Đang tải... (xem toàn văn)
Hướng dẫn sử dụng tinh dầu an toàn. 2nd edition Cuốn sách mang nhiều thông tin về tinh dầu, từ thành phần các loại tinh dầu, các nguy cơ về độc tính, tính an toàn và hướng dẫn cách sử dụng. Giúp các nhà bào chế, sản xuất các loại tinh dầu có cái nhìn chính xác hơn về việc sử dụng tinh dầu trong aromatherapy và các ứng dụng sử dụng tinh dầu trực tiếp khác.
Essential Oil Safety Biography Robert Tisserand Robert is internationally recognized for his pioneering work in many aspects of aromatherapy He started practicing as a therapist in 1969, founded a company to market aromatherapy products in 1974, and wrote the first book in English on the subject in 1977: The Art of Aromatherapy Robert has written two further books including this one, co-founded several aromatherapy organizations, and has taught and lectured extensively For 12 years, Robert was the principal of the Tisserand Institute in London, and during the same period he published and edited the International Journal of Aromatherapy Today Robert lives in California and his activities include writing, online education, live events, and working as an independent industry expert Robert is one of only two recipients of the Alliance of International Aromatherapists Lifetime Achievement Award Follow his blog at www.roberttisserand.com/blog Rodney Young Originally trained as a chemist, Rodney obtained a BSc from the University of London in 1965 and a PhD in medicinal chemistry from the University of Essex in 1968 He worked for many years in the pharmaceutical industry as a research chemist, focusing on modulators of histamine, serotonin and inositol phosphates Rodney has published widely in the field of scientific literature, and has taught at University College, London, Oxford Brookes University, Edinburgh Napier University, and the University of East London He has a longstanding interest in the pharmacological and medicinal properties of plant natural products and in promoting evidence-based botanical medicine, and serves on the editorial boards of the Journal of Herbal Medicine and the Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Content Strategist: Claire Wilson/Kellie White Content Development Specialist: Carole McMurray Project Manager: Sukanthi Sukumar Designer: Christian Bilbow Illustration Manager: Jennifer Rose Illustrator: Antbits Ltd Essential Oil Safety A Guide for Health Care Professionals SECOND EDITION Robert Tisserand Expert in Aromatherapy and Essential Oil Research Ojai, CA, USA Rodney Young PhD Lecturer in Plant Chemistry and Pharmacology University of East London, London, UK Foreword by Elizabeth M Williamson Professor of Pharmacy and Director of Pharmacy Practice, University of Reading, UK; Editor, Phytotherapy Research; Chair, Herbal and Complementary Medicines Expert Advisory Group, British Pharmacopoeia Commission, Medicines and Healthcare Regulatory Agency, Department of Health, UK Edinburgh London New York Oxford Philadelphia St Louis Sydney Toronto 2014 Biography Robert Tisserand Robert is internationally recognized for his pioneering work in many aspects of aromatherapy He started practicing as a therapist in 1969, founded a company to market aromatherapy products in 1974, and wrote the first book in English on the subject in 1977: The Art of Aromatherapy Robert has written two further books including this one, co-founded several aromatherapy organizations, and has taught and lectured extensively For 12 years, Robert was the principal of the Tisserand Institute in London, and during the same period he published and edited the International Journal of Aromatherapy Today Robert lives in California and his activities include writing, online education, live events, and working as an independent industry expert Robert is one of only two recipients of the Alliance of International Aromatherapists Lifetime Achievement Award Follow his blog at www.roberttisserand.com/blog Rodney Young Originally trained as a chemist, Rodney obtained a BSc from the University of London in 1965 and a PhD in medicinal chemistry from the University of Essex in 1968 He worked for many years in the pharmaceutical industry as a research chemist, focusing on modulators of histamine, serotonin and inositol phosphates Rodney has published widely in the field of scientific literature, and has taught at University College, London, Oxford Brookes University, Edinburgh Napier University, and the University of East London He has a longstanding interest in the pharmacological and medicinal properties of plant natural products and in promoting evidence-based botanical medicine, and serves on the editorial boards of the Journal of Herbal Medicine and the Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Content Strategist: Claire Wilson/Kellie White Content Development Specialist: Carole McMurray Project Manager: Sukanthi Sukumar Designer: Christian Bilbow Illustration Manager: Jennifer Rose Illustrator: Antbits Ltd © 2014 Robert Tisserand and Rodney Young No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by Robert Tisserand & Rodney Young First edition 2002 Second edition 2014 ISBN 978-0-443-06241-4 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility With respect to any essential oils or products identified, readers are advised to check the most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the supplier or manufacturer of each essential oil or product to be administered, to verify the safest and most effective strategy for administration, including any contraindications It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein The Publisher's policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests Printed in China Foreword I warmly welcome the second edition of this book, expanded and updated, since the first edition has always been the first reference I go to for reliable information on the safety and composition of essential oils About 300 essential oils are commonly traded on the world market, which was estimated to be worth over $1000 million in 2013 They are very widely used in the cosmetics, pharmaceutical, food and household goods industries About 20% of essential oils are consumed by the flavor industry for use in food products, about 20% by the pharmaceutical industry, and the rest by the fragrance industry, in cleaning products, hair and skin care, as well as in aromatherapy So their safety is of huge importance to everyone, and although the information given in this book is highly relevant to aromatherapists, it is also an essential reference source for anyone dealing with essential oils, in any capacity There is no question that essential oils have pharmacological activity, and there is an extensive body of literature on this topic In this book, the authors have critically appraised evidence from a variety of sources, both reliable and unreliable The effects of aromatherapy massage depend to a large extent on penetration through the skin, so general safety concerns are similar to those for essential oils even when ingested orally or inhaled As befits a book about safety, toxicity in its many forms – including skin sensitization, genotoxicity, neurotoxicity and reproductive toxicity – is dealt with early in the book, very comprehensively, and in an impartial manner It is as important to debunk myths about toxicity as it is to highlight it, because essential oils are used so widely and must be used with confidence Parts of the book are highly technical, which is necessary to make the points that must be made, and it is very well referenced This ensures that the book also has the widest usage possible in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries, and that it is credible to the harshest of critics It will help all healthcare practitioners, whether or not they eventually decide to recommend aromatherapy to their patients, and of course to aromatherapists, who will have confidence in their practice Elizabeth M Williamson vii Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the considerable help of the