Understanding Environmental Policy Convergence Over recent decades national environmental policies have become increasingly alike This book analyses the driving forces of this process of policy convergence, providing an in-depth empirical analysis of the international forces at work It does so by investigating how four countries – France, Hungary, Mexico and the Netherlands – have shaped their domestic environmental policies in the context of international institutions and relationships, while taking into account various domestic factors and national conditions Employing a qualitative approach, the authors seek to deepen understanding of the processes and mechanisms through which international forces such as legal harmonisation, institutionalised information flows and global trade dynamics affect domestic environmental policy change Together with its companion volume Environmental Policy Convergence in Europe: The Impact of International Institutions and Trade (2008) this book provides a ‘showcase’ of mixed methodologies, combining quantitative and qualitative approaches in an innovative way    ă is Senior Lecturer at the Department of Political and Social Sciences of the Freie Universităat Berlin and managing director of the Environmental Policy Research Centre (FFU)              is Professor of European Politics in the Departă University, Germany, where she ment of Social Sciences at Osnabruck also holds a Jean Monnet Chair and directs the Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence on European Studies In addition, she teaches at the College of Europe in Bruges                 is Assistant Professor in the Department of Political Sciences of the Environment, Institute for Management Research, at Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands Understanding Environmental Policy Convergence The Power of Words, Rules and Money edited by ă Helge Jorgens, Andrea Lenschow and Duncan Liefferink University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107037823 C Cambridge University Press 2014 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2014 Printed in the United Kingdom by CPI Group Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Understanding environmental policy convergence : the power of words, rules ă and money / [edited by] Helge Jorgens, Andrea Lenschow, Duncan Liefferink pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-107-03782-3 (hardback) Environmental policy – International cooperation – Case studies Environmental management – International cooperation – Case studies Global environmental change International cooperation Case studies ă I Jorgens, Helge, 1967– II Lenschow, Andrea III Liefferink, Duncan GE170.U535 2013 363.7′ 0561 – dc23 2013022105 ISBN 978-1-107-03782-3 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents List of figures List of tables List of contributors Preface List of abbreviations page vii viii x xii xiv Introduction: theoretical framework and research design                 ,       ă             Is there convergence of national environmental policies? An analysis of policy outputs in 24 OECD countries  ,      Regulation of industrial discharges into surface water               ,                    Taming the ‘tiger in the tank’: explaining the convergence of limit values for lead in petrol   -          39 64 104 Cross-national convergence of traffic noise policies                 140 National policies for cleaning up contaminated sites              175 Converging ideas about risk regulation? The precautionary principle in national legal systems                 209 v vi Contents From the outside in: explaining convergence in the legal recognition of the sustainability principle   -             ă   Complex causation in cross-national environmental policy convergence             ,                  ă     Index 237 265 296 Figures 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 5.1 5.2 6.1 8.1 Environmental policies: early adoptions, 1970–2000 page 51 Environmental policies: linear adoptions, 1970–2000 52 Environmental policies: late adoptions, 1970–2000 53 Limit values for lead 66 Limit values for chromium 66 Limit values for copper 67 Limit values for zinc 67 Limit values for biological oxygen demand 68 Limit values in France, Hungary, Mexico and the Netherlands, 1970–2000 105 Convergence of limit values across twenty-four countries, 1970–2000 106 Net exports of petrol from France, Hungary, Mexico and the Netherlands, 1970–2000 117 Evolution of limit values for lead in petrol in Hungary, 1969–2000 120 Evolution of limit values for lead in petrol in the Netherlands, 1978–2000 124 Evolution of limit values for lead in petrol in Mexico, 1986–2000 128 Evolution of limit values for lead in petrol in France, 1967–2000 131 National noise emission standards from lorries, 1970–2000 143 Motorway noise emissions standards since 1970 144 Comparison of the phasing of policy on contaminated sites 201 The incorporation of the sustainability principle into domestic environmental laws, 1985–2000 241 vii Tables 1.1 Mechanisms of policy convergence page 18 1.2 Case study countries 20 1.3 Selection of policy items according to trade-related expectations 26 1.4 Characteristics of policy items 27 2.1 Environmental policies: adoption rates (%) for forty policies, 1970–2000 48 2.2 Policy adoptions over time by country, 1970–2000 50 2.3 Variation coefficients for twenty-one setting items, 1970–2000 54 2.4 Changes in regulatory mean for twenty-one settings, 1970–2000 57 2.5 Beta-convergence, twenty-one settings, 1970–2000 58 2.6 Gamma-convergence, twenty-one settings, 1970–2000 60 3.1 Selected international efforts indirectly affecting standard setting for the discharge of chromium, copper, lead, zinc and BOD into surface water 70 3.2 Phases and mechanisms of policy convergence in France 79 3.3 Phases and mechanisms of policy convergence in the Netherlands 85 3.4 Phases and mechanisms of policy convergence in Hungary 91 3.5 Phases and mechanisms of policy convergence in Mexico 97 4.1 Selected