 190, 197,198 Hammurabi's Code, 11, 12, 61, 71 n.25, 107, 118, 130, 133, 134, 145, 147, 150 n.12, 158, 198 Hana, 197 handshake, 39 Hanfmann, George M A., 33 Hansen, Julia, 192 n.7 harem, 147 Harkuf, 99-100, 146 Harrak, Amir, 78, 107 Harris, Edward M., 187, 188 Harris, Rivkah, 15, 16, 113, 124, 137 Harris, William V., 24, 117, 148, 150 n.12 Haspels, C H , Emilie, 13 Hassig, Ross, 145 Hassuna, 88 Hathor, 26, 32, 33, 36 n.2, 57, 58 Index Hatshepsut, 26, 36 n.2, 102, 140, 171 Hatti, 118, 120 Hattusas (Bogazkoy), 13 (location), 202 Hayami, Yajiro, 187 Hayes, William C, 28 Hazor, 21, 156 heads as coins, 163-64 Hebron, 146 Heh, 101 Heichelheim, Fritz M., 161 Heimpel, Wolfgang, 19, 20, 35 Hekanakht, 173-74 hektemoroi, 186-89 passim Helck, Wolfgang, xxiii, 28, 101, 108, 196 Heliopolis, Helios, 11, 27, 31, 33 Heltzer, Michael, 130, 145, 151 n.15, 169 Henrickson, Robert C, 65, 127 Henry, Elisabeth, 24 Hentschke, R, 73 Hephaestus, 4, 18, 40 Hephaisteion, 4, 18 Hera, 14, 19, 45 Heraclitus, 35, 37 n.8 Herakles, 4, , , , 30, 170 Herman, Gabriel, 44, 46, 50 Hermes, 14, 22, 27, 69 n.9 Hermopolis, 100 Herodotus, 11, 21, 101, 141, 142 Hesiod, 4, 17, 70 n.16, 75, 140, 187, 193 n.13 Hestia, 14, 15 Hezekiah, 16 Hieratic Ostraca, 147 highway, 21, 22, 83-89 passim Hillers, Delbert R, 37 n.ll Hinz, Walther, 19, 27 Hippocratic rules, Hirschmeier, Johannes, 66 Hittite Epic, 83, 107, 118 Hittite Old Kingdom, 13 Hittites, 5, 12, 20, 23, 27, 28, 46, 48, 49, 69nn.l0, 14, 83, 87, 102, 107, 114, 118, 121, 130, 156, 167, 174, 198, 202 Hodjash, Svetlana, 5, 160 Hoffner, Harry A., Jr., 69 n.14, 83, 118 Holmes, Y Lynn, 26, 142 Index 251 Homer, 17, 40, 64, 70 n.16, 74, 87, 88, 139, 147 Hopkins, Keith, 93 n.4, 106 hows, 22, 37 n.9, 62, 187, 189, 190 Horns, 9, 10, 36 n.2, 100 Hosea, 34, 35 House: of Egibi, 67, 74-75, 115; of Horus, 33; of Life, 27; of Osiris, 28; of Tabletship, 114; of Truth, 28, 161; of Understanding, 26; of Work Achievement, 27 house as firm, 50 Howard-Carter, Theresa, 30, 92, 190 Hudson's Bay Company, 71 n.25, 148 n.l Huehnergard, John, 61 Hughes, Diane, 71 nn.23, 24 Hughes, George R., 126 Humphreys, S C, 70 n.16, 72 n.27, 106, 140, 141, 155 Hurowitz, Victor, 162 Hurrian, 120 Hyksos, 100 interest, 35,49, 109, 110, 111 interest rates, 27, 105, 109, 110, 111, 114, 197 interpreters, 93 n.l Iqen, 90, 101 Iran, 71 n.25, 81, 121, 123, 143, 164, 182, 191 Iraq, irrigation, 91, 92, 183, 190, 191, 192 n.3, 202 Isaac, 64, 89 Isaiah, 22, 34, 35, 75, 154 Ischali, 111, 168 Ishara, 12 Ishme-Dagan, 36 n.l Ishtar, 32, 38 n.12, 163, 164 Isin, 82, 143, 177 n.2, 197 Isis, 9, 33, 36 n.2 Isocrates, 148, 189, 193 n.l5 Israel (Israelites), 19, 21, 22, 32, 34, 57, 59, 65, 84, 88, 98, 139, 142, 143, 149 n.5, 156, 162, 170 Isthmian Declaration, 37 n.10 Ibbi-Sin, 82, 165 ibbisu, 168 Icarius, idii, 137 Iliad, 17,46, 99 ilku, 23 Iltani of Karana, 55, 59, 70 n.l8 Iltani of Larsa, 59, 190 Ilushima, 196 Imgur-Bel, 163 Imhotep, 6, 27 Inanna, 9, 37 n.4, 161 incense, 9, 26, 102, 146 incentive payments, 139, 140 India, 69 n.7, 71 n.l8 Indus civilization, information, 134-35, 152 n.20, 153-54, 157, 176 n.l Ingot God, 6, inheritance: division of, 59, 123-24, 13132; women and, 61 innovation, 7, 43, 53, 73, 74, 91 Inshushinak, 17 insurance, 50 Jachin and Boaz, 15 Jacob (Israel), 9, 43-44, 69 n.6, 71 n.25, 131, 160, 177 n.2 Jacobsen, Thorkild, 8, 26, 36 n.2, 37 n.3, 90, 102, 190, 193 n.17 James, T.G.H., 