following people in giving valuable information and advice For supplying or helping to source information on essential oil composition Mohammad Abdollahi, Tehran University of Medical Sciences Julien Abisset, Greco, Grasse, France Jean-Franc¸ois Baudoux, Pranarom International, Ghislenghien, Belgium Olivier Behra, Antananarivo, Madagascar Tony Burfield http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk Chris Condon, Natural Extracts of Australia, Los Angeles, California, USA Charles Cornwell, Australian Botanical Products, Hallam, Victoria, Australia Ermias Dagne, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia John Day, The Paperbark Company, Harvey, W.A., Australia Hussein Fakhry, A Fakhry & Co., Cairo, Egypt Earle Graven, Grassroots Natural Products, Gouda, South Africa Jasbir Chana and Keith Harkiss, Phoenix Natural Products, Southall, Middlesex, UK Larry Jones, Spectrix, Santa Cruz, California, USA Daniel Joulain, Robertet, Paris, France Bill McGilvray, Plant Extracts International, Hopkins, Minnesota, USA Lucie Mainguy, Aliksir, Grondines, Quebec, Canada Butch Owen, Appalachian Valley Natural Products, Friendsville, Maryland, USA Rob Pappas, Essential Oil University Database Gilles Rondeau, Solarome, Mont Carmel, Quebec, Canada Gurpreet Singh, Guroo Farms, Rudrapur, India Olivier Sonnay, Olison, Switzerland Jessica Teubes (Jessica Lutge), Scatters, Randburg, South Africa Art Tucker, Dept of Agriculture & Natural Resources, Delaware State University, Dover, DE, USA Elisabeth Vossen, Vossen & Co., Brussels, Belgium Naiyin Wang, Sinae Trading Company, Orpington, Kent, UK For other assistance Anne Marie Api, RIFM, Hackensack, New Jersey, for information about melissa and lavender cotton oils Salaam Attar, Isabelle Aurel, Julia Glazer, Cathy Miller, Judith Miller, Elise Pearlstine and Stephanie Vinson for information about asthmatics reacting to essential oils Janetta Bensouilah, for comments on Chapter Jennie Harding, Rhiannon Harris and Danielle Sade, for help with the amount of oil used in massage Gabriele Lashly for German-English translation Bill McGilvray for safety information about blue cypress oil Deborah Rose for critiquing chapters for readability Janina S rensen, for Danish-English translation Art Tucker, for assistance with botanical nomenclature Joanna Wang, for Chinese-English translation ix First Edition Preface The many books now available on the practice of aromatherapy usually touch on the possible adverse effects of certain essential oils, while naturally concentrating on their therapeutic properties However, there is no text written with aromatherapy in mind which is concerned specifically and in detail with essential oil toxicology This book is designed to fill that gap The fragrance and flavour industries already have their own guidelines for controlling essential oil safety These, however, are not necessarily appropriate for aromatherapy At the time of writing there appear to be no regulations governing the sale or use of essential oils in aromatherapy that effectively protect the consumer The increasing availability of undiluted essential oils, some of which undoubtedly present a potential hazard, is cause for concern In the UK and the USA at least, it is currently possible to purchase, by mail order, the majority of the essential oils which we recommend should not be available to the general public We suspect that in many countries, there may be too few controls on the minority of essential oils which present a hazard We believe that the most responsible course of action for those, such as ourselves, who have information about known, or suspected toxicity, is to make it public Both those who sell, and those who use essential oils, will then be in a better position to take informed decisions about which oils are safe to use, and in which circumstances We are not simply talking about banning or restricting certain essential oils There is also a need to improve labelling, giving warnings where appropriate, and to make packaging safer, especially with regard to young children There is a need for a greater awareness of the potential dangers among those who package, sell and use essential oils In recent years there have been many ‘scare stories’ in the media about the dangers of essential oils Some of these have been quite accurate, but often the information given is misleading and based more on rumour than fact We believe that it is vital for the aromatherapy community to address safety issues, and to take responsible action, in order to safeguard its future We are aware that a book such as this could have the effect of presenting essential oils as generally dangerous substances – this is certainly not our intention On the contrary, there are several instances where we have shown that supposed dangers not in fact exist The majority of essential oils turn out to be nonhazardous as they are used in aromatherapy The function of this book is to reassure, when appropriate, as well as to hoist some red flags The same intention to inform is behind our inclusion of physiology and biochemistry We explain how different forms of toxicity arise and why the use of certain oils is sometimes inadvisable We believe that this is much more useful than simply presenting summaries of ‘safe’ or ‘dangerous’ oils There are two approaches one can take when dealing with issues of safety The first is to assume that the materials in question are hazardous until proven to be safe This is the approach taken when dealing with pharmaceutical drugs The second approach is to assume that substances are safe unless proven hazardous This line is taken in the food and fragrance industries In general, we have taken the approach that essential oils are safe unless proven hazardous It seems unnecessary to treat essential oils as pharmaceuticals, especially if they are only used externally There are cases where we have flagged an essential oil as hazardous even though absolute proof may not be available In practice one must steer a middle course, and use all the information available, both positive and negative In the context of these dilemmas we have attempted to give a balanced view We acknowledge both that animal toxicity may be relevant to the human situation, and that experimental doses almost always greatly exceed those given therapeutically We have given detailed information concerning the relevance or otherwise of specific animal tests to humans Toxicologists increasingly acknowledge that giving excessive doses of a substance to a genetically in-bred mouse living in a laboratory may not have great relevance to the human situation Our hope is that this book constitutes a practical, positive basis for guidelines, both in the essential oil retail trade and the aromatherapy profession While it is primarily written for the aromatherapy market, it will be of interest to all those who use essential oils, whether in fragrances, flavourings, toiletries or pharmaceuticals Pharmacists, doctors, nurses and poisons units may find it a particularly useful summary This book replaces The Essential Oil Safety Data Manual by Robert Tisserand, first published in 1985 This text was largely an extrapolation of toxicological reports from the Research Institute for Fragrance Materials (RIFM) The RIFM data still form a very important part of the current volume which, however, contains more detail about a greater number of hazardous xi First Edition Preface oils than its predecessor, and a great deal more toxicological and pharmacological information The aim of the book remains the same: to provide information for the benefit of all who are interested in the therapeutic use of essential oils, so that aromatherapy may be practised, and products may be developed, with the minimum of risk This can only be accomplished if all those involved, in both the xii aromatherapy profession and the trade, are thoroughly familiar with the hazards which exist, and which, in a few cases, are rather serious Robert Tisserand Tony Balacs Sussex, 1995 Second Edition