international efforts aiming at the reduction of lead in petrol 113 4.2 Summary of relevant mechanisms in the Hungarian case 123 4.3 Summary of relevant mechanisms in the Dutch case 127 4.4 Summary of relevant mechanisms in the Mexican case 130 4.5 Summary of relevant mechanisms in the French case 134 5.1 National noise emission standards for lorries in dB(A) in twenty-four countries 143 5.2 Legally binding international regulations and international policy recommendations 151 viii List of tables 5.3 The main impacts and causal mechanisms affecting policy change in Hungary 5.4 The main impacts and causal mechanisms affecting policy change in France 5.5 The main impacts and causal mechanisms affecting policy change in the Netherlands 5.6 The main impacts and causal mechanisms affecting policy change in Mexico 6.1 Review of the first governmental plan or legislation specifically on contaminated sites up to 2000 in twenty-four countries 6.2 Core dimensions in designing policy to clean up contaminated sites 6.3 Overview of main plans and legislation on contaminated sites in the Netherlands 6.4 Driving forces for policy developments in the Netherlands 6.5 Overview of legislation and policy plans on contaminated sites in France 6.6 Driving forces for policy developments in France 6.7 Overview of legislation and policy plans on contaminated sites in Hungary 6.8 Driving forces for policy developments in Hungary 6.9 Overview of the regulation on contaminated sites in Mexico 6.10 Driving forces for policy developments in Mexico 7.1 The precautionary principle in national and EU environmental laws 7.2 The most important legally binding obligations and policy recommendations on the precautionary principle 7.3 The main mechanisms causing convergence/divergence in the case study countries 8.1 Summary of relevant mechanisms 9.1 Submechanisms of transnational communication (excerpted from Table 1.1) ix 156 160 165 169 178 179 182 188 189 193 194 197 198 200 211 214 232 260 270 Contributors     -          is a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Economics and Social Sciences, University of Potsdam                 is a Research Fellow at the Chair of Comparative Public Policy and Administration, University of Konstanz                         is Chair of International Relations and Conflict Management, University of Konstanz        ă is Senior Lecturer at the Department of Political and Social Sciences of the Freie Universităat Berlin and managing director of the Environmental Policy Research Centre (FFU)                     is Chair of Comparative Public Policy and Administration, University of Konstanz                    is Professor of European Politics in ă University, Germany, the Department of Social Sciences at Osnabruck where she also holds a Jean Monnet Chair and directs the Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence on European Studies In addition, she teaches at the College of Europe in Bruges                   is Assistant Professor in the Department of Political Sciences of the Environment, Institute for Management Research, at Radboud University Nijmegen            is a Research Fellow on the ConsEnSus Project, Geography Department, Trinity College Dublin                   is a Senior Lecturer in Regulation in the School of Law, Queen’s University Belfast                 is a Research Fellow in the Department of Political Science, Stockholm University x 294 Andrea Lenschow, Duncan Liefferink and Helge Jăorgens Chayes, A and A H Chayes 1991 Compliance Without Enforcement: State Behavior under Regulatory Treaties’, Negotiation Journal 7: 311–30 Chong, D and J N Druckman 2007 ‘Framing Theory’, Annual Review of Political Science 10: 103–26 Fouilleux, E 2004 ‘CAP Reforms and Multilateral Trade Negotiations: Another View on Discourse Efficiency’, West European Politics 27(2): 235–55 Haas, P M 1992 ‘Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination’, International Organization 46: 1–36 Hajer, M.A 1995 The Politics of Environmental Discourse, Ecological Modernization, and the Policy Process Oxford: Clarendon Press Hanf, K and E van de Gronden 1998 ‘The Netherlands: Joint Regulation and Sustainable Development’, in Hanf, K and A.-I Jansen (eds.) 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Welfare and Work in the Open Economy: From Vulnerability to Competitiveness Oxford University Press, 229–310 Schneider, M., P E Teske and M Mintrom 1995 Public Entrepreneurs: Agents for Change in American Government Princeton University Press Schreurs, M A., W Clark, N M Dickson and J Jăager 2001 Issue Attention, Framing, and Actors: An Analysis of Patterns across Arenas’, in The Social Learning Group (ed.) Learning to Manage Global Environmental Risks, Vol 1: A Comparative History of Social Responses to Climate Change, Ozone Depletion, and Acid Rain Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 349–64 Simmons, B A., F Dobbin and G Garrett 2006 ‘Introduction: The International Diffusion of Liberalism’, International Organization 60 (Fall): 781– 810 Skea, J and C du Monteuil 2000 ‘What’s This Got to Do with Me? France and Transboundary Air Pollution’, in Underdal, A and K Hanf (eds.) International Environmental Agreements and Domestic Politics: The Case of Acid Rain Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 22553 Tews, K 2002 Politiktransfer: Phăanomen zwischen Policy-Lernen und Oktroi ă Uberlegungen zu unfreiwilligen Umweltpolitikimporten am Beispiel der EUă Umweltpolitik und Umweltrecht 2: 173201 Osterweiterung, Zeitschrift fur Vogel, D 1995 Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in the Global Economy Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Index ABC values, 179, 183–4, 203 acid rain, 108, 209 acquis communautaire, 17, 287 administrative reform, 94, 97, 287 adoption, 41, 47–50, 53, 56, 60–1, 176–7, 201–2 curves, 47, 51–3 late, 53, 251 rates, 47–52 unilateral, 108–11, 118 agriculture, 77, 93, 199, 218, 224–6, 285, 288 air pollution, 7, 39, 113, 126, 129–30, 135–6 Amsterdam, 183–5 animal