5, 159, 162, 174, 177 n.3 Jameson, Michael H , 15, 187 Janssen, Jacob J., xiii, 107, 108, 109, 140, 147, 165, 170 Janssen, Jozef M A., 135 Janus, 22 Japan, 66, 67 Jensen, William C , 149 n.8 Jeremiah, 35, 154 Jericho, 16, 56, 156 Jerusalem, 21, 23, 145, 146, 154, 155 Jesus, 18 Joash, 16, 41 Job, 61 Johns, C.H.W., 164 Johnson, Penelope D., 71 n.20 Johnston, A., 184 Jones, Horace L., 75 Jones, R E., 184 252 Jones, Tom B., 67, 150 n.ll de Jonge, P., 93 n.4 Joppa, 86, 93 n.5 Joseph, 28, 118 Joshua, 56 Josiah, 21 Judah, 16, 21, 60, 73, 154 Julian, 93 n.4 Juno, 25 Jupiter, 12, 17, 24 Kabul, 164 Kadashman-Harbe I, 49 Kadish, Gerald E., 99, 146 Kahun, 89, 120, 171 Kamose, 100 Kanesh, 9, 17, 27, 69 n.14, 82, 85, 116, 141, 156, 172 Kaphthor (Kabtur), 10 (location), 169 Karana, 55, 203 Karatepe, 13 Kamak, 24, 33, 58 Kamak Stela, 128 karu, 116, 154, 161, 172 Kas, 142 Kaser, Max, 40 kaspum kankum, 115, 160 Kasr es-Sagha, 83 Kassite, 128, 198 Katary, Sally L D., 33, 86, 109, 150 n.ll, 158 Keams, Emily, 22, 30, 34 Kemp, Barry J., 83, 86, 89, 90, 108, 171 Kerkopes, 21 Kerma, 146 Khafajah, 56, 113 Khirbet el-Kerak, 89, 203 Khirbet Rabud, 145 Khnum (Chnum), 21, 101 Khonsu, 33 Khufu, 84 Kienast, Burkhart, 98 Kililu, 15 Kilmer, Anne D., 68 n.l kilns, King of Battle, 167 King's Highway, 21 Kirschenbaum, Aaron, 51, 65 Index Kish, 79 n.l, 135 Kitchen, Kenneth A., 23 Kition, 13, 19,27,48 Klapisch-Zuber, Christiane, 43 Klengel, Horst, 23, 118, 192 n.3, 202 Kleomenes, 151 n.20 Knapp, A Bernard, 143 Knossos, 41, 62, 74, 76, 77, 106, 133, 140 Kochavi, Moshe, 23 Komachi, 71 n.25 Kommos, 83, 90 Komoroczy, Geza, 38 n.ll, 128, 183 Kooij, Pirn, 84 Koshurnikov, S G., 145 Kothar-and-Hasis, 4, 6, 10, 15 Kramer, Samuel N., 3, 16, 26, 36 n.3, 72 n.26, 85, 86, 103, 125, 150 n.ll, 183, 189, 192 n.2 Krecher, J., 138 Kroton, 25 kudurru, 23, 28, 37 n.ll, 129 Kue, 177 n.5 Kuntillet Ajrud, 22, 32, 84 kurtash, 121 Kush, 146 kyrios, 56 Labuschagne, L L., 130 Lachish, 13 lady-in-the-window, 15 Lagash, 20, 21, 35, 40, 45, 47, 51, 54, 55, 64, 74, 76, 77, 92, 102, 113, 119, 122, 123, 131, 150 n.ll, 182-84 passim, 191, 196, 202 Laidlaw, W A., 19, 30 Lambert, Maurice, 116, 158 Lambert, W G., land: communally owned, 123, 126-32; public functions and, 129-31, 137; registration of ownership, 125-26; sales, 122-23, 125, 132, 137, 187; taxation and, 130 Landa, Janet, xxii, 43 land-intensive process, 191 lapis lazuli, 47, 146, 183 Larsa, 59, 135, 161, 169, 189, 190, 197, 198 Index Larsen, Mogens T., xxiii, 20, 23, 37 n.ll, 49, 52, 56, 68, 78, 82, 85, 142 Lattimore, Owen, 93 n.4 Lattimore, Richard, 74, 99, 115, 130, 139 Laws of: Assyria, 127, 132, 149 n.9, 176 n 1; Eretria, 117; Eshnunna, 11, 70 n.19, 131, 133, 149 n.9, 158; Hittites, 131, 147, 158; Lipit-Ishtar, 37 n.ll, 72 n.26, 112, 158; Ur-Nammu, 28, 158 lead, 113, 159, 164 leather, 143-44 Leemans, W F., xxiii, 105, 107, 110, 128, 143, 147, 150 n.10, 181, 182 190, 193 n.16, 197, 198 legal fiction, 176 Leichty, Erie, 132 Leighton, Albert C , 85 Lemche, Niels P., 53, 108, 191 Lemnos, 99 Levant (Levantine), 6, 10, 154, 171 Levine, Baruch A., 68 n.2, 91 Levites, 131 Lewis, Naptali, 184, 186 Lewy, Hildegard, 52, 82 Lewy, Julius, 52, 83, 141, 151 n.14, 168, 196 Libanius, 93 n.4 Lichtheim, Miriam, 5, 57, 108, 115 Lieberman, Stephen J., 36 n.l Lieberman, Victor B., 38 n.12 limited liability, 111, 112, 149 n.8 Linders, Tullia, 28 linen, Lipinski, Edward, 