Preface This revised edition took 12 years to complete, and is considerably longer than the previous edition There are three reasons for the comprehensive revision First, since the text was first published in 1995, there have been many notable developments in the area of essential oil safety In addition to new data being published, many guidelines and restrictions have been revised or issued by various authorities, and we have introduced some of our own Second, significant changes and improvements have been made to the text, especially in the area of profiles, some of these in response to reader feedback The structure of both the Essential Oil Profiles and the Constituent Profiles has been considerably elaborated, and new material has been added This edition includes 400 Essential Oil Profiles, compared to 95 previously For each essential oil there is a full breakdown of constituents, and a clear categorization of hazards and risks, with recommended maximum doses and concentrations All the compositional data for essential oils has been revised, expanded and referenced There are 206 Constituent Profiles, and this section is 15 times that of the previous edition Constituents are cross-referenced: each Constituent Profile lists the amount of that substance found in each of the 400 profiled essential oils Third, the structure of the book has been developed There are now separate chapters on the nervous, urinary, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and respiratory systems Some sections of text have moved from one chapter to another, and repetitive or outdated material has been deleted We now have detailed safety advice on drug interactions, and overall there are more cautions The new material is reflected in over 3,400 new references A number of minor changes have also been made, such as the styling of references and the categorization of constituents The book’s premise is that understanding safety is not primarily about knowing legal or institutional guidelines, but about understanding the biological action of essential oils and their constituents There is a critique of current regulations, including some of the IFRA guidelines, and the EU ‘allergens legislation’ There is considerable discussion of carcinogens, the human relevance of some of the animal data, the validity of treating an essential oil as if it was a single chemical (for example, discussing rose oil as if it contained nothing but methyleugenol) and the arbitrary nature of uncertainty factors For carcinogens, we have given IFRA guidelines, EU guidelines and also our own guidelines for impacted essential oils Finally, when Tony Balacs and myself were in early stages of the revision, Tony decided that he could no longer commit the necessary time to the project and bowed out An intensive search for a replacement co-author lead me to Rodney Young, who has honed considerably much of the pharmacology and chemistry, and has contributed massively to this extensive revision Robert Tisserand Ojai, California October 2012 xiii Index eugenyl acetate 561 eupatal see alantolactone European calamus oil 226–227 European Center for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology (ECETOC) 92 European dill seed oil 173, 268–269 European spruce oil 430–431 European Union (EU) allergens legislation 189 Cosmetics Directive 33, 91–94, 95–97 listed allergens 91, 91t relative risk of purported allergens 91–94, 92t, 93t replacement of animal testing 33, 33t European valerian oil 461–462 European white birch tar oil see birch tar oil everlasting see immortelle Evernia prunastri 368 excipients orally dosed essential oils 125 pH 12 excited skin syndrome (ESS) 75 excretion 53t, 57 exhaled air, excretion in 53t, 57 exposure cancer risk and 175–177 frequency, adverse skin reactions and 72 quantification 35 setting safe limits 35–36 eye irritation sensory hyper-reactivity 107 thresholds 102 volatile organic compounds 100, 101 eyes, administration into/near 657 F fagara oil 385–386 false arborvitae oil see hibawood oil false cinnamon oil see cassia oil false galangal oil 345 false ginger oil 345 false pepper (cubeb) oil 263–264 farnesene, cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t farnesol 561 adverse skin reactions 91t, 92t, 93t, 96t, 562–563 anticancer activity 179t, 563 enzyme induction 61t, 562 partition coefficient 44t farnesyl acetate 563 fat tissue, accumulation in 52, 66 fatty acids, transdermal absorption 45 766 feces, excretion in 53t Fedia grandiflora see Valeriana jatamansi female fertility 149–151 fenchone 136, 137t, 564 fennel flower oil see black seed oil fennel oil (Foeniculum vulgare oil) (unspecified) antithrombotic activity 116, 277, 278 estrogenic activity 150, 278 neurotoxicity 136, 138, 141t oral dose 50t, 276, 277 see also bitter fennel oil; sweet fennel oil fenugreek absolute 279 fenugreek oil 278–279 drug interactions 58t, 279 hypoglycemic effects 117, 279 fern (sweet) oil 279 fertility 149–153 Ferula asa-foetida 199 Ferula erubescens see Ferula galbaniflua Ferula galbaniflua 290 Ferula gummosa see Ferula galbaniflua Ferula jaeschkeana 280 ferula oil 280 fetotoxicity 153–154, 155–156 fever 657 feverfew oil 280 neurotoxicity 134t pregnancy and lactation 152t, 280 safety measures 652t Fick’s first law 66 Ficus carica 280 ficusin see psoralen field balm oil see lesser calamint oil fig leaf absolute 81t, 280–281 finger root oil 58t, 281 Finn Chambers system 74, 75 fir balsam needle oil see Canadian fir needle oil fir cone (silver) oil 282 fir needle oils 282–286 Canadian 179t, 282–283 Himalayan 283–284 Japanese 284 Siberian 77, 77t, 284–285 silver 285–286 fir (Douglas) oil 281–282 first aid 649–650, 650b fixed dose procedure (FDP) 33 fixed oils fleabane oil 286 fleawort oil 286 flouve oil see sweet vernalgrass oil 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) 45 Foeniculum vulgare oil see fennel oil foin absolute 299–300 Fokienia hodginsii 425 follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) 149, 151 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 649 classification of drug safety in pregnancy 148–149, 149b foods carcinogens in essential oil constituents in 148b essential oils in furanocoumarin-containing 88 formyl benzene see benzaldehyde 2-formylphenol see salicylaldehyde forskohlii (coleus) oil 257–258 fragonia oil 286–287 fragrance allergy 69–70 aromatherapy and 83–84 patch testing 75, 80–82 regulation 91–97 susceptible individuals 70–72 fragrance mix (FM) 80–83 allergic skin reactions 80–83, 94 composition 82b patch testing 75, 80–82, 83t photoallergy 85 quenching 73 fragrant agonis oil 286–287 fragrant camphor tree oil 304–305 fragrant olive absolute 378 frankincense oils 179t, 287–289 see also Boswellia papyrifera oil French lavender oil see Spanish lavender oil French rose absolute see Provence rose absolute frequency of exposure, adverse skin reactions and 72 functional groups 15, 16, 17–21 fungicides furanocoumarins (FCs) carcinogenic potential 172 chemistry 20, 20b, 85 foods containing 88 light-related risks 86t photocarcinogenicity 89, 174 phototoxicity 85–88 plants containing 87–88 safety thresholds 90 furanodiene, pregnancy 155 furans 20, 20b furo[3,2-g]coumarin see psoralen Fusanus spicatus see Santalum spicatum G GABAA receptor-mediated responses 138, 139, 139b, 143 galangal (greater) oil 289–290 galangal (lesser) oil 290 galbanum oil 290–291 garlicin see diallyl disulfide garlic oil 291–292 adverse skin reactions 77t, 80, 291 anticancer activity 178, 179t, 291–292 antiplatelet activity 115–116, 291 drug interactions 58t, 61t, 292 hepatoprotective effects 128t hypotensive effect 114, 115 isolation photoallergy 85, 291 pregnancy 154 renoprotective action 121 safety measures 652t gas chromatography (GC) 13, 13f two-dimensional (GC x GC) 13 gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) 657 gastrointestinal (GI) tract 123–125, 123, 124t dose-related effects 124–125 ˜ , RenA ˜ -Maurice GattefossA Gaultheria fragrantissima 469, 470 Gaultheria procumbens 469, 470 gavage, dosing via 32 geliotropin