health, 215 ASC (Automotive Standards Council), 166 atmospheric lead, 112–15, 120, 124–5, 129 Austria, 50, 53, 143, 154, 156, 177, 180 automobile emissions, 107–8, 133 automobile industry, 107, 134, 146–8, 158, 166, 279 Automotive Standards Council (ASC), 166 bathing water, 48, 52, 56, 57, 58, 60 Belgium, 21, 50, 143, 178, 211 best available technology (BAT), 71–2, 158, 171, 266–9 beta-convergence, 58–9 bilateral agreements, 93, 194 bilateral factors, 79, 85, 87, 91, 97, 206, 273–4 biodiversity, 215, 225–7, 228, 232, 233, 238 biotech firms, transnational, 226, 229, 232 biotechnology, 215, 219–20, 225–7, 228–30, 281, 289 BOD (biological oxygen demand), 28, 64, 69–70, 80–1, 86, 94, 98 Brundtland Report, 214, 237–8, 244–6, 249, 253–4 296 BSB foundation, 182, 185–6 Budapest, 120, 155, 224–6 budgets, 183–4, 190, 191 Bulgaria, 47–9, 50, 143, 178, 211 CAAG see Clean Air Action Group calculable regulatory framework, 29, 201, 282–3 Canada, 8, 17, 72, 198, 211, 230 cars, 108, 113, 121, 130, 133, 140, 167 Cartagena Protocol, 225–9 case studies case selection, 19 country selection, 19–24 policy item selection, 24–7 catalytic converters, 108, 115, 121–2, 125, 130, 133–6, 279 catching up, 40, 45–7, 49, 57–9, 61–2, 293 causal mechanisms, 5, 9, 10, 40, 135, 156–60, 165–9 CEC (Commission for Environmental Cooperation), 230 chemical industry, 73–4, 78 chemicals policy, 215, 219–21, 225, 228 children, 114, 120, 123–4, 129, 290 choice, 13, 20, 24–5, 28, 176–81, 199–201, 202–5 chrome, 74–5, 81–2, 84 chromium, 64, 66, 69–71, 78, 86–7, 92–4, 98 discharges, 48, 57, 58, 60, 70, 80 civil society, 128, 230, 249, 256, 258, 268 Clean Air Action Group (CAAG), 155, 225, 257, 258 clean sites, 183, 201, 282–4 clean-up, 29, 178, 186–90, 191, 203 climate change, 214, 215, 219–21, 238, 254 CNA (National Water Commission, Mexico), 92, 93–6 CO emissions, passenger cars, 48, 57, 58, 59, 60 Index CO2 emissions, 48, 53 coliforms in bathing water, 48, 56, 57, 58, 60 combustion engines, 106–7, 117, 121 combustion of leaded petrol, 106–7, 115, 124, 134 Commission for Environmental Cooperation see CEC common standards, 12, 72, 104, 167, 279, 285 communication, 5, 14–15, 215, 216, 242, 245, 267–8 comparative policy analysis, 3, 6, 288 competition, 1, 5, 105, 118, 181, 200, 278 international, 1, 110, 145, 148, 231, 265, 274 competitive costs, 106, 286 competitive disadvantages, 110–12, 118–19, 133–4, 146, 148 competitive pressures, 14, 16, 21, 23–4, 28, 42–3, 55 international, 15, 293 competitiveness, 29–30, 46, 73, 115, 133–4, 213–17, 282 international, 43, 88, 104, 118, 153, 239 compliance, 13, 18, 46, 89, 94–6, 97, 115 public demand for, 97 Concerted Action on Risk Assessment for Contaminated Sites, 181, 195 conditionality, 11, 17, 18, 94, 97–8, 286–7 conflicts, 16, 222–4, 239, 257 conformity, 18, 96–7, 202, 230–1, 232, 250, 272–3 consumer NGOs, 218 contaminated sites, 26–7, 29, 179–82, 188–9, 273–5, 282–3, 289–92 background of case study, 176–80 economic interlinkage, 201–2 explaining convergence patterns, 73–97, 181–99 France, 187–92 Hungary, 192–6, 197 influence of domestic factors, 203–5 influence of transnational communication, 202–3 interaction between domestic factors and transnational communication, 205 international context, 180–1 interpretation of country stories, 199–207 Mexico, 196–9 national policies for clean-up, 175–207 Netherlands, 182–7 297 phasing of policy, 201 policies, 48, 175–6, 195 convergence, 2–9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 23–5, 26–31, 39–62, 259–61, 276–9 degree of, 9, 13, 15, 17, 41, 49–52, 61 direction of see direction of convergence dynamics, 289, 293 empirical findings, 47–61 expectations, 40–6 on direction of, 42–5 of limit values, 64, 104, 105, 110 mechanisms, 2, 9–18, 30, 274 patterns, 19, 20, 109, 134–5, 142, 210–12, 240 quantitative analysis, 277 scope of, 9, 12, 15, 268, 273 cooperation, international, 7, 61–2, 82, 90, 286 copper, 28, 69–71, 74–5, 80–2, 86–7, 92–5, 97–8 costs, 82, 116–19, 177–9, 220–1, 278–81, 284–6 competitive, 106, 286 economic, 42, 136, 279 production, 16, 43, 46, 111, 116, 118, 176 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), 22, 70, 72, 88 DAF, 146–7, 162 dangerous substances, 70, 71–2, 76, 78 Danube river basin, 86–7 declarations, 70, 75, 113–14, 115, 229 decontamination, 179, 183, 196, 199, 203 demand, political see political demand democracy, 89, 210, 220, 239 Denmark, 49–50, 125, 143, 178, 211, 218 Detailed Risk Assessment (DRA), 189, 190–1, 193 detergents, 48, 51–2 developed countries, 73, 140, 251 developing countries, 4, 17, 31, 164, 171, 229, 233 differentiated limit values, 86, 87 diffusion, 5, 7, 52, 172, 203, 210, 293 direct harmonisation, 266 direction of convergence, 9–10, 13, 16, 25, 269, 291, 292 downward, 9, 15, 46–7, 56 expectations, 42–5 upward, 9, 10, 47, 211, 265–7, 269, 293 298 Index directives, 12, 28, 71–2, 76–7, 112–16, 123, 267 Environmental Noise, 150, 160, 164, 267–9 IPPC, 78–80, 83, 90, 268 Nitrates, 84 water, 70, 71, 76–7, 84, 85, 90, 215 distribution of unleaded petrol, 122, 130–2 divergence, 4–5, 54–5 domestic actors, 14, 172, 218–21, 270, 275 domestic environmental policies, 4–7, 253, 276 domestic factors, 4, 29–31, 89–91, 98–9, 203–6, 213, 259–60 domestic industries, 16, 42, 46, 73, 96, 98, 284–5 domestic markets, 74, 133, 147, 171, 277, 279 domestic petrol production, 110, 118 domestic policies, 1–7, 10–11, 15, 28–9, 39, 41, 55 domestic problem pressure, 29, 30, 74, 93, 105, 144, 156–65 domestic producers, 146–7, 153, 213, 217, 231, 282 dominant instruments, 175–7, 180, 187–9, 192–5, 199–201, 202–5 dominant mechanisms, 27, 96, 202, 206 downstream countries, 68, 80, 82, 85 downward direction, 9, 15, 46–7, 56 downward pressure, 43, 68 downward shift, 43, 57, 85, 90 of limit values, 68, 98 of regulation, 65–8, 79, 98 DRA (Detailed Risk Assessment), 189, 190–1, 193 Drinking Water Directive, 70, 76–7 driving forces, 11, 131, 135, 188, 193, 197, 200 international, 11, 29 dust emissions, 48, 57, 58, 60 dynamics, international, 6, 205, 222, 283, 288 dynamics of regulatory