154, 163, 164 Littauer, M A., 83 Liverani, Mario, xxiii, 36 n.2, 42, 47, 49, 69 n.12, 102, 191 livestock, "deathless" and "iron," 125, 128 Livy, 31 Lloyd, Alan B., 101 Lloyd, Seton, 144 Loane, Helen J., 63 loans, productive, 111, 123, 187 Locri, 14, 24, 127 Loewe, Raphael, 160 Londey, Peter, 25 Lopez, Robert S., 71 n.24 253 lordship, 130 Lorton, David, 101, 102, 134, 150 n.12 losses, 168 Lucania, 84 Lugalbanda, 54, 74 Lugalbanda and Enmerkar, 88 Lukonin, Vladimir G., 121 lumber: trade in, 9, 45, 50, 83, 98, 102, 103, 169, 182; transport of, 86-87, 167 Luxor See Thebes Lycia, 19 Lycosura, 14 Lysias, 173 Maat, 12 McCarter, P Kyle, Jr., 16, 32, 69 n.6 McCarthy, Dennis J., 69 n.8 MacDonald, John, 120 MacMullen, Ramsey, 4, 19 McNeill, W H , 85 Macve, Richard H , 177 n.6 Maekawa, Kazuya, 54, 67, 119, 122, 136, 202 Magan, 3, 28, 142, 189 magic, property rights and, Magna Graecia, 31, 84 Maier, John, 3, 26 Malamat, A., 17 Malkin, Irad, 25 Mallowan, M.E.L., 168 Malul, Meir, 91 mancipatio, 41 Manistushu, 123 manus, 63, 65 Manville, Philip B., 187, 188, 189, 192 nn.8, Marcus, Abraham, 132 Marcus Aurelius, 63 Mardu, 36 n.2 Mari, 17 (location), 39, 47, 48, 52, 56, 59, 73, 83, 86, 88, 93 n.3, 107, 118, 120, 121, 127, 129, 131, 142, 155, 156, 159, 167, 192 n.3, 197, 198 n.2 market: allegedly absent in Egypt, 108; contrasted with gift trade, 46; forward, 116-17; identification with religious for, 141-48 marketplace, 104 254 marriage, 42 Marsa Matruh, 143 mariitu, 197, 199 n.4 Marx, Karl, 175 Marxists, xii Masschaele, James, 85 Mater Magna, 33 Matous, L., 172 Mattingly, D J., 152 n.23 Mattusch, Carol C, 18 Mazar, Amihai, 45, 89 Mazar, Benjamin, 171 meat consumption, 190 Meckling, William H , 149 n.8 Medinet Habu, 34 Meek, Theophile, 147, 149 n.9, 150 n.12 Megally, Mounir, 170 Megiddo, 45 Meier, Samuel A., 60 Meiggs, Russell, 87 Meijer, P A., 35, 87 Melena, Jose L., 106, 140 Melos, 13, 89 Meltzer, Allan H., 135, 157 Meluhha, 3, 88, 92, 189 Memphis, 8, 10, 18, 20, 58, 92, 100, 120 Mendelsohn, Isaac, 72 n.28 men of straw, 40 Mentuhotpe, 147 Menu, Bemadette, 58 mercatores, Mercer, Samuel A B., merchant, 5, 6, 10, 12, 19, 23, 42-43, 103, 118, 167-71 passim; commissioning of, 9; contrasted with elders, 7475; in Egyptian weba, 13-14; as epithet of gods, 3-4; friendship and, 49; settlement of accounts and, 11; temples and, 27; tithes to gods and, 25, 28, 54, 56 Mercury, 5, Merrillees, R S., 59 Mesha, 23 Mesopotamia: ecological variety and resources, 81; location of,3 messengers, 36 n.2, 49, 102 messenger texts, 118 metal: trade in, 74, 82, 93 n.l, 166, 188; Index work and workers, 5, 6, 21, 64, 74, 77, 92, 131, 202 Meter, 24, 31, 33 metic, 92 Metjen, 57, 78, 125 Metroon, 24 Mettinger, Tryggve, 39, 131 Micah, 35 Michalowski, Piotr, 79 n.3 Midas Monument, 13 middlemen, 105-7 van de Mieroop, Marc, 54, 60, 116 migdal-templQ, 15 migration, 92, 119-22 Mihd (Mahd), 19 Mikalson, Jon D., miksu-impost, 37 n.ll Miletus, 33, 74, 117, 155 Millard, A R., 142 Millett, Paul, xxii, 37 n.9, 41, 45, 72 n.29, 104, 112, 114, 115, 117, 152 n.20, 172, 187, 189, 193 nn.14, 15 Min, 28 Minerva, 24 Minoan, 145, 155 Minos, 74 misthos, 140 Mitchell, T C, 164 Mithra(s), 12, 33, 46, 50 Mi-Wer, 147 Mnemosyne, 24 Mnevis bull, Moalla, 83 Mommsen, Theodor, 22 money, defined, 156 money changers, 5, 18 monopoly, xii, 6, 7, 9, 99, 101, 109, 153, 165 Montet, Pierre, 102, 144, 155 Montu, 33 de