see piperonal GeloMyrtol (forte) 41t, 49, 50t gender differences, adverse skin reactions 71 genepi oil see genipi oil genet (broom) absolute 219–220 genetic susceptibility adverse skin reactions 71–72 cancer 175 see also pharmacogenetics genipi oil 292 neurotoxicity 134t, 292 pregnancy and lactation 152t safety measures 652t genotoxic carcinogens 166 genotoxicity tests 172–174 essential oils/constituents 173–174 (E)-geranial 534, 564 teratogenicity 157 see also citral (E)-geraniol 565 adverse skin reactions 91t, 92t, 93t, 96t, 565–567, 566t anticancer activity 178, 179t, 567 cardiac effects 111–112 chemical structure 14, 14f cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t estrogenic activity 150, 151 percutaneous absorption 43t teratogenicity 157, 567 (Z)-geraniol see nerol Index Geranium macrorrhizum 480–481 geranium oil 292–294 adverse skin reactions 81t, 293–294 degradation 11–12 drug interactions 58t, 294 hypoglycemic effects 117, 294 hypotensive effects 114 oral dose 50t sedative action 141t 5-geranoxypsoralen see bergamottin (E)-geranyl acetate 36t, 568 (E)-geranyl acetone 568 geranyl alcohol see (E)-geraniol geranyl diphosphate 15 (E)-geranyl formate 568 geranyl linalool 569 (E)-geranyl propionate 569 (E)-geranyl tiglate 569 1(10),4,11(13)-germacratrien12,6-olide see costunolide German chamomile oil see blue chamomile oil Ghandi root oil 294 giant turpentine grass oil 189–190 gingergrass oil 295–296 ginger lily absolute 81t, 296–297 ginger oil 294–295 Globally Harmonized System (GHS) 33–34 a2u-globulin 52, 120–121 glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency 56, 129–130, 657 glucose, blood 117–118 glucuronidation 54–55 glutathione (GSH) 127 carcinogenesis and 170, 178 conjugation 55 depletion, hepatotoxicity 126, 127–128 glutathione S-transferase 127 substances inducing 55, 55b, 128, 170 substances inhibiting 127, 128 golden champa absolute see orange champaca absolute goldenrod oil 297 gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) 149, 151 Gouttes aux essences, oral dose 50t grand mal seizures 132 grapefruit juice 64, 298 grapefruit oil 297–298 anticancer activity 179t, 298 drug interactions 61t, 298 hypertensive effect 114 GRAS (generally recognized as safe) 188–189 greater galangal oil 289–290 greater Indian cardamom oil 232–233 great mugwort oil 354–355 drug interactions 58t, 355 neurotoxicity 134t, 354 pregnancy and lactation 152t safety measures 652t Greek sage oil 146, 415 green (emerald) cypress oil 266 greendog oil 463–464 Greenland moss oil 319–320 green myrtle oil 358 green yarrow oil 476 grey peppermint oil see Eucalyptus radiata oil grey pine oil 395–396 grindelia oil 298 Grindelia oregana 298 guaiacol 44t, 569 guaiacwood oil 298–299 4(15),10(14),11(13)-guaiatrien12,6-olide see dehydrocostuslactone guaiazulene 570 gully gum oil see Eucalyptus smithii oil gully peppermint oil see Eucalyptus smithii oil gum Benjamin see benzoin gurjun balsam oil 299 gynecomastia 151 H hackmatack oil see balsam poplar oil; larch needle oil HADD (highest average daily dose) 176 hairy basil oil 203–204 half-life, elimination 50, 51t, 57 hallucinogenic effects 144 hand dermatitis, occupational 84, 651 haptens 70, 78, 79f havozo bark oil see ravensara bark oil hay absolute 299–300 hay fever (seasonal allergic rhinitis) 105 hazard identification 35 hazards 3, 188 Health Canada 649 health status, adverse skin reactions and 71 heart 111–112 heart disease 656 heart rate 111–112 heart rhythm 111–112 heat-related degradation 11–12, 11t Hedeoma pulegioides oil 382, 383 Hedychium coronarium 296, 339 Hedychium spicatum 420 helenin see alantolactone helichrysum see immortelle Helichrysum angustifolium see Helichrysum italicum Helichrysum gymnocephalum 402 Helichrysum italicum 309 Helichrysum splendidum 391 Helichrysum stoechas 309 heliotropin see piperonal heme synthesis defects 127 Hemizygia petiolata 416 hemlock oil 429–430 hemlock spruce oil 429–430 hemolysis 116–117 hemophilia 117b, 657 hemp oil 144, 300 heparin 117b, 657 hepatoprotective effects 128–129, 128t hepatotoxicity 125–128 fatty degeneration 127 glutathione depletion 127–128 hepatocellular toxicity 128 liver tumor formation 176 oxidative stress 126 pharmacogenetic 129–130 porphyrin production 127 toxic metabolites 57, 125–126 visible lesions 126 Heraclin see bergapten herbal preparations safety in pregnancy 148–149 herbicides n-hexane 8–9 (3Z)-hexen-1-ol (cis-3-hexenol) 120, 570 3-hexenol 570 3-hexenyl benzoate 570 3-hexenyl formate 571 hexyl butyrate 571 hiba oil see hibawood oil hibawood oil 301 drug interactions 61t, 301 reproductive toxicity 152t, 157, 301 Hibuscus abelmoschus see Abelmoschus moschatus hidden ginger oil see zedoary oil Himalayan angelica root oil 195 Himalayan cedarwood oil 238–239 Himalayan fir needle oil 283–284 Himalayan silver fir needle oil 283–284 hinoki leaf oil 61t, 301–302 hinoki root oil 302 hinoki wood oil 61t, 302–303 histamine 78 hoary basil oil 203–204 ho leaf oil 303–305 camphor CT 303 cineole CT 303–304 drug interactions 58t, 303 linalool CT 304–305 neurotoxicity 134t pregnancy and lactation 152t safety measures 652t holy basil oil 204 Homalomena aromatica 294 honey myrtle oil 360 adverse skin reactions 81t, 360 drug interactions 58t, 360 honeysuckle absolute 305 honey verbena oil 463–464 hon-sho (true camphor tree) 228, 303 hop oil 150, 305–306 hormetic model, carcinogens 176–177 hormone replacement therapy (HRT) 657 horsemint (common) oil 352 horsemint (wild bergamot) oil 213–214 horseradish oil 306–307 adverse skin reactions 77t, 306 nephrotoxicity 121 safety measures 652t horseweed oil 286 ho-sho (fragrant camphor tree) 304 Hottentot tobacco oil 412–413 hua jiao oil 385–386 human repeated insult patch test (HRIPT) 74, 95 human term placental peroxidase (HTPP) 154 human toxicity 25–28 extrapolating from animal data 32–33 a-humulene see a-caryophyllene Humulus lupulus 305 hundred-leaved rose absolute see Provence rose absolute Hungarian chamomile oil see blue chamomile oil huon pine oil 396, 652t hyacinth absolute 307 Hyacinthus orientalis 307 hydration, stratum corneum 46 hydrocarbon groups 17 hydrocarbons 15–17, 16b hydrocyanic acid (hydrogen cyanide) 21, 571 acute toxicity 28, 30t, 192, 571 bitter almond oils 192, 193, 571 neurotoxicity 131 hydrodistillation hydrolysis 54 o-hydroxybenzaldehyde see salicylaldehyde o-hydroxybenzoic acid benzyl ester see benzyl salicylate 767 Index 2-hydroxybenzoic acid methyl ester see methyl salicylate 7-hydroxycoumarin 129 1’-hydroxyelemicin, carcinogenicity 167 hydroxyisohexyl 3-cyclohexen carboxaldehyde 80–82 hydroxyl groups 17 2-hydroxy-p-cymene see carvacrol o-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde (o-HPA) 129 (À)-3-hydroxy-p-menthane see (À)-menthol hydroxytoluene see cresol a-hydroxytoluene see benzyl alcohol hyperglycemia, essential oils inducing 118 Hypericum perforatum 417 hypertension 112, 657 hypotensive effects 113–114 induced by inhaled essential oils 114 precautions 115 hypertensive retinopathy 117b, 657 hypoglycemia, essential oils inducing 117–118 hypotension 658 Hyptis fruticosa oil, hypotensive effects 113–114 hyssop oil 307–308 blood pressure effects 112t, 113, 115 linalool CT 307–308 neurotoxicity 133, 134t, 138, 308 pinocamphone CT 308 poisoning 650t pregnancy and lactation 152t safety measures 652t Hyssopus officinalis 308 Hyssopus officinalis var decumbens 307–308 I iary (arina) oil 198–199 IC50 64 idiopathic environmental intolerance see multiple channel sensitivity IFRA see International Fragrance Association Illicium verum 197 immediate hypersensitivity (type I) reactions 78 immortelle absolute 77t, 309–310 immortelle oil 309 immune system 170–171 cancer and 171 immunoglobulin E (IgE) 78, 103 imperatorin 86t, 116 implantation 152–153 768 impurities, role in allergenicity 94 Indian cassia oil see tejpat oil Indian cress see nasturtium Indian dill seed oil 152t, 160, 269–270 Indian frankincense oil see Boswellia serrata oil Indian nard oil 428–429 Indian saffron oil 458 Indian valerian oil 462 Indian wormwood oil see