competition, 282–3, 285–6 early adoptions, 51, 122, 152 of limit values, 106, 111 ECJ (European Court of Justice), 13, 72, 76 ECMT (European Conference of Ministers of Transport), 107, 113–14, 149, 151, 152, 271 eco-audit, 48, 52 eco-industries, 79, 281, 286 eco-labelling, 48 ecological modernisation, 277–8, 286 economic competition see competition economic costs, 42, 136, 279 economic development, 2, 30, 169, 204, 250, 288 level of, 29, 171, 204, 233 economic embeddedness, 19, 21, 108–9, 111, 136, 206, 285 economic imposition, 286–7 economic integration, 39, 41–3, 46, 55, 108–11, 241, 261 economic interests, 88, 116–18, 126, 135, 166, 171, 280–1 economic interlinkage, 65, 79, 85, 91, 110, 199, 266 economic policy, 21, 23, 252, 257 economic problem pressure, 188, 197 economic relations, international, 22, 176, 201, 217, 276–7, 280 efficient use of water in industry, 48 effluent charges, 80, 82, 85 effluent standards, 93–5 electricity from renewable, sources, 48 electricity tax for households, 48, 57, 58, 60 EMA (Environmental Management Act), 83, 218, 220, 234, 244 embeddedness economic, 19, 21, 108–9, 111, 136, 206, 285 institutional see institutional embeddedness emission standards, 3, 28, 65–6, 71, 90, 108, 113 emissions, 51, 108, 112–15, 119, 125–6, 133–4 automobile, 107–8, 133 CO2 , 48, 53 dust, 48, 57, 58, 60 reduction, 76–8 emulation, 14–15, 26, 96–9, 202, 225–6, 232, 270–5 of US standards, 97 energy efficiency of refrigerators, 48 enforcement, 13, 73–4, 88–91, 93, 95–7, 98, 283–6 lax, 88, 91 engines, combustion, 106–7, 117, 121 ENVIPOLCON, 2, 8, 19–21, 27 environmental damage, 179, 189, 191, 225 environmental degradation, 256, 258–9 environmental effects, 109, 123, 125, 127, 134–5, 285 Index environmental framework laws, 256–7 environmental goals, 257–8 environmental governance, 23 environmental groups, 75, 81, 95 environmental impact assessments, 6, 48, 52, 151, 155 environmental laws, 5, 28–30, 78, 209–10, 220–1, 239–40, 241–2 Environmental Management Act see EMA Environmental Noise Directive, 150, 160, 164, 267–9 environmental organisations, 125, 128–9 environmental performance reviews, 129, 169 environmental pressure, 18, 123, 127–30, 134 sustainability principle, 260 environmental principles, 212, 220, 283, 286, 289 general, 211, 293 environmental reform, 92, 93 environmental standards, 5–6, 31, 45, 119, 167, 286 environmental/sustainable development plans, 48 epistemic communities, 7, 14, 18, 26, 268–71, 287, 290 EU (European Union), 12–14, 124–5, 131–2, 141–2, 150–2, 215–16, 266–9 directives see under directives European Commission, 13, 112, 116, 125, 152, 164, 175, 186 European Court of Justice (ECJ), 13, 72, 76 membership, 20, 49, 90, 144, 153, 155, 172 policies, 5, 42, 196 European harmonisation, 44, 50, 126, 135 European standards, 145 exceptional trade barriers, 43 exchange of information, 14–15, 160, 172, 188, 206, 268, 269 exhaust systems, 150, 153, 157 expectations, 40, 42–5, 55, 61, 109–11, 176–7, 240 on the direction of convergence, 42–5 on environmental policy convergence, 40–6 on mobility, 45–6 on policy homogeneity, 40–2 theoretical, 3, 64–7, 109, 111, 144, 199–201, 240–2 theoretically derived, 6, 40, 104, 240 299 expert networks, 14, 29, 152, 271 experts, 14, 87–8, 152, 154, 161–2, 227–31, 245 domestic, 158, 169, 171, 226 France, 131, 159–60, 189 Hungary, 153, 157 Netherlands, 83, 161–4, 172, 225, 233 policy, 47, 154–8, 166, 171, 206, 257 export markets, 116–18, 121, 123, 126, 133 exports, 21, 96, 110, 115, 118, 133, 161, 276 financial responsibility, 178–9, 187, 194, 201, 204, 282 financial support, 128, 155, 156, 160 fines, 13, 86–9, 96 Finland, 50, 53, 143, 178, 211 fitness-for-use approach, 179, 185–7, 190, 196, 199 foreign investments, 89, 148, 201, 282, 286 foreign investors, 30, 89, 121, 201, 282 foreign models/examples, 14, 76, 99, 158, 192, 196, 271–6 foreign policies, 202, 273–5 foreign trade, 21–3 forest protection, 48 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 10 formal policy convergence, 31, 293 Framework Convention on Climate Change, 214, 254 framework legislation, 159, 269 France, 19–22, 115–18, 130–6, 142–50, 157–61, 241–3, 282–3 Commission for Sustainable Development, 251 contaminated sites, 187–92 Environment Charter, 250 experts, 131, 159–60, 189 government, 130–3, 221, 251 including, 30, 72 lead in petrol, 130–4 limit values, 59, 106, 110, 131, 134 National Institute for Transport and Safety Research, 157–9 phases and mechanisms of policy convergence, 79 precautionary principle, 221–4, 232 regulation of industrial discharges into surface water, 73–80 sustainability principle, 223, 248–52, 260 traffic noise policies, 157–60 300 Index free trade agreements, 17, 23, 69, 70, 72, 165, 256 gamma-convergence, 57–60 gas oil, 48, 51–2, 57, 58, 60, 61 general environmental principles, 211, 293 generic values, 179, 183–4, 188, 191, 195, 200 Germany, 21, 49–50, 132–3, 146–7, 160–2, 189–90 example for emulation, 91 government, 116 glass reuse/recycling target, 48, 57, 58, 60 global convergence of governance patterns, 3–4 global markets, 41–2 global norm of sustainable development, 249, 252–3, 259–60 GMOs (genetically modified organisms), 214, 219, 222–4, 226, 234 Greece, 50, 143, 178, 211 green non-governmental organisations, 210, 221, 225 Greenpeace, 165, 218, 219, 221–6, 228–9 guiding principles, 181, 225, 237–8, 244, 253, 256 HAN (Heidelberg Appeal Netherland Foundation), 220–1 harmonisation, 28–9, 43–5, 98, 144–6, 156–65, 267–9, 291–2 direct, 266 international see international harmonisation international efforts, 105, 116, 141–2, 145 international technical, 149, 152 legal, 1, 5, 10, 20, 24–5, 104, 116 minimum, 43–5, 46, 112 specific and broader impacts, 265–9 total, 13, 45, 46 harmonised standards, 161, 170, 279–80 hazardous substances, in detergents, 48, 51 HC (hydrocarbons) emissions, passenger cars, 48, 57, 58, 60 health, 43–4, 113–21, 123, 125–6, 152–5, 157, 166 animal, 215 human, 64, 87, 104–6, 120, 184, 191, 289–90 public, 93, 106–7, 122, 128–31, 152, 161, 184 health effects lead, 28, 