Moor, Johannes C , 35 Moorey, P.R.S., 192 n.2 moral hazard, 135 Moran, William, 161 Morenz, Siegfried, 46 Morgan, Catherine, 21 Morgan, Lyvia, 145 Morrison, Martha A., 50, 79 n.6 Index mortgage, 40, 114, 187-88 Moses, 16, 23 Mueller, Dieter, 139 Muffs, Y., 128 Muhly, James D., 48 Mukish, 107 Miiller, Manfred, 197 Muntingh, L M., 56 Murray, Gilbert, 18 Murray, Oswyn, 42 murub-festiva], 3, Muses, 24 Musri, 177 n.5 Mut, 33 Mycenae, 13, 21, 27, 76 Mylonas, George E., 151 n.l5 Myrrhinus, 37 n.9 Myrtos, 27 naditu, 15, 59, 61, 110, 149 n.7, 181 Nagy, Gregory, 75 Nahhunte, 27 Nakarattars, 69 n.7 Nakata, Ichiro, names: as capital, 43—45; trade in, 44 nam.ra people, 83, 118, 120 Nanna, 190 Nanna-Suen, 86 Nanshe, 35, 54 Naqada, 22 Naram-Sin, 20 naruqqu, 112, 160 Nash, John, 94 n.9, 105 Naucratis, 101, 184, 185 Nauri Decree, 28 Naxos, 86 nebet per, 57 Nebo, 23 Nectanebo I, 101 de Neeve, P W., 136 Neferirkare, 131, 155 Negbi, Ora, 13 Negev, 21, 89 negotiatores, 67 Nehemiah, 154 Nehushtan, 16 Neith, 101 Nekhbet, 20 255 Nelson, Philip, 154 nemehew, 58, 125, 127 nemelu, 174 Nemesis, 15 neoclassical institutional economics, xxi nepotism, 52 Nepthys, Neriglissar, 74-75 Nerva, 24 Neufeld, Edward, 53 Newbet, 22 nexum, 117 Nibbi, Alessandra, 101, 172 Nicholas, Stephen, 72 n.25 Nidaba, 23, 26 Nimgirsig, 26 nim people, 118 Nimrud Dag, 29 Nineveh, 88, 155, 163, 202 Ningal, 56, 190 Ningursu, 20, 37 n.3, 74, 103, 183 Ninlil, Ninsikila, 19 Nippur, 3, 42, 45, 50, 56, 86, 95, 109, 110, 121, 131, 137, 147, 149 n.7, 159, 189, 198 Noah, 87 nome (nomarch), 8, 78 North, Douglass C , xxi, xxii, 100, 195 Noumenia, Nubia, 9, 28, 36 n.2, 55, 83, 89, 99, 100, 101, 102, 120, 146, 148 n.3 Nuzi, 16 (location), 40, 50, 56, 59, 60, 61, 65, 67, 99, 106, 107, 111, 113, 118, 124, 131, 134, 154, 155, 168, 169, 175, 176, 197, 199 n.4, 202 oases, 82, 85, 109 Oates, Joan, 53 Obelisk of Manishtushu, 123 Odysseus, 87 Odyssey, 14, 115, 130, 139 Ogilvie, Sheilagh C , 64 oikos,21, 51, 52, 64, 66, 70 n.16 Olbia, 155 Oleson, John P., olive oil trade, 145, 146 Oliver, Henry E., 176 n.l 256 Oliver, James H , 188 Olivier, Jean-Pierre, 133 Olmstead, A T., 164 Olympia, 21, 26 Olympus, Olynthos, 90 Oman, 3, 142 Ombos, 22 onager hides, 144 Oppenheim, A Leo, 17, 48, 82, 91, 107, 111, 115, 128, 143, 184, 190, 197, 198 opportunism, 5, 6, 25, 52, 54, 66, 112, 124, 149 n.8, 186-87 opportunity cost, 64, 125, 133 Orientalizing period, 31 Ortiz, S., xxiii Osborne, Robin, 5, 93 n.6, 100, 116 Osiris, 9, 35 Otsuka, Keijiro, 187 Owen, David I., 59 ox-hide ingots, 6, 142, 164 Oxyrhynchus, 19 palace, 74, 90, 106, 110, 155, 156 palace economy, 76 Palaima, Thomas G., 77 Palatine, 33 Palermo Stone, 120 Palmer, Leonard R., 150 n.ll Palmyrene, 31 Pan, panegyris, Papyrus: Amiens, 86, 87; Anastasi IV, 171; Berlin 9784, 133; Bologna 1086, 135; Boulaq 11, 82, 170, 177 n.3; Boulaq 18, 82; Brooklyn, 45, 60, 68 n.5, 135, 161; Cairo 65739, 60, 151 n.l8; Chester Beatty IV, 82; Gurob, 109; Lansing, 108, 167, 170, 171; Louvre E 3226, 86, 170; Rylands 4, 7, 35; Turin, Pleyte Rossi 58, 51; Turin 1895 + 2006 (Turin Taxation Papyrus), 86, 120; Valencay 1, 125; Wilbour, 150 n.ll Paradise, Jonathan, 61 Parke, H W., 13 Paros, 86 Parpola, Asko, 90 Index Parpola, Simo, 90 Pasion, 61, 115, 175 patent laws, 7, 53-54 paternalism, 53 Patterson, Cynthia B., 39 Pausanias, 31 Peacock, D.P.S., 149 n.6 Pearson, Harry W., 95 Peet, Thomas E., 61, 133, 