common mugwort oil indole 571 chemistry 21, 21f excretion 53t, 572 infants breastfeeding 162 dermal dosing 47–48, 47t nasal instillation and 108–109 oral dosing 50 percutaneous absorption 47 premature 659 risk of adverse skin reactions 71 see also children; neonates infectious disease Informationsverbund Dermatologischer Kliniken (Information Network of Departments of Dermatology) 98 inhalation 40, 49, 99–110 absorption after 49 acute toxicity testing 29 adverse effects after 100–103 bronchial hyper-reactivity 103 multiple chemical sensitivity 106–107 non-respiratory manifestations 108 sensory hyper-reactivity 107 sensory irritation 100–102 bioavailability 41t blood pressure responses 114 dosing 49 enzyme induction 60 neurotoxic effects 140 respiratory disease therapy 104–107 safety precautions 658 inhibin 149 inorganic compounds 21 interactions between compounds 24–25 drug 57–65, 58t International Fragrance Association (IFRA) Code of Practice 91 grading of skin sensitization 81t guidelines 189 maximum dermal use levels 86b, 90 quantitative risk assessment (QRA) 94–97, 96t Inula graveolens see Dittrichia graveolens Inula helenium 271 inula oil 310 in vitro toxicity tests as alternatives to animal tests 33 cytotoxicity 31 methodological concerns 1–2 OECD approved 29 a-ionone 572 neurotoxicity 137, 137t pharmacokinetics 54, 61t, 572 b-ionone 572 anticancer activity 179t, 573 neurotoxicity 137, 137t pharmacokinetics 61t, 573 reproductive toxicity 158t, 160, 573 iris see orris Iris pallida absolute 377 Iris pallida oil 378 Iris x germanica absolute 377 Iris x germanica oil 378 a-irone 573 irritant asthma 105 irritant contact dermatitis (ICD) 70, 76 susceptible individuals 71 irritant induced asthma (IIA) 105 irritants classification 77b, 77t identifying 77 irritation sensory 100–102 skin 70, 76–77 isoamyl isovalerate 574 isobergapten 86t isoborneol, cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t isobornyl acetate 574 nephrotoxicity 120, 121, 574 isobutyl butyrate 574 isocineole see 1,4-cineole isodiprene see d-3-carene isoeugenol 574 adverse skin reactions 82, 91t, 92t, 93t, 96t, 575 antiplatelet activity 116, 576 carcinogenic potential 168t, 576 dermal metabolism 78 excretion 53t, 575 immune effects 171 inhalation 103 partition coefficient 44t percutaneous absorption 43t reproductive toxicity 158t, 576 isoeugenol methyl ether see O-methyl isoeugenol isoimperatorin 86t isolation, essential oils 6–7 isomenthone 577 isomerism 14–15 isomers 14, 483 differing metabolism 56 in essential oils 188 geometric 14, 14f, 484 optical 14, 14f, 484 structural 483 see also enantiomers isopentenyl diphosphate (IPD) 15, 15f isopimpinellin 577 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t, 577 light-related risks 86t, 577 isopinocamphone 484t, 577 2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol see thymol isopsoralen see angelicin isopulegol 578 isopulegone see a-pulegone isosafrole 578 chemical structure 172f hepatotoxicity 130, 579 3-isothiocyanato-1-propene see allyl isothiocyanate isothiocyanatomethylbenzene see benzyl isothiocyanate isothiocyanic acid benzyl ester see benzyl isothiocyanate isothymol see carvacrol issa oil 436 Italian cypress oil 265 J jaborandi oil 310–311 Jack pine oil 395–396 jade cypress oil 266–267 Jamaica pepper oil see pimento berry oil Jammu calamus oil 225–226 jamrosa oil 311 adverse skin reactions 81t, 311 drug interactions 58t, 311 Japanese fir needle oil 284 Japanese mint (cornmint oil) 261–262, 652t Japanese pepper oil 386 Japanese pine needle oil 284 Japanese rose oil 406 jasmine absolute 311–313 adverse skin reactions 81t, 83t, 93t, 96t, 312–313, 312t neurotoxicity 132 jasmine sambac absolute 313 drug interactions 58t, 313 skin sensitization 81t Jasminum grandiflorum 311 Index Jasminum officinale f grandiflorum see Jasminum grandiflorum Jasminum officinale var grandiflorum see Jasminum grandiflorum Jasminum sambac 313 jasmonates, anticancer activity 178, 179 (Z)-jasmone 579 anticancer activity 178, 179t, 579 Java pepper (cubeb) oil 263–264 jointed flat sedge (piri-piri) oil 399–400 Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) 35 jonquil absolute 314 juanilama oil 465–466 juniperberry oil 314–315 oral dose 50t reproductive toxicity 160, 315 juniper oil 315–316 abortifacient effects 160 nephrotoxicity 120 Phoenician 315–316 renoprotective action 121 juniper tar oil see cade oil Juniperus ashei 239 Juniperus communis 160, 314 Juniperus mexicana see Juniperus ashei Juniperus oxycedrus 222, 223 Juniperus phoenicea 315 Juniperus sabina 160, 315, 423 Juniperus virginiana 240 K Kaempferia galanga 345 Kaempferia pandurata see Boesenbergia pandurata kaffir lime see combava kanuka oil 316 kapur kachri oil 420–421 karo karounde´ absolute 316–317 katrafay oil 317 keora oil 318 kesom oil 317–318 ketones 18, 18b kewda oil 318 key lime oil see Mexican lime oil Khasia pine see Pinus insularis khella oil 87–88, 318–319 khus-khus oil 466–467 khus oil 466–467 Ki 64 kidney disease 52, 117b, 121, 658, 659 kidneys excretion by 53t, 57 function 119 toxicity of essential oils 119–121 kinetics 39–68 kokila oil 433 Kunzea ambigua 468 Kunzea ericoides 316 Kunzea peduncularis see Kunzea ericoides L labd-14-ene-8,13-diol see sclareol labdanum oil 319 labeling 34, 37, 651–654 Labrador tea oil 319–320 lactation 162 contraindicated essential oils 152t restricted essential oils 156t xenobiotics in 147–149 lactones 19, 19b light-related risks 86t Lagarostrobos franklinii see Dacrydium franklinii Langerhans cells 78, 79f Languas galanga see Alpinia galanga Languas officinarum see Alpinia officinarum Languas vulgare see Alpinia galanga Lantana camara 320 lantana oil 320 lanyana oil 320–321 neurotoxicity 134t, 321 pregnancy and lactation 152t safety measures 652t larch needle oil 321–322 larch tamarack oil 321–322 large cardamom oil 232–233 Larix laricina 321 laurel berry oil 322–323 allergy 27, 322–323 see also sugandha oil laurel leaf absolute 323–324 laurel leaf oil 323–324 antioxidant activity 170t, 324 carcinogenic/anticancer activity 179t, 183, 324 ‘laurel oil’ 322, 323 Laurus azorica see Laurus novocanariensis Laurus camphora see Cinnamomum camphora Laurus cubeba see Litsea cubeba Laurus nobilis oils 322–324 anticonvulsant activity 138 Laurus novocanariensis 322–323 lauryl acetate see dodecyl acetate lavandin 324–325 lavandin Abrialis oil 325 lavandin absolute 81t, 324 lavandin Grosso oil 325 antiplatelet activity 116, 325 gastrointestinal effects 125t lavandin oils 325 lavandin Super oil 325 Lavandula angustifolia 325, 328 Lavandula hortensis see Lavandula x intermedia Lavandula hybrida see Lavandula x intermedia Lavandula latifolia 329 Lavandula officinalis see Lavandula angustifolia Lavandula spica see Lavandula latifolia Lavandula stoechas 138 Lavandula stoechas spp stoechas 328, 329 Lavandula vera see Lavandula angustifolia Lavandula x intermedia 324 lavandulyl acetate 579 lavender 325 lavender absolute 326 adverse skin reactions 81t, 326 vaginal administration 51 lavender cotton oil 328 lavender oil 326 absorption 41t, 42–43, 42f adverse skin reactions 27–28, 327 anticonvulsant action 139, 140 blood pressure effects 113–114 carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic activity 89, 179t, 328 cytotoxicity 31, 32t estrogenic activity 151, 327 neurotoxicity 134t, 138 photoallergy 85 pregnancy and lactation 152t sedative action 140–143, 141t Spanish 328–329, 652t spike see spike lavender oil lavender sage oil see Spanish sage oil lavender tea tree oil 404 LD0 38 LD50 acute dermal values 29 acute oral dosing 28–29, 30t alternative tests 33 extrapolation to humans 28, 30t, 32–33 LD100 38 Ledum groenlandicum 319 Ledum palustre ssp groenlandicum see Ledum groenlandicum Ledum palustre ssp latifolium see Ledum groenlandicum leech-lime see combava leek oil 330 antiplatelet activity 115–116, 330 drug interactions 58t, 330 safety measures 652t leleshwa oil 412–413 lemon balm oil see melissa oil lemon balm oil (Australian) see Australian lemon balm oil lemon basil oil 205 lemon eucalyptus oil 335–336 