122, 126–7, 132, 134, 163, 266 noise, 163 health policies, 140, 164 heavy fuel oil levy for industry, 48, 52, 57, 58, 60 Heidelberg Appeal Netherland Foundation see HAN high institutional embeddedness, 20, 24, 212, 217, 240 highly embedded countries, 21, 145, 206, 240 high-regulating countries, 43–5 homogeneity, 40–2, 47, 56, 61–2 expectations, 40–2 human health, 64, 87, 104–6, 120, 184, 191, 289–90 Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 253, 254, 258 Hungarian Petroleum Association, 122 Hungary, 22–3, 68–73, 90, 108–11, 119, 120, 121, 122, 204–6, 253, 254, 256, 257, 258, 267, 272–7 Budapest, 120, 155, 224–6 contaminated sites, 192–6, 197 experts, 153, 157 government, 119–20, 192–5, 205, 253–5 lead in petrol, 119–22 market, 153, 194, 196 National Water Authority (NWA), 86 NRP (National Remediation Programme), 194–5 phases and mechanisms of policy convergence, 91 precautionary principle, 224–6, 232 regulation of industrial discharges into surface water, 86–91 state socialism, 86, 91 sustainability principle, 252–9, 260 traffic noise policies, 152–6 hydrocarbons, 108, 115, 121, 125–6, 129, 133, 198 see also HC emissions, passenger cars; lead, in petrol implementation, 88–90, 94–7, 159–60, 243, 257, 284–6 authorities, 191, 196 domestic, 6, 238 gaps, 13, 25, 28, 278, 284 lax, 284 phase, 28, 97, 278, 284 Index imports, 21, 22, 44, 93, 110, 115, 118, 147–8 imposition, 11, 16–17, 97–8, 275, 286–7, 291 economic, 286–7 incentives, 75–6, 79, 80, 95, 254, 282, 286 individual convergence patterns, 109, 240 industrial discharges, 24, 64, 77–8, 82–4, 90–1, 272–5, 284–5 in surface water, 64–99, 268, 272–5, 287 BOD, 48, 57, 58, 60 chromium, 48, 57, 58, 60 copper, 48, 57, 58, 60 explaining convergence patterns, 65–70, 73–97 France, 73–80 Hungary, 86–91 as ‘internal affair’, 74 international efforts, 70 and international institutions, 70–3 lead, 48, 57, 58, 60 legally binding international agreements and supranational regulations, 70 Mexico, 91–7 non-binding resolutions; declarations, etc., 70 regulation, 64–99 and trade, 73 zinc, 48, 57, 58, 60 industrialised countries, 4, 31, 39, 73, 107, 293 information, 7, 47–9, 59, 81, 140, 202, 275–6 exchange of, 14–15, 160, 172, 188, 206, 268, 269 institutional embeddedness, 12, 15, 19–21, 22–3, 144–5, 259–61, 275 high, 20, 24, 212, 217, 240 low, 20, 105 institutional integration, 19, 69, 110–11, 116, 243 institutional interlinkage, 20, 23, 68 institutional structures, 4, 17, 29, 252, 288 international, 126, 176, 210 institutionalisation, international, 242 institutions, 1, 4–7, 80, 141, 230, 237, 258 supranational, 9, 39 instrumentation, 177–81, 182–4, 190–1, 203, 287 dominant, 175, 199, 202, 204–5 instruments, 1, 4–5, 8, 12, 26–7, 177–9, 267–8 integration, 239, 247–8, 253, 256, 289 301 economic, 39, 41–3, 46, 55, 108–11, 241, 261 institutional, 19, 69, 110–11, 116, 243 policy, 247–8 interests, 13, 44, 73, 79, 80, 85, 282–3 economic, 88, 116–18, 126, 135, 166, 171, 280–1 interlinkage economic, 21, 65, 79, 85, 91, 110, 199–201 institutional, 20, 23, 68 international agreements, 6, 12–13, 45, 70, 113, 131, 213 international competition, 1, 110, 145, 148, 231, 265, 274 international competitive pressures, 15, 293 international competitiveness, 43, 88, 104, 118, 153, 239 international cooperation, 7, 61–2, 82, 90, 286 international discourses, 30–1, 176, 221, 229 international driving forces, 11, 29 international dynamics, 6, 205, 222, 283, 288 international economic relations, 22, 176, 201, 217, 276–7, 280 international harmonisation, 11–15, 17–19, 28–31, 43–4, 110–11, 123–6, 265–7 efforts, 105, 116, 141–2, 145 sustainability principle, 260 international institutional structures, 126, 176, 210 international institutionalisation, 242 international institutions, 7–8, 11, 12–15, 30, 65–70, 210–13, 240–2 activities, 240 and limit values for lead in petrol, 112–15 and precautionary principle, 213–17 and regulation of industrial discharges into surface water, 70–3 international law, 12–13, 18, 46, 72, 112, 175, 268 international legitimacy, 234, 273–5, 284 international markets, 104, 108–11, 115–19, 176, 201, 212, 233 international models, 31, 204, 225, 238, 255 international negotiations, 44, 271, 281 international networks, 203, 206, 228, 267 international organisations, 22–4, 76–7, 104, 112–15, 131–2, 141, 228–31 302 Index international petrol market, 110–11, 118–19 international policy promotion, 14–15, 30, 160, 228–31, 232, 259–60, 270–5 international standards, 70, 85, 162, 166, 170, 216, 279 international technical harmonisation, 149, 152 international trade, 11, 19–20, 41, 65–9, 74–6, 121–2, 240–1 disputes, 212–16 and limit values for lead in petrol, 115–19 and precautionary principle, 213–17 and regulation of industrial discharges into surface water, 73 relations, 22, 25, 276–8, 283 Inter-Noise Conferences, 151, 152, 169 intervention values, 182, 184, 185 investments, 75, 89, 117, 121, 126, 130, 145 foreign, 89, 148, 201, 282, 286 public, 177–8, 179, 182, 192–5, 205 investors, 171, 194, 196, 201, 282–3 foreign, 30, 89, 121, 201, 282 IPPC Directive, 78–80, 83, 90, 268 Ireland, 22, 49–50, 143, 178, 211 Italy, 21, 50, 143, 146, 178, 211 Iveco, 146–7 Japan, 8, 47–50, 65, 143, 145, 150 knowledge, 181, 197, 209, 213, 222, 227, 231 scientific, 7, 132 laggards, 20, 28, 45–6, 49, 53, 58–9, 289–90 large combustion plants dust emissions, 48, 57, 58, 60 NOx emissions, 48, 57, 58, 60 SO2 emissions, 48, 57, 58, 60 late adoptions, 53, 251 lax enforcement, 88, 91 lead additives, 106, 107–8, 116 atmospheric, 112–15, 120, 124–5, 129 health effects, 28, 122, 126–7, 132, 134, 163, 266 in petrol, 24–5, 51, 106, 113–15, 127–31, 279–81 combustion of leaded petrol, 106–7, 115, 124, 134 convergence of limit values, 104–36 expectations on individual convergence patterns and actual evolution, 109–12 explaining convergence patterns, 119–34 France, 130–4 Hungary, 119–22 international efforts, 113 international institutions and limit values, 112–15 international policy promotion, 123 international trade and limit values, 115–19 legally