167, 171 Peiraeus (Piraeus), 22, 155 Pepi I, 120 Pepi II, decree of, 28 per, 50-51, 89, 171 Perachora, 14 Perrin, Bemadette, 74, 75, 189 Persephone, 14, 17 Persian period, 16, 132, 135, 165, 177 n.5 Pessinus, 33 Pettinato, Giovanni, 8, 20, 74, 78, 92, 98, 143, 170, 193 n.17 Pfliiger, Kurt, 171 Phaistos, 90 Pheneos, 30 philergia, 175 Philistine, 10, 19, 103, 145, 146, 154 Philodemos of Gadara, 72 n.27 Phobos of Phocaia, 75 Phoenicia, 13, 15, 16, 18, 28, 58, 82, 92, 101, 146 Phokaia (Phocaia), 88 Phormion, 115 Phylakopi, 13 Phyrgia, 13 pillars, 22 piracy, 94 n.8, 100 Pithecusae (Pithekoussai), 25, 166 Plato, 30, 133 Plautus, 176 n.l Plutarch, 25, 40, 41, 74, 75, 184-89 passim Polanyi, Karl, xxii, xxiii, 95, 97, 98, 103, 105, 109, 110, 116, 122, 124, 126, 139, 140, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 160, 166, 167, 171, 172, 174, 175, 176, 195, 196, 204 Pollak, Robert A., 52 Pollard, Sidney, 69 n.l5, 70 n.l7 Index Pollux, 192 n.ll Polotsky, Hans J., 172 Polycrates, 74 Pomeroy, Sarah B., 70 n.l8 Pomponio, Francesco, 103 Pompeii, 85, 106, 174 Pontos, 93 n.6 Porten, Bezalel, 69 n.10 Portunus, 19 Poseidon, 5, 30, 40 Posner, Richard A., 46 Postgate, J N., xiii, 16, 48, 71 n.25, 119, 136, 163, 181 potestas, 65 potters, 4, 21, 76-77, 144 pottery, trade relations and, 82, 84, 86, 141-42, 143, 146, 147, 155, 184, 185, 191 n.l Potts, Daniel T., 145, 191, 193 n.16 Powell, Marvin A., 103, 104, 159, 160, 165, 177 n.3, 190, 191 prasis epi lysei, 188 price controls, 93 n.4, 103, 104, 111, 124, 125, 155, 168-69, 195, 197 prices: 97-99, 103-5, 133; of orchards compared to grain fields, 145; production decisions and, 141, 145; seasonal variation in, 104-5 profit, 98, 112, 141, 151 n.19, 174-75, 187 Prometheus, property: personal versus office-held, 7778; private versus communal, 123, 126-32 prostitution, 15, 30 Pruessner, A H , 124, 145 Psusennes II, 58 Ptah, 4, 10, 17, 20, 33 Ptolemy Epiphanes, 29 public enterprise, 76-77 public record office, 24 Puhvel, Jaan, 5, 6, 17, 50, 63, 88 Pulak, Cemal, 164 Punt, 36 n.2 (location), 84, 102 Purcell, Nicholas, xxii Puteoli, 31 Pylos, 62, 76, 106, 115, 147, 198 n.3 257 Pyramid Texts, Pyrgi Tablets, 10 Qatna, 44, 48, 155 quantitative equivalencies, 103, 116 Rahab, 57 Rainey, Anson F., 169 Rameses II, 85, 90, 167 Rameses III, 23, 34 Rameses IV, 150 n.ll Rameses VII, 86, 165 Rameses XI, 86, 158 Ramesseum, 90 Ramesside age, 33, 35, 58, 87, 108, 165 Ray, Arthur J., 148 n.l Re, eye of, Redfield, James M., 130, 139 Redford, Donald B., 20, 36 n.2, 44, 48, 100, 101, 120, 139 redistributional economy, xxii, 76, 88, 105, 108-9 Red Sea, 22, 84 Rehoboam, 149 n.5 Reinecke, Walter F., 51, 170 Reiner, Erica, 17, 107, 184, 197, 198 Renger, Johannes, 91, 105, 137, 162, 197 rental contracts, 125-26, 133 reputation, dedication of statuary and, 44 reshati, 163-64 Reviv, Hanoch, 23, 79 n.5, 135 Rhamnous, 15 Rhodes, 10, 121 Rhodes, P J., 186 Richardson, N J., 14, 17 Rig Veda, 161 RihillT E., 187 Rim-Sin, 189, 190, 197, 198 Rish, 145 road temple, 13 Robertson, John F., 137 Rollig, Wolfgang, 155 Roman Empire, 4, 87, 152 n.23, 155 Roman law, 40, 51, 62-63 Rome, 5, 7, 14, 24, 33, 35, 41 n.12, 47, 62-63, 64, 65, 67, 72 n.27, 78, 85, 86, 88, 101, 106, 117, 135, 136, 161 Rose, H J., 7, 8, 149 n.5 258 Rosenberg, Nathan, 202 Rosetta Stone, 29 Rosman, Abraham, 43 Roth, Martha T., 56 Rubel, Paula, 43 Rudner, David W., 69 Runnels, Curtis