lemongrass oil 334–335 adverse skin reactions 73, 81t, 83t, 84, 93t, 334 anticancer activity 179t, 335 anticonvulsant action 139 drug interactions 58t, 335 reproductive toxicity 156t, 334 sedative action 141t see also West Indian lemongrass oil lemon ironwood oil see lemon myrtle oil lemon leaf oil 333–334 adverse skin reactions 81t, 333 drug interactions 58t, 334 pregnancy and lactation 156t, 333 lemon myrtle oil 360–361 adverse effects on wound healing 28 adverse skin reactions 81t, 361 cytotoxicity 31–32, 32t, 361 drug interactions 58t, 361 safe limits for exposure 35, 361 lemon oil 330–332 anticancer activity 179t, 331, 332 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t distilled 330–331 expressed 331–332 neurotoxicity 140 phototoxicity 27, 86, 332 lemonol see (E)-geraniol lemon petitgrain oil see lemon leaf oil lemon-scented gum oil 335–336 lemon-scented ironbark oil see Australian lemon balm oil lemon-scented iron gum oil 335–336 lemon-scented myrtle oil see lemon myrtle oil lemon-scented tea tree oil 446–447 lemon tea tree oil 446–447 lemon thyme oil 450 lemon verbena absolute 81t, 464 lemon verbena oil 464 adverse skin reactions 81t, 96t, 465 drug interactions 58t, 465 pregnancy and lactation 156t, 465 Leptactina senegambica 316 Leptospermum citratum see Leptospermum petersonii Leptospermum ericoides see Kunzea ericoides Leptospermum liversidgei 446, 447 Leptospermum petersonii 446, 447 Leptospermum scoparium 344 769 Index lesser calamint oil 224–225 drug interactions 58t neurotoxicity 134t pregnancy and lactation 152t, 224 safety measures 652t lesser galangal oil 290 lesser ginger oil see finger root oil lethal dose, median see LD50 Levisticum officinale 339, 340 levomenthol see (À)-menthol Liatris odoratissima see Trilisa odoratissima liatrix absolute 268 licorice verbena oil 465–466 light, degrading effects 12 lignum aloe (agarwood) oil 190 Ligurian yarrow oil 476 limbic system 146 lime oil 336–338 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t distilled 336–337 expressed 337–338 phototoxicity 27, 86–87, 338 lime Tahiti oil see Persian lime oil limettin see citropten (ỵ)-limonene 580, 582 allergic skin reactions 91t, 92t, 93t, 94, 581–582 anticancer activity 171, 178, 179t, 583–584 carcinogenic potential 167, 168t, 175, 176t, 583 chemical structure 15, 16f cytochrome P450 induction 61t, 581 developmental toxicity 157 elimination half-life 51t excretion 53t, 581 eye irritation 101, 102 hypotensive effects 114, 115 immune system activation 170–171 inhalation 49 bronchial hyper-reactivity 103 occupational exposure limits 102 protection against ozone 102 sensory irritation 101–102, 101t, 582 nephrotoxicity 120–121, 582 oxidation 11, 581 partition coefficient 44t quenching effects 73 regulatory guidelines 584 reproductive toxicity 158t, 582–583 ubiquity (À)-limonene 584 linaloe wood oil 338 linalool 584 770 adverse skin reactions 91–92, 91t, 92t, 93t, 94, 585–586, 586t, 587 anticancer activity 178, 179t, 587 anticonvulsant action 139 distribution in body 52, 585 enzyme induction 60, 585 excretion 53t, 585 gastrointestinal effects 125t partition coefficient 44t percutaneous absorption 41t, 42–45, 42f, 43t reproductive toxicity 158t, 163, 586 safe exposure limits 36t, 587–588 sedative action 140–143, 141t linalool oxide 588 linalyl acetate 588 gastrointestinal effects 125t partition coefficient 44t percutaneous absorption 41t, 42–43, 42f, 44–45 safe exposure limits 36t, 589 sedative action 140–143, 141t linear non-threshold (LNT) model, carcinogens 176, 177 g-linolenic acid (GLA) 45 lipophilic molecules 15 distribution within body 51, 52, 66 metabolic changes 54 partition coefficients 44, 44t, 66 percutaneous absorption 44–45 renal handling 119 Lippia alba 465 Lippia amentacea see Lippia graveolens Lippia berlandieri see Lippia graveolens Lippia citriodora see Aloysia triphylla Lippia geminata see Lippia alba Lippia graveolens 376 Lippia javanica 463 Lippia sidoides oil 124–125, 125t, 642 Lippia tomentosa see Lippia graveolens Lippia triphylla see Aloysia triphylla Liquidamber orientalis (Asian styrax) 432, 433 Liquidamber styraciflua var macrophylla (American styrax) 432, 433 Litsea citrata see Litsea cubeba Litsea cubeba 349, 350 liver 125–130 distribution into 51, 52 fatty degeneration 127 metabolic function 53–54 protective effects 128–129, 128t toxic damage see hepatotoxicity liver disease 52, 117b liver enzymes 54, 55 modulation 60–64 see also cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes liver function tests 126 local lymph node assay (LLNA) 73, 95 Lolium italicum 299 Lolium perenne 299 longifolene 589 longleaf pine see Pinus palustris longoza oil 339 longozo oil 339 Lonicera species 305 lovage leaf oil 87–88, 339 lovage root oil 339–340 lovage seed oil 340 lungs absorption via 49 excretion from 53t, 57 toxicity 108–109 luteinizing hormone (LH) 149, 151 Lyral 80–82 M mace oil 340–341 Madagascan basil oil 207 magnolia flower oil 341–342 magnolia leaf oil 342 mahogany birch oil see sweet birch oil Maiden’s gum oil see Eucalyptus maidenii oil Majorana hortensis see Origanum majorana makrut lime see combava Malay camphor oil 227 male fertility 151–152 mandarin leaf oil 88, 343–344 mandarin oil 342–343 composition 7, 342 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t mandarin petitgrain oil see mandarin leaf oil mandravasarotra oil 421 mango ginger oil 344 manuka oil 344–345 maraba oil 345 marigold oil see taget oil marigold (Mexican) oil see Mexican marigold oil maritime lavender oil see Spanish lavender oil maritime pine see Pinus pinaster marjoram oil antioxidant activity 170t sedative action 141t Spanish (Thymus mastichina) 11, 346 sweet 346–347 wild see wild marjoram oil marsh honey myrtle oil see honey myrtle oil massage, safety precautions 658 massage therapists, allergic contact dermatitis 84 massoia lactone 348–349, 589 massoia oil 348–349 adverse skin reactions 77t, 81t, 96t, 348 mass spectrometry (MS) 13 mastic oil 179, 179t, 349 mastic thyme oil see Spanish marjoram oil Matricaria chamomilla see Matricaria recutita Matricaria recutita 242 Mauritius papeda see combava maximation tests 74, 75 maximum adult daily oral dose, 188 maximum dermal use levels 188, 189 may chang oil 349 adverse skin reactions 81t, 350 drug interactions 58t, 350 reproductive toxicity 156t, 350 medical applications, essential oils Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) 649 Mediterranean cypress oil see cypress oil 4,7-megastigmadien-9-one see a-ionone 5,7-megastigmadien-9-one see b-ionone Melaleuca alternifolia 440, 445 Melaleuca bracteata 445 Melaleuca cajuputi 224 Melaleuca dissitiflora 440, 445 Melaleuca ericifolia 404 Melaleuca leucadendron var cajuputi see Melaleuca cajuputi Melaleuca linariifolia 440 Melaleuca linariifolia var alternifolia see Melaleuca alternifolia Melaleuca quinquenervia 364, 365 Melaleuca teretifolia 360 Melaleuca terpinen-4-ol type 440 Melissa officinalis 350 melissa oil 350–351 adverse skin reactions 81t, 96t, 351 anticancer activity 179t, 351 antioxidant activity 170t, 351 Index degradation 11–12 drug interactions 58t, 351 hypoglycemic effects 117, 351 reproductive toxicity 156t, 351 p-mentha-1,3-diene see a-terpinene p-mentha-1,4-diene see g-terpinene p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-al see perillaldehyde p-mentha-1,8-diene see (ỵ)limonene p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-ol see perillyl alcohol p-mentha-6,8-dien-2-one see carvone Mentha aquatica var citrata 352 Mentha arvensis 261 Mentha canadensis 261 Mentha cardiaca (Scotch spearmint) 427, 428 Mentha citrata see Mentha aquatica var citrata Mentha longifolia 352 (-)-p-menthan-3-ol see (-)-menthol p-menthan-3-one see menthone Mentha pulegium oil 382, 383, 384 Mentha spicata var crispa (Mentha viridis; native spearmint) oil 427, 428 carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic potential 428 degradation 11–12 Mentha x piperata oil see peppermint oil p-menth-1-en-4-ol see terpinen-4-ol p-menth-1-en-3-one see piperitone p-menth-4(8)-en-3-one see b-pulegone