binding international agreements and supranational regulations, 113 Mexico, 127–30 Netherlands, 122–6 non-binding resolutions and declarations, 113 transnational problem-solving, 123 legal harmonisation, 1, 5, 10, 20, 24–5, 104, 116 legal obligations, 5, 12, 14, 18, 42, 267–70 legal recognition, 30, 237, 239–45, 248–9, 250, 252–9 early, 242, 255 legislation, 4, 48, 74, 178, 192–6, 255–6 framework, 159, 269 legitimacy external, 253, 255 international, 234, 273–5, 284 pressure, 15, 18, 234, 270 Lekkerkerk, 175, 183, 186, 187, 188, 204 lessons, 109, 180, 202–5, 273–5, 287, 292 level playing field, 84–5, 104, 119, 276, 279–80, 287 liability, 177–9, 182, 186–9, 196–9, 205 schemes, 177–8, 179, 184, 187, 192–5, 203 limit values, 64–9, 79–82, 85–7, 105–18, 119–31, 132, 134–5 for BOD, 68 for chromium, 66 convergence, 64, 104, 105, 110 for copper, 67 differentiated, 86, 87 downward shift, 68, 98 early adoption, 106, 111 evolution, 104–5, 109, 111 in France, 106, 110, 131, 134 for lead, 60, 66, 120–31, 132–5 lower, 112, 131 national, 59, 74, 104, 151 nationwide, 65, 75 Index stricter, 75, 105, 108, 111, 112, 118–19 for zinc, 67, 95 limitation, 112–15, 120, 131–3, 136, 224, 238 lorries, 24–5, 140–2, 149–50, 151, 153, 161–2, 166–7 national noise emission standards, 143 low institutional embeddedness, 20, 105 management, 187, 190–1, 192–6, 198–9, 202–5, 246 systems, 178, 179, 184, 190–1, 192–6, 199–202, 204–5 manufacturers, 116, 133, 141, 146–7, 150, 171 marine pollution, 209, 214, 215 market segmentation, 16, 43–4, 116, 268 markets, 16, 76, 108, 123, 135, 146–7, 161–2 domestic, 74, 133, 147, 171, 277, 279 export, 116–18, 121, 123, 126, 133 global, 41–2 international, 104, 108–11, 115–19, 176, 201, 212, 233 open, 68, 89, 279 mechanisms, 9–16, 23–6, 110–12, 265–8, 272–4, 287, 291–2 of convergence, 2, 18, 30, 65, 98, 274 dominant, 27, 96, 202, 206 market, 148, 185 of transnational communication, 12, 23, 181, 202, 205, 274, 292 Mexico, 23–4, 28–30, 110, 128, 129, 130, 144–8, 241–3, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 272–5 CEC (Commission for Environmental Cooperation), 230 contaminated sites, 196–9, 200 government, 93–4, 127, 167, 198, 226, 229, 255–7 lead in petrol, 127–30 Mexico City, 129, 164, 169 National Water Commission see CNA phases and mechanisms of policy convergence, 97 precautionary principle, 226–30, 232 regulation of industrial discharges into surface water, 91–7 sustainability principle, 252–9, 260 traffic noise policies, 164–9 World Bank Field Office, 128, 253, 255, 257, 258 minimum harmonisation, 43–5, 46, 112 303 mobility, 40, 45–7, 60–1, 171 changes, 57–61 expectations on, 45–6 models, 15, 31, 79, 190–1, 202–3, 271–4, 291–2 international, 31, 204, 225, 238, 255 national, 274 modernisation, ecological, 277–8, 286 motor vehicles, 106–7, 119, 121, 140–1, 145–6, 149–50, 153 motorway noise emissions, 24, 26, 48, 57, 58, 60, 144–5 standards, 26, 141, 144–5, 151 multifunctionality, 184–6, 190, 195, 200, 204 mutual recognition, 146, 149–50, 161 NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), 17, 72–3, 93–5, 97, 165–7, 230, 287 membership, 23, 95, 97, 168 negotiations, 94–5 US conditionality in light of, 98 National Environmental Policy Plan see NEPP National Institute of Environmental Health (Hungary), 119, 121 national law, 30, 84, 110, 131, 204, 210–13, 221 national legal systems, 209, 210–13, 216, 222, 231–4 national limit values, 59, 74, 104, 151 National Remediation Programme see NRP national standards, 44, 85, 119, 142, 170, 276, 279 nationwide limit values, 65, 75 natural resources, 93, 238–9, 254 nature protection, 219, 225, 283 negotiations, 7, 116, 124–5, 132, 158, 216, 227 international, 44, 271, 281 NAFTA, 94–5 neighbouring countries, 84, 192, 287 Neither Product nor Process see NPP NEPP (National Environmental Policy Plan), 244–7, 250, 259 Netherlands, 19–22, 65–73, 108–11, 115–19, 160–3, 187, 202–6, 245, 247 ABC values, 179, 183–4, 203 Amsterdam, 183–5 contaminated sites, 182–7 EMA (Environmental Management Act), 83, 218, 220, 234, 244 304 Index Netherlands (cont.) experts, 83, 161–4, 172, 225, 233 government, 82, 124–6, 127, 135, 183, 187, 243–8 lead in petrol, 122–6 Lekkerkerk, 175, 183, 186, 187, 188, 204 Ministry of Housing, 245, 247 NEPP (National Environmental Policy Plan), 244–7, 250, 259 phases and mechanisms of policy convergence, 85 Port of Rotterdam, 77, 79, 82–5 precautionary principle, 217–21 regulation of industrial discharges into surface water, 80–5 society, 171, 183, 246–7 sustainability principle, 243–8, 260 traffic noise policies, 161–4 networks, 7, 176, 180, 181, 202–3, 221, 223, 228 expert, 14, 29, 152, 271 international, 203, 206, 228, 267 transnational, 7, 24, 152, 175, 180, 202, 206 new effluent standards, 95 NGOs (non-governmental organisations), 6, 10, 14, 17, 128–9, 223–4, 228–30 consumer, 218 green, 210, 221, 225 US, 93 nitrogen oxide emissions combustion plants, 48, 57, 58, 60 passenger cars, 48, 57, 58, 60 nitrogen oxides, 108, 113, 115, 121, 125–6, 133 noise, 140–1, 148–50, 163–4, 165–6, 265–7, 272–5, 289–92 abatement, 155–9, 163, 267 annoyance, 140, 164–5 barriers, 140, 145, 163, 289 emissions, 24, 26, 51–2, 60, 153–4, 164, 166 motorway, 24, 26, 48, 57, 58, 60, 144–5 standards, 25, 29, 48, 57, 58, 141–2, 279 levels, 141, 149–50, 151, 158–9, 163–4, 166, 167–8 motorway, 26, 141, 144–5, 151 working environment, 48, 57, 58, 60 policy, 151, 157–60, 164–8, 170, 267 non-product-related, 145, 162, 168 standards, 145–6, 150, 152, 166–7, 169–71, 285 non-binding recommendations, 15, 104, 149 non-compliance, 72, 86, 90, 96, 283 non-governmental organisations see NGOs non-obligatory policies, 42, 45–7, 49, 55 non-obligatory settings, 54 non-product-/process-related settings, 54 non-product-related noise policy, 145, 162, 168 non-state actors, 122, 269–73 non-trade-related policies, 41–2, 47, 48, 49, 56, 57, 276 non-trade-related standards, 278, 282, 285 North American Free Trade Agreement see NAFTA North Sea Conferences, 212–15, 217 Norway, 47, 50, 143, 178, 211 NPP (Neither Product nor Process), 