N., 182, 192 n.7 sdbitu, 70 n.19 sacrifice, 27, 46, 69 n.10 Sadek, Ashraf I., 149 n.4 Saggs, H.W.F., 6, 79 n.3 Sais, 101 Salamis, 153 Saleh, Abdel-Aziz, 26 salinization, 190-91 Sallares, Robert, 192 n.7 Samaria, 16,21, 32, 104, 155 Samos, 26, 45, 74 Samsuiluna, 161, 169, 198 Samuel, 37 n.7 Samuel, Alan E., 147 Sandman-Holmberg, Maj, 17 Saqqara, 57, 162 Sarapta, 31 Sardis, 33, 145 Sargon, 20, 123, 167 Sargonic period, 76, 77 Sasson, Jack M., 114 Saturn, 24 Saul, 32 Save-Soderbergh, Torgny, 171 Sayed, Abdel Monem A H , 84, 147 Schaps, David M., 62 Scheidel, Walter, 72 n.27 Schweitzer, Bernhard, 14 science, 202-3 scribes: as potential entrepreneurs, 79 n.l; women as, 57, 59 Scullard, H H , Scully, Stephen, 101 sealed purses as "coins," 160-61 seasonal work, 203 se-ba, 119, 136-37 Sebitti, 26 sehtep, 99-101 seisachtheia, 184 self-sale, 118 Index Selman, M J., 84 van Selms, A., 150 n.12 sementyew, 26, 171 Semple, Ellen C , 192 n.7 separation of ownership from control, 112 Serabit el-Khadim, 84, 138, 139 Serapis, 19, 30-31,46 Seshat, Sesostris I, 148 n.4 Sesostris III, 9, 101 Setala, Pairi, 63 Setekh, 26 van Seters, John, 65 Seth, 9, 22, 36 n.2 Seti I, 22 Shaffer, Aaron, 45, 99 Shamaha, 28 Shamash, 3, 9, 11, 12, 17, 110, 135, 160, 163, 164, 167 Shapiro, Carl, 46 sharecropping, 186-87, 189 Shasha, 45, 54, 122 shaty, 161-62, 165, 170 Shechem, 9, 21,44, 177 n.2 sheep trade, 36 n.l, 143, 155 Shelmerdine, Cynthia W., 151 n.l5 shepherds (herders), 8, 12, 50, 52, 67, 71 n.25, 139 Sherk, Robert K., 29 shewty, 100, 108, 167, 170 Shiff, Laurence B., 67, 74, 111 ships and trade growth, 88 shirking, 25, 52, 129, 151 n.19 shops, 155-56 shublugal, 183, 184 Shulgi, 54, 85 Shupak, Nili, 41 Shu-Sin, 55 Sicily, 142, 184, 185 Sicyon, 87 Sidon, 171 Sigeum, 185 Sikes, E E., 14 Silvanus, 22 silver, 81, 82, 88, 98, 102, 103, 106, 112, 113, 121, 123, 126, 131, 132, 138, 139, 141, 154, 156, 158-68 passim Silver, Morris, xxiv, 4, 6, 9, 15, 26, 34, Index 36 n.l, 37 n.5, 45, 57, 58, 59, 62, 64, 67, 71 n.21, 75, 95, 117, 151 n.16, 163, 164, 170, 177 n.7, 183, 190, 192 n.5, 193 n.17 Sinai, 10, 22, 26, 36 n.2, 57, 58, 84, 89, 138, 148 n.4 Singer, Itamar, 93 n.5 Sippar, 59, 79 n.l, 110, 113, 124, 133, 135, 138, 149 n.7, 154, 155, 181 Skaist, Aaron, 123 Skiles, Jonah W D., 41 Skiron, 21 slavery: 64-66, 117-22, 132-35, 137; bound compared to distrained, 120-22; of gods, 29; manumission of, 11, 16; registration of, 135 Smith, Alexandrina, 100 Smith, C S., 202 Smith, Harry S., 55, 100, 154 Smith, Mark S., Smith, Robert J., 66 Smith, Sidney, 161, 164 Smith, William S., 146 Snell, Daniel C , 148 n.3, 166 Snodgrass, Anthony M., 22, 25, 94 n.8 Snyder, John W., 67, 150 n.ll Socrates, 35, 173 Sokaris, 4, Solomon, 23, 32, 48, 73, 107, 149 n.5, 170 Solon, 74, 75, 117, 140, 184-89 passim Solonian crisis, 189, 192 n.12 Sopdu, 10 Sophocles, 41 Soracte, 22 Sorensen, Jorgen P., 36 Sostratos of Aigina, 75, 141 Spain, 152 n.22 Spalinger, Anthony J., 78 span of control, 66 Sparta, 21, 84 Speiser, E A., 130, 155 Spencer, Patricia, 14, 51 Spurius Postumius, 28 Starr, Chester G., 34, 185, 186 Steinkeller, Piotr, 71 n.21, 103, 109, 123, 126, 127, 151 n.13, 196 Stela Berlin 24032, 57 259 Stela of Ewerat, 125 Stephens, Ferris J., 54 stipulatio, 42 stoa, 152 n.23, 155, 156 Stol, M., 113, 161, 169 Stolper, Matthew W., 127, 135, 145 stone, 81, 182 Stone, Elizabeth C , 124, 149 n.7, 193 n.16, 198 storage