p-menth-8-en-3-one see a-pulegone menthofuran 590 chemical structure 20, 20f cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t, 590 hepatotoxicity 128, 590 maximum use levels 36t, 484t, 590 (-)-menthol allergic asthma induced by 105 anticancer activity 179t, 593 cardiovascular effects 112, 113, 592 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t elimination half-life 51t gastrointestinal adverse effects 123 hepatotoxicity 126, 129–130, 592 inhalation toxicity 101t, 591–592 mechanism of therapeutic effect 103 nasal instillation in infants 108, 109, 592 percutaneous absorption 42, 43–44 pharmacogenetic toxicity 129–130 reproductive toxicity 158t, 592 respiratory tract infections 104 safe exposure limits 36t, 593 menthone 593 mutagenicity/genotoxicity 173, 594 neurotoxicity 132, 137t (-)-menthyl acetate 594 chemical structure 19f cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t Merkus pine see Pinus merkusii metabolism 53–57 animals vs humans 66, 67 dermal 55–56 implications for toxicity 56–57 isomer differences 56 pharmacogenetics 56 phase I reactions 54 phase II reactions 54–55 placental 154 methane 15, 15f methidathion methiocarb methoxsalen 594 anticancer activity 179t, 595 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t, 594 nephrotoxicity 121 photocarcinogenicity 89–90, 594, 595 phototoxicity 85, 86t, 594 PUVA therapy 89–90 reproductive toxicity 150, 151, 153, 158t, 594, 595 methoxyallylbenzene see estragole 2-methoxy-4-allylphenol see eugenol 7-methoxy-5-geranoxycoumarin 86t 3-methoxy-4,5-(methylenedioxy) allylbenzene see myristicin 2-methoxy-4-(2-methylvinyl) phenol see isoeugenol 2-methoxyphenol see guaiacol 5-methoxypsoralen see bergapten 8-methoxypsoralen see methoxsalen methoxysafrole see myristicin 1-methyl-4-isopropylcyclohexan-3one see menthone methyl allyl disulfide 595 methyl allyl trisulfide 595 methyl anthranilate 596 methyl benzoate 596 O-methyl catechol see guaiacol O-methyl chavicol see estragole methyl cinnamate 596 2-(1-methylethyl)-5-methylphenol see thymol O-methyleugenol 597 acute toxicity 30t, 598 carcinogenic potential 167, 168t, 174, 176, 176t, 177, 177f, 184–185, 598–599 chemical structure 172f DNA adduct formation 166, 167t elimination half-life 51t genetic variation in bioactivation 175, 598 partition coefficient 44t percutaneous absorption 43–44, 598 safe exposure levels 177, 185, 484t, 599 methyl heptenone 599 O-methyl isoeugenol 600 partition coefficient 44t percutaneous absorption 43t methyl jasmonate 600 anticancer activity 178, 179, 179t, 600–601 methyl parathion methylphenol see cresol methylprotocatechuic aldehyde see vanillin methyl salicylate 601 acute toxicity 30t, 601 anticoagulant drug interactions 65, 601 antiplatelet activity 116, 602 blood pressure effects 115 elimination half-life 51t hepatotoxicity 126 inhalation toxicity 100, 602 nephrotoxicity 119, 120 neurotoxicity 133, 137 partition coefficient 44t percutaneous absorption 42, 43, 43t, 45, 46, 601 poisoning 602, 650t reproductive toxicity 156, 158t, 602–603 safe doses 36t, 133t, 484t, 603 metribuzin Mexican cedarwood oil 239–240 Mexican juniper oil 239–240 Mexican lime oil distilled 336, 337 expressed 337 Mexican marigold oil 345–346 drug interactions 58t psychotropic activity 144, 346 Mexican mint marigold oil see Mexican marigold oil Mexican oregano oil 376–377 Mexican tarragon oil see Mexican marigold oil Mexican white pine see Pinus ayacahuite Michelia alba 245, 341, 342 Michelia champaca 245 Michelia longifolia see Michelia alba Micromeria fruticosa oil 382, 383 micropsia 146 midsummer daisy oil see feverfew oil migraine 108, 658 mikan oil see satsuma oil milfoil oil see yarrow oil mimosa absolute 351–352 Mimusops elengi 201 mint oil bergamot 352 wild forest 352 miscarriage, substances causing 159–161 mixtures benefits of 40 toxicity of 24–25 Monarda didyma 210 Monarda fistulosa var menthaefolia 213 Monarda menthaefolic see Monarda fistulosa var menthaefolia monk’s pepper oil see chaste tree oil monoamine oxidase (MAO), inhibition 64 monoterpenoids 15, 16b Monterey pine see Pinus radiata Moroccan blue chamomile oil 438–439 Moroccan cedar oil 237–238 Moroccan chamomile oil 244 Moroccan tansy oil 438–439 moslene see g-terpinene motha oil see nut grass oil motia oil see palmarosa oil mountain cedar oil 239–240 mountain pine oil see dwarf pine oil mountain salvia oil see wild mountain sage oil mourning cypress oil 238 mouth see oral cavity mucous membranes, safety guidelines 658 mugo pine oil see dwarf pine oil mugwort oil 353–355 common see common mugwort oil Douglas 354 great see great mugwort oil muhuhu oil 355 mullilam oil 355 multiple channel sensitivity (MCS) 106–107, 658 Murraya koenigii 264 muscatel sage see clary sage musk seed oil 193 mustard oil 355–357 gastrointestinal adverse effects 124 nephrotoxicity 121 safety guidelines 652t skin irritation 77t, 356 771 Index mutagenesis 166, 172 defense against 170 see also photomutagenicity mutagenicity tests 172–174 essential oils/constituents 173–174 b-myrcene 603 animal toxicity studies 1, 604, 605 carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic activity 168t, 604–605 cytochrome P450 interactions 61t, 604 nephrotoxicity 120–121 reproductive toxicity 157, 158t, 604 sedative action 140, 141t Myrica gale 359 Myristica amboinensis see Myristica fragrans Myristica aromatica see Myristica fragrans Myristica fragrans 340, 366 Myristica moschata see Myristica fragrans Myristica officinalis see Myristica fragrans myristicin 605 carcinogenic/anticancer activity 179t, 606 chemical structure 172f drug interactions 64, 605 enzyme induction 61t, 605, 606 mutagenicity/genotoxicity 167t, 173, 606 psychotropic action 144, 145, 605–606 sedative action 141t Myrocarpus fastigiatus 222 Myrocarpus frondosus 222 Myrospermum pereirae see Myroxylon balsamum var pereirae Myroxylon balsamum var balsamum 454 Myroxylon balsamum var pereirae 390 Myroxylon pereirae see Myroxylon balsamum var pereirae Myroxylon peruiferum see Myroxylon balsamum var pereirae myrrh oil 357 antioxidant activity 89, 357 cytotoxicity 32t pregnancy and lactation 152t, 357 myrtenyl acetate 606 myrtle oil 357–358 aniseed see aniseed myrtle oil bog 179t, 359–360 green 358 honey see honey myrtle oil 772 hypoglycemic effects 117–118, 358 lemon see lemon myrtle oil red 358 Myrtus communis 357 N nagarmotha oil 361–362 narcissus absolute 362 adverse skin reactions 81t, 83t, 93t, 362 Narcissus jonquilla 314 Narcissus poeticus 362 nard oil 428–429 Nardostachys grandiflora 428, 429 Nardostachys jatamansi see Valeriana jatamansi narrow-leaved peppermint oil see Eucalyptus radiata oil nasal instillation, infants and 108–109 nasal mucosal irritation, volatile organic compounds 100 nasal pungency threshold 102 nasturtium absolute 156t, 362–363 Nectandra globosa see Nectandra sanguinea Nectandra sanguinea 421 Neocallitropsis araucarioides see Neocallitropsis pancheri Neocallitropsis pancheri 198 neonates dermal dosing 47–48, 47t percutaneous absorption 47 see also infants neoplasms 165 Nepalese cardamom oil 232–233 Nepeta cataria 237 nepetalactone 53t, 606 nepetalic acid 607 nephrotoxicity 119–121 precautions 121, 121b protection against 121 species-specific effects 120–121 nepitella oil see lesser calamint oil neral 534, 607 see also citral nerol 607 chemical structure 14, 14f estrogenic activity 150 teratogenicity 157, 608 nerolidol 608 anticancer activity 179t, 609 gastrointestinal effects 125t partition coefficient 44t nerolina oil 365 neroli oil 61t, 363–364 nervous system 131–146 neryl acetate 609 neryl isobutyrate 609 neryl isovalerate 609 neryl propionate 610 NESIL (no expected sensitization induction level) 95 neurogenic inflammation 107 neurotoxicity 131–132 CNS depression 138–144 CNS stimulation 132–138 developmental 131, 133, 157–159 psychotropic activity 144–145 structural changes 132 nevadensin, anticancer activity 178 New Caledonian sandalwood oil 419 niaouli oil 364–366 cineole CT 364–365 linalool CT 365 nerolidol CT 365 pulmonary toxicity potential 108 reproductive toxicity 