48, 58, 60 NRP (National Remediation Programme), 194–5 NWA (National Water Authority), 86 obligatory policies, 43, 49, 56, 61 obligatory settings, 54 observation period, 9, 41, 50–2, 55–61, 70 OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 23, 93–6, 127–32, 151, 155–62, 164–5, 171 open markets, 68, 89, 279 overtaking, 45–7, 57–9, 62 paper pulp and, 8, 64, 73, 80, 92–4 reuse/recycling targets, 48, 57, 58, 60 parallel problem pressure, 11, 17, 18, 112, 206, 240–1, 270 and domestic context, 288–91 passenger cars, 48, 57, 58, 60, 147 CO emissions, 48, 57, 58, 59, 60 HC emissions, 48, 57, 58, 60 NOx emissions, 48, 57, 58, 60 path dependency, 193, 200, 204 ´ PEMEX (Petroleos Mexicanos), 119, 127 perceptions, 17, 107–9, 189, 204–5, 209, 231–4, 288–90 permissible sound levels, 150, 153 petrol, 28–9, 104–31, 135, 279–81, 290 petrol producing companies, 116–19, 126, 133, 281 ´ Petroleos Mexicanos (PEMEX), 119, 127 pioneers, 20, 29, 59, 161–2, 176, 205–6, 266–7 Poland, 47, 50, 143, 178, 211 Index polder model, 80, 85 policy adoptions see adoption policy developments, 44, 88, 141, 161, 182, 183, 188 policy direction, 56 policy experts, 47, 154–8, 166, 171, 206, 257 policy homogeneity see homogeneity policy integration, 247–8 policy models see models policy principles, 180, 212, 218, 234, 269, 276–8, 282–3 policy recommendations, 151, 152, 214 policy renewal, 182, 185–6 policy repertoires, 41–2, 62 political commitments, 72, 238, 249, 252 political demand, 11, 18, 95, 123, 127–30, 134, 287 sustainability principle, 260 political pressure, 94, 97, 148 politics, 171, 197, 246, 253, 261 pollutants, 17, 71–2, 90, 115 pollution, 71, 75, 78, 120, 131–2, 179, 183–4 air, 7, 39, 113, 126, 129–30, 135–6 marine, 209, 214, 215 water, 64, 72–3, 75, 76–7, 86, 92 Port of Rotterdam, 77, 79, 82–5 Portugal, 50, 143, 145, 178, 211 PPP (polluter pays principle), 82, 177, 181, 184, 195, 199, 203 precaution, 24, 30, 211–15, 216, 219–22, 224–7, 228–31 precautionary action/measures, 212, 213–15, 216, 217, 220–7, 229–34, 283 precautionary principle, 26, 27, 30, 214, 272–4, 283–4 France, 221–4, 232 general convergence patterns and country cases, 210–13 Hungary, 224–6, 232 and international institutions and trade, 213–17 legally binding international agreements and treaties, 214 main mechanisms causing convergence/divergence, 232 Mexico, 226–30, 232 national and EU environmental laws, 211 in national legal systems, 209–34 Netherlands, 217–21 reference in legislation, 48 305 pressure downward, 43, 68 legitimacy, 15, 18, 234, 270 political, 94, 97, 148 public, 133, 154–7, 165, 169, 219, 258 see environmental pressure; parallel problem pressure; problem pressure prevention, 75, 98, 175, 209, 222, 224–7, 233 private actors, 10, 12, 95, 194 private liability, 178 problem pressure, 3, 25, 68–9, 164–5, 171–2, 232, 290–2 economic, 188, 197 problem-solving, transnational, 14–15, 29–30, 160–9, 202–3, 227–32, 233, 267–75 process standards, 16, 43, 45–7, 55–6, 60, 61, 276–7 production, 25, 43, 265, 276–7 producers, 126, 145–7, 161, 167, 171 domestic/national, 146–7, 153, 213, 217, 231, 282 product standards, 25, 43–4, 45–7, 55–6, 61, 265–6, 277–8 production costs, 16, 43, 46, 111, 116, 118, 176 production process standards, 25, 43, 265, 276–7 production-process-related settings, 54 progressive policy, 156, 293 protectionism, 23, 216, 281, 285 public demand for compliance, 97 public health, 93, 106–7, 122, 128–31, 152, 161, 184 public investment, 177–8, 179, 182, 192–5, 205 public pressure, 133, 154–7, 165, 169, 219, 258 pulp and paper, 8, 64, 73, 80, 92–4 quantitative analysis of environmental policy convergence, 277 races, 46, 56, 69, 80, 110, 119, 142, 285 to the bottom, 1, 16, 21, 24–5, 28, 64, 277 to the top, 16, 277 RBLM (Risk Based Land Management), 185 recognition abstract, 260 mutual, 146, 149–50, 161 306 Index recommendations, 12, 84, 151, 158–9, 163–4, 169, 246 non-binding, 15, 104, 149 policy, 151, 152, 214 recycling, 48, 57, 58, 60 reference group, 20–1, 65, 87, 105, 109, 111, 142 refillable beverage containers, promotion, 48, 52 refineries, 117–19, 121–2, 125 refinery processes, 118, 125–6, 133 reform, 79, 92, 93, 204, 227, 256 administrative, 94, 97, 287 fundamental, 250, 255, 260 regime change, 68, 89–91, 121–2, 256, 258 regulation, 56–62, 115–16, 132–4, 144–50, 156–8, 166, 282–3 downward shift, 65–8, 79, 98 international, 28–30, 80, 112, 151, 203 stricter, 74, 109–11, 162 regulatory competition, 14–16, 24–6, 41–3, 45–6, 64–9, 282–7, 291–2 dynamics, 282–3, 285–6 mechanism, 16, 217, 292 sustainability principle, 260 regulatory framework, calculable, 29, 201, 282–3 regulatory levels, 43–4 regulatory mean, 44–5, 56, 57, 61 regulatory standards, 42–3, 45, 158, 280, 282, 284 regulatory strictness, 45, 56–9 regulatory stringency, 40–3, 45 regulatory traditions, 30–1, 248, 259–61 remediation, 175, 178–9, 182, 183–4, 186–90, 194–5 costs, 179, 184, 186, 188 goals, 178–9, 185–6, 190–1, 192–8, 199, 204 targets, 179, 186–7, 190–1, 196, 199–202, 204–5 research design, 1–31 resolutions, 12, 70, 113–15, 149, 214, 254 responsibility, 81, 153, 175, 186, 203, 205 financial, 178–9, 187, 194, 201, 204, 282 responsiveness, 20, 159, 228, 260 Rio Declaration, 214, 218, 220–1, 227 risk assessment, 181, 184, 187, 190, 195–6, 197, 203 Risk Based Land Management (RBLM), 185 risk management, 224, 231–3 risk regulation, 209–34 river basin agencies, 74, 76–8, 79, 285 Romania, 47–9, 50, 143, 178, 211 sale of leaded petrol, 112, 122 sample, 23, 28, 31, 49, 53, 67–9, 272–7 science, 157, 209–10, 216, 221, 223–4 scientific knowledge, 7, 132 scientists, 153–4, 214, 218, 220–4, 228, 290 scope of convergence, 9, 12, 15, 268, 273 sigma-convergence, 59 similarity, 9, 17, 39–40, 41, 53–5, 172, 253 Simplified Risk Assessment (SRA), 189, 190–1, 193 sites, clean, 183, 201, 282–4 Slovakia, 47, 50, 143, 144, 178, 211 SO2 emissions, combustion plants, 48, 57, 58, 60 social progress, 250, 257–8 socialist countries, 177, 196 soil, 78, 175, 178–9, 182, 183–4, 190, 195–6 contamination, 181, 183–4, 192, 271 protection, 48, 83, 