economy, 105 Strabo, 75 Straight, H Stephen, 51 Strange, John, 107 van Straten, F T., 47 Strom, Ingrid, 45 Strudwick, Nigel, 131 Stmve, V V., 135 subjects, 150 n.12 substantivists, 187 Suchman, Mark C, 6, Sudan, Sumer, location of, sun-god: geographical guidance and, 26; oaths and, 11 supply and demand, 97-99, 103-5, 114, 116, 122, 124, 138, 140, 148 n.3, 153, 158 suretyship, 40, 63, 113 surplus, 109 Susa, 27, 123 Sweet, Ronald F G., 197, 198 Sybaris, 54 syncretism, 7, 52 Szemerenyi, O., 198 n.3 Szubin, H Z., 69 n.10 tamkdru, 51, 56, 70 n.19, 107, 113, 114, 167-69 passim, 189 Tanis, 171 Tarshish, 88 taxes, 11, 28-30, 37 nn.10, 11, 85, 98, 99-103, 105-6, 115, 120, 130, 131, 149 n.4, 172, 196; joint responsibility for payment, 129; paid by rulers, 78 tax exemption, 28-30, 107, 129, 131, 198 n.3 Tebtynis Papyri, 29 technology, 6-7, 53, 66, 91-92, 202 260 Tegea, 14 Tegyey, Imre, 27, 74 Telchines, Tell Aphek, 124 Tell Beit Mirsim, 145, 146 Tell Brak, 20, 126 Tell Hariri, 17 Tell Mevorakh, 13 Tell Miqne, 145, 146 TellQasile, 13 telos, 22 Temple, Jerusalem, 32, 160 temples: ownership of land, 123, 126, 150 n.ll; public labor and, 30 Tenochitlan, 145 textiles, 58, 74, 77, 98; trade in, 55, 56, 57, 58, 82, 83, 85, 98, 102, 141, 143, 168, 182, 189,203 Thales, 117 Thasos, 5, 116 Thebes (Luxor), 23, 26, 32, 33, 34, 51, 57, 86, 92, 101, 147, 159, 162, 202 Theocritus, 176 n.l Theognis of Megara, 75 Theophrastus, 72 n.29, 122, 123 Theopompus, 121 Thermopylai, 21 Theseus, 4, 21 thetes, 139, 186, 188 Thomas, Robert Paul, 195 Thomas, Rosalind, 37 n.8 Thompson, Herbert, 29 Thompson, Thomas L., 72 n.28, 129, 131, 176 Thompson, Wesley E., 68, 72 n.30, 149 n.8, 172, 175 Thoricos, 14 Thoth, 135 Thurii, 127 Thutmose III, 48, 92, 101, 102, 140 tidennutu, 175-76 Tigay, Jeffrey H , 16, 23 Tilmun, 3, 9, 19, 37 n.4, 54, 56, 88, 92, 102, 107, 142, 143, 145, 168, 189, 190 tin: as medium of exchange, 159; trade in, 82, 85, 93 n.3, 98, 102, 141, 142, 158, 168, 175, 203 Tirasha, 20 Index Tiryns, 21 Tishpak, 12 Tomb Robbery Papyri, 104, 108, 158, 170 van der Toom, K., 13, 17, 47, 49, 68 n.5, 118 Toumanoff, Peter, 129 trade: importance of, 181-82, 189, 203; role of force, 100—101; role of local differences in elevation, 36 n.l; secrets, 36, 53 transaction cost, 54, 64, 130, 140, 149 n.8, 153, 164, 189, 201; ancient societies and, xxiv; barter systems and, 157; defined, xxi; ethnic status and, 43; as incentive to invest in common goods, 8; as obstacle to markets, xxii, 140, 204 transfer of land deeds, 114 transport cost, 85-87 trapeza, 52, 62, 65, 115 Triptolemus, Troezen, 15, 21 Troy (Hisarlik), 99, 139, 156, 203 trust, 6, 8, 27, 39, 45-46 Tmth, gods and goddesses of, 12, 17, 25, 28 Tsevat, Matitahu, 60 Tucker, Gene M., 42 Turfa, Jean, 25 Turkey, 13, 142 Turner, Judy A., 140 turquoise mines, 138 Tuttul, 20 tyrants, 74 Tyre, 18, 21, 73, 75, 103, 154 Uchitel, Alexander, 137 Udovitch, Abraham L., 69 n.12, 161 Ugarit, (location), 10, 15, 19, 32, 44, 48, 49, 51, 55, 56, 60, 67, 86, 88, 93 n.5, 98,99, 107, 111, 113, 114, 118, 120, 124, 126, 130, 131, 132, 143, 145, 151 n.15, 155, 169, 171, 172, 174, 198 n.2 Ulu Burun, 142, 164 Umma, 20, 54, 55, 59, 67, 77, 116, 136, 148 n.3, 182 Index Umm Dabaghiyah, 88, 144 Ur, 9, 12, 25, 32, 37 n.ll, 56, 60, 77, 82, 86, 88, 110, 143, 156, 161, 183, 189, 202 Ur III, 21, 28, 35, 36 n.l, 47, 51, 59, 66, 112, 116, 117, 118, 119, 122, 126, 136, 137, 138, 150nn.l0, 11, 159, 161, 165, 169, 190, 197, 198, 201 Ura, 83, 118 Urartu, 20, 41, 150 n.12 Ur-Nammu, 102, 198, n.3 Ur-Nanshe, 20, 102 Umk, 9, 26, 37 n.4, 45, 55, 73, 82, 83, 104, 155, 201 Urukagina, 45, 54, 74, 76, 102, 122, 183, 192 n.4, 196 Usarkaf, 120 Utu, 20, 26 Uzziah, 73 Vanstiphout, Herman, 57, 74, 102, 106, 167, 177 n.6, 182, 184 Vargyas, P., 169 Veenhof, K R, 56, 98, 102, 104, 106, 112, 114, 116, 141, 158, 168, 172, 175 Velde, H Te, 36 n.2 Venice, 116 Ventris, Michael, 140, 150 n.ll Vemant, Jean-Pierre, 15 Versnel, H S., 69 n.12 vertical integration, 67 Via Maris, 21 Vidal-Naquet, Pierre, 125, 177 n.4 vineyards, 145 Vinogradov, I V., 132, 196 viticulture, 73 vows, uncertainty and, 47 Wadi Gewasis, 19, 84 Wadi Hammamat, 84 Wadjet, 20 Waetzoldt, Hartmut, 137, 138, 193 n.l7, 22 wage, 120, 121, 136-40, 190; compared to barley ration, 119, 136-37 Waldbaum, Jane C , 33 Wallace, Robert W., 177 n.4 Wallinga, H T., 88 261 Ward, William A., 57, 58, 120 warranties: for land, 124-25; for slaves, 133-35 Warren, Petor, 83 Watson, Alan, 41 Wawat, 83 Weeks, Noel K., 198 n.4 Wehaet, 82, 109 Weinfeld, Moshe, 79 n.5, 149 n.5 Wenamon, 50, 171 Wensky, Margaret, 70 nn 17,18 Wente, Edward F., 135, 171 Wepwawet, 78 West, M.L., 11, 31, 189 West, Stephanie, 74, 115, 139 Westbrook, Raymond, 115, 151 n.l7, 198 Westenholz, Aage, 45, 76, 77 White, Lawrence H , 156 White, L Michael, 31 Whiting, Robert M., Jr., 123, 126, 127, 151 n.13 Willetts, Ronald F., 72 n.28 Williams, D F., 149 n.6 Williams, Jeffrey, 116 Wilson, John A., 17, 134, 170 window, 10, 13, 14, 15 wine, 82, 86, 99, 116, 167, 184 Winter, Irene J., 169 Wintrobe, Ronald, 45 Wiseman, D J., 42 witnesses, 39-40, 42, 59, 71 n.21, 122, 126, 127, 128, 151 nn.13, 14 women, business and, 54-64 wonders versus trade goods, 48, 101 Wood, Bryant, 86 Wood, Ellen M., 139 Woodhouse, W J., 184, 187 wool trade, 27 workshops, 27 Wright, David P., 69 Wright, G.R.H., 202 xenoi, 46 Xenophon, 35, 70 n.l8, 139, 148, 175 Yahweh, 4, 19, 22, 23, 32, 35 Yamamoto, Shigem, 137, 191, 192 n.4 262 Yarim Tepe, 88, 144 Yaron, Reuven, 10, 118, 133 Yeo, Cedric, 87 Yoffee, Norman, 128, 145, 197 York, Michael, 12, 19 Yorkshire, 152 n.21 Young, T C , Jr., 201 Yui, Tsunehiku, 66 Zaccagnini, Carlo, 46, 48, 49, 51, 124, 161, 176, 177 n.7, 197, 198 n.4 Index Zagarell, Allen, xxii Zaibatsu, 66, 67 Zalpa, 69 n.14 Zeber, Ireneusz, 64 Zeitler, Richard L., 161 Zephaniah, 35 Zeus, 11, 14, 16, 21, 30, 33 van Zijl, Peter J., 4, 51 Ziklag, 89 Zimansky, Paul E., 150 n.12 Zinjirli, 164, 177 n.4 About the Author MORRIS SILVER is Professor of Economics and Chairman of the Economics Department, City College of the City University of New York Professor Silver has published extensively on economic issues, including three books on economics in the Ancient World ... both markets and hierarchies Of course, the final test of my ambitious pudding is in the eating Economic Structures of Antiquity builds on my earlier Economic Structures of the Ancient Near East,... 10 D The Contribution of Temples to Economic Growth 18 E Contribution of Economic Growth to the Gods: An Application of Behavioral Economics 34 viii Contents Adaptations of Markets and Hierarchical... self-sufficient theory of economic history, principally the absence of a concept of exploitation, an economic analysis based on patterns of allocation rather than relations of production, and the