154, 364 safety measures 652t viridiflorol CT 365–366 Nigella sativa 217 nitrogen compounds 21 NOAEL (no-observed-adverseeffect level) 34, 35 carcinogens 38 2-nonanone 610 non-volatile compounds nootkatone 610 nopinene see b-pinene North American calamus oil 225 Northern cypress pine oil see blue cypress oil Norway spruce oil 430–431 nosebleed oil see feverfew oil nose irritation, volatile organic compounds 100 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy 13 nut grass oil 179t, 366 nutmeg flower oil see black seed oil nutmeg oil 366–368 carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic activity 183, 368 drug interactions 64, 368 East Indian 366–367 neurotoxicity 140, 141t, 144–145, 367 reproductive toxicity 152, 154, 367–368 safety measures 652t West Indian 366–367 O oakmoss absolute 368–369 adverse skin reactions 81t, 82, 92t, 93t, 96t, 368–369, 368t oakmoss concrete 369 occlusion, transdermal absorption and 46 occupational asthma 105 occupational risk, adverse skin reactions 84 ocean pine see Pinus pinaster b-ocimene 610 Ocimum americanum var pilosum 203 Ocimum basilicum 202, 205, 207 Ocimum canum see Ocimum americanum var pilosum Ocimum gratissimum oils 207, 208–209 anticonvulsant activity 138 gastric effects 125 hypotensive effect 114 Ocimum minimum 208 Ocimum sanctum see Ocimum tenuiflorum Ocimum tenuiflorum 204 Ocimum viride oils see Ocimum gratissimum oils Ocimum x citriodorum 205 Ocotea odorifera oil 421–422 Ocotea pretiosa oil see Ocotea odorifera oil Ocotea quixos 116 octanal 36t 3-octanol 611 nephrotoxicity 120, 121 sensory irritation 101t octanol/water partition coefficients 44, 44t 3-octanone, sensory irritation 101t 1-octen-3-ol, sensory irritation 101t 1-octen-3-yl acetate 611 octyl acetate 612 nephrotoxicity 120 reproductive toxicity 157, 158t, 612 odor threshold 102 Ogaden type frankincense oil see Boswellia rivae oil Olbas Oil 104, 108 Olea fragrans see Osmanthus fragrans olfactory epithelium, absorption via 49 olfactory hypersensitivity 108 olibanum oil see frankincense oils onion oil 369–370 antiplatelet activity 115–116, 369 carcinogenic/anticancer activity 179t, 370 drug interactions 58t, 370 safety measures 652t ood (agarwood) oil 190 opobalsam resinoid see tolu balsam resinoid Index opopanax oil 81t, 370–371 opoponax oil see opopanax oil oral administration 40, 49–50, 123 absorption after 49–50 acute toxicity tests 28–29, 30t extrapolating from animal data 28, 32–33 adverse reactions 28 gastrointestinal tract 123–125, 124t hepatotoxicity 125–128 nephrotoxicity 119–121 bioavailability 41t drug interactions 58t, 60 excipients 125 excretion after 53t, 57 hypoglycemic effects 117–118, 118b hypotensive effects 114 maximum adult daily dose 188 safety precautions 658 oral cavity irritation by volatile organic compounds 100 topical administration 123 adverse reactions 100, 124 oral dosing 50, 50t, 658 frequency 50 infants and children 50 orange blossom (flower) oil see neroli oil orange champaca absolute 156t, 245 orange flower absolute 373 orange flower and leaf water absolute 374 orange flower water 373–374 orange leaf absolute 374 orange leaf bigarade oil 374, 375 orange leaf oil (petitgrain oil) 61t, 374–375 orange oil 371–373 anticancer activity 179t bitter see bitter orange oil cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t sweet 372–373 orange petitgrain oil see orange leaf oil oregano oil 375–376 acute toxicity 30t, 376 adverse skin reactions 77t, 376 antioxidant activity 170t, 376 drug interactions 58t, 376 gastrointestinal adverse effects 124t Mexican 376–377 oral dose 50t reproductive toxicity 152t, 154–155, 376 safety measures 652t see also wild marjoram oil; individual species Oregon cedar wood oil 239 Oreodaphne porosa see Phoebe porosa organic compounds, chemical structure 13–14 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) approved toxicity tests 28, 29b, 33 developmental toxicity endpoints 157 organochlorine pesticides organophosphorus pesticides 8, 22 organ-specific effects 188 Origanum compactum oil see Origanum vulgare ssp hirtum oil Origanum dubium see Origanum majorana Origanum hirtum see Origanum vulgare ssp hirtum oil Origanum majorana 346, 347, 348 origanum oil see oregano oil Origanum onites oil 375, 376 adverse skin reactions 376 gastrointestinal effects 124–125 Origanum smyrnaeum oil see Origanum onites oil Origanum vulgare oil antiplatelet activity 116, 376 immune stimulation 170–171 Origanum vulgare ssp hirtum (Origanum compactum) oil 375, 376 antigenotoxicity 89 mutagenicity/genotoxicity 173–174 Ormenis mixta oil 244 Ormenis multicaulis 244 orris absolute 377 orris oil 377–378 osmanthus absolute 378 Osmanthus fragrans 378 Oswego tea oil 210 Osyris lanceolata 417 Osyris tenuifolia oil 417 oxamyl oxidation metabolic 54 stored products 1–2, 10–11 prevention 11, 12, 73 respiratory/sensory irritation and 101–102 skin sensitization risk 72–73, 82b oxidative stress essential oils protecting against 170 hepatotoxicity and 126 see also antioxidants; reactive oxygen species oxides 19, 20b oxygen 10–11 oxygen-bridged functional groups 19–20 oxypeucedanin 612 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t phototoxicity 85, 86t, 612 ozone 101–102, 651 P Pacific island sandalwood oil 419 Pacific thuja oil see Western red cedar oil packaging 2, 37, 651–654 padang (kewda) oil 318 Paddy’s river box oil see Eucalyptus macarthurii oil palmarosa oil 378–379 adverse skin reactions 81t, 379 antioxidant activity 170t drug interactions 58t, 379 palo santo oil 379–380 Pandanus fascicularis 318 Pandanus odoratissimus see Pandanus fascicularis pandanus oil 318 paracetamol (acetaminophen) 56–57, 128, 130 Paraguayan orange leaf oil 375 parmone see a-ionone parsley apiole 490 abortifacient effects 160, 490–491 chemical structure 172f hepatotoxicity 126 maximum dose limits 484t, 491 mutagenicity/genotoxicity 167t, 173 nephrotoxicity 120 poisoning 650t parsley herb oil see parsley leaf oil parsley leaf oil 380 phototoxicity 87 reproductive toxicity 152t, 160, 380 safety measures 652t parsleyseed oil 380–381 drug interactions 58t, 381 psychotropic action 145, 381 reproductive toxicity 152t, 160, 381 safety measures 652t parsnip oil 381 drug interactions 58t, 381 possible phototoxicity 87–88, 381 partition coefficient (P) 44, 44t, 66 passing off 9–10 Pastinaca sativa 381 patches, dermal 658 patchouli oil 382 adverse skin reactions 83t, 382 antiplatelet activity 116, 382 drug interactions 58t, 382 patch testing 1, 27, 74–76, 658 grading of skin reactions 74, 74t interpreting data 74–76 patient safety, guidelines 651 Patrinia jatamansi see Valeriana jatamansi pau-rosa oil see rosewood oil peimou oil 425 Pelargonium x asperum 292 pe mou oil 425 pennyroyal oil 382–384 acute toxicity 30t, 384 drug interactions 58t European 382–384 hepatotoxicity 127, 128b, 383 human vs animal toxicity 33 nephrotoxicity 120 neurotoxicity 134t, 135, 138, 383 North American 382–384 poisoning 26t, 115–116, 383–384, 650t reproductive toxicity 152t, 160–161, 383 safety measures 652t Turkish 382–384 pentadecanolide 612 peppermint camphor see (-)menthol peppermint, cardiac effects 112 peppermint eucalyptus oil 275–276 peppermint gum oil 275–276 peppermint oil (Mentha x piperata oil) 387–390 absorption 41t adverse skin reactions 83t, 93t, 388 analysis 13, 13f antioxidant activity 170t, 389 bioavailability 41t carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic activity 173, 389 cardiovascular effects 112t, 113, 115, 388 composition 7, 387 contaminants degradation 11–12 dose recommendations 50t, 137, 387, 389–390 drug interactions 61t, 64, 389 gastrointestinal effects 28, 123, 124t, 125, 388 mucous membrane sensitivity 28, 388 neurotoxicity 132, 137, 388 peppermint oil ỵ caraway oil 50t, 124t 773 Index pepper oil black see black pepper oil pink 385–386 Sichuan 386 white 386–387 peptic ulcer 117b, 658 percutaneous absorption 42–47, 43t age differences 47 animals and humans 29, 31f biocides concentration effects 45–46 delivery vehicle effects 45–46 hydration, temperature and pressure effects 46