180, 182, 183–4, 185, 196 remediation, 177, 184, 185, 190, 194 Spain, 50, 143, 146, 178, 211 specification, 13, 114, 207, 237–9, 251, 260 level of, 9, 13 spillover, 112 SRA (Simplified Risk Assessment), 189, 190–1, 193 stakeholders, 157, 230–1, 247–8, 258 standard deviation, 109 standards, 6–8, 43–6, 65–72, 84–5, 90–1, 92–3, 149–52 common, 12, 72, 104, 167, 279, 285 emission, 3, 28, 65–6, 71, 90, 108, 113 European, 145 harmonised, 161, 170, 279–80 high, 136, 281, 284 lower, 16, 45, 86, 279 motorway noise emissions, 26, 141, 144–5, 151 multilateral, 31, 167, 291 national/domestic, 44, 85, 119, 142, 170, 276, 279 noise, 145–6, 150, 152, 166–7, 169–71, 285 non-trade-related, 278, 282, 285 process, 16, 43, 45–7, 55–6, 60, 61, 276–7 product, 25, 43–4, 45–7, 55–6, 61, 265–6, 277–8 Index production process, 25, 43, 265, 276–7 stricter, 13, 16, 42–3, 78, 115, 149–50, 162 United States, 96, 97, 142, 166, 169 vehicle, 149–52, 162 state–industry relations, 281 state-owned industries, 192, 197 strict standards, 44, 68–9, 86, 106, 280–1, 284–5 stricter limit values, 75, 105, 108, 111, 112, 118–19 stricter regulation, 74, 109–11, 162 strictness, 17, 44, 47, 56–7, 59–62, 65, 280 regulatory, 45, 56–9 stringency, regulatory, 40–3, 45 submechanisms, 14, 206, 270–1 of transnational communication, 30, 202, 265, 270–1, 273–4 subsidies, 21, 75–6, 78, 79, 82, 285 sulphur content in gas oil, 48, 51–2, 57, 58, 60, 61 supranational institutions, 9, 39 supranational regulations, 5, 12, 54, 70, 72, 110, 131 sustainability principle, 23–4, 26, 27, 30, 256, 272–5 environmental pressure, 260 France, 223, 248–52, 260 Hungary, 252–9, 260 incorporation into domestic environmental laws, 241 international harmonisation, 260 legal recognition, 237–61 Mexico, 252–9, 260 Netherlands, 243–8, 260 political demand, 260 reference in legislation, 48 regulatory competition, 260 theoretical expectations on individual convergence patterns and actual evolution, 240–2 transnational communication, 260 sustainable development, 113, 155–7, 160, 222–3, 234, 237–60 concept/principle, 212, 237, 242–3, 249–53 global norm, 249, 252–3, 259–60 implementation, 243 promotion, 249, 250 Sweden, 8, 50, 53, 143, 163, 178 Switzerland, 47, 50, 143, 177, 178, 211 target values, 184 Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), 216 307 theoretical expectations, 3, 64–7, 109, 111, 144, 199–201, 240–2 theoretical framework, 1–31 theoretically derived expectations, 6, 40, 104, 240 top, race to the, 16, 277 total harmonisation, 13, 45, 46 tradable products, 15–16, 28–9, 280–2 trade, 19–23, 25–6, 39, 112, 126–30, 210–13, 232 barriers, 42, 43, 116, 217 foreign, 21–3 trade relations, 21–2, 25, 122, 144, 213, 217, 276–8 trade-related policies, 15, 42, 46–7, 49, 55, 60–1 traffic noise policies, 29 convergence patterns, 142–5 cross-national convergence, 140–73 economic relevance and institutional embeddedness, 145–52 France, 157–60 Hungary, 152–6 legally binding international regulations and international policy recommendations, 151 Mexico, 164–9 Netherlands, 161–4 transformation countries, 73, 76 transition countries, 98, 284 transnational biotech firms, 226, 229, 232 transnational communication, 10–18, 26–31, 180–1, 202–6, 265–71, 273–6, 287–92 expert, 120, 130 mechanisms, 12, 23, 181, 202, 205, 274, 292 patterns and sequences, 269–76 submechanisms, 30, 202, 265, 270–1, 273–4 sustainability principle, 260 transnational epistemic community, 122–3, 124 transnational networks, 7, 24, 152, 175, 180, 202, 206 transnational problem-solving, 14–15, 29–30, 160–9, 202–3, 227–32, 233, 267–75 transport, 108, 135, 140, 152, 161, 168 trends, 39, 59, 61, 85, 97–8, 110, 141 general, 56, 61, 66–9, 105, 110–12, 134 308 Index UN (United Nations), 30, 128, 237 UNCED (UN Conference on Environment and Development), 238, 242, 249, 254 UNCSD (UN Commission on Sustainable Development), 238 UNDP (UN Development Programme), 87 UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe), 114, 116, 117, 121, 141, 149–50, 161–2, 170 unilateral adoptions, 108–11, 118 United Kingdom, 22, 50, 143, 146, 163, 178, 230 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe see UNECE United States, 8, 47–50, 117–18, 146–8, 189–91, 198–9, 230–3 Congress, 94, 97, 287 standards, 96, 97, 142, 166, 169 unleaded petrol, 108, 112–15, 116, 121–2, 123–5, 127–34 distribution, 122, 130–2 upward convergence, 64–5, 69, 98 upward direction, 9, 10, 47, 211, 265–7, 269, 293 upward shift, 43–4, 57, 211 Urban Waste Water Directive, 70, 77 variation coefficients, 47, 53–5 vehicle standards, 149–52, 162 voluntary deposit system, beverage containers, 48 waste landfill targets, 48 waste recovery targets, 48 waste water, 65, 72–5, 86, 92 water, 39, 48, 64, 74, 77–8, 80, 83 bathing, 48, 52, 56, 57, 58, 60 charges, 74–5, 77, 82 directives, 70, 71, 76–7, 84, 85, 90, 215 efficient use in industry, 48 management, 74, 83–4, 269 waste, 65, 72–5, 86, 92 water pollution, 64, 72–3, 75, 76–7, 86, 92 WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development), 237–8, 245–6, 254 weakly embedded countries, 19, 23, 144, 231, 280 WHO (World Health Organization), 71, 113–23, 128–9, 130, 151, 152–5, 169 World Bank, 14, 30, 107–8, 155, 156, 169, 238 Field Office Mexico, 128, 253, 255, 257, 258 World Commission on Environment and Development see WCED World Health Organization see WHO World Trade Organization see WTO WP, 149–52 WTO (World Trade Organization), 16, 216, 229, 232 rules, 216, 229–31 zinc, 69–71, 74–5, 80–4, 86–7, 92–5, 97–8 ... sketches the outline of the rest of the book 1.2 Environmental policy convergence: the state of the art and further Over the last decades, the study of processes of cross-national policy convergence. .. Understanding Environmental Policy Convergence The Power of Words, Rules and Money edited by ă Helge Jorgens, Andrea Lenschow and Duncan Liefferink University... quantitative large-n analysis of the extent, the direction and the causes of environmental policy convergence In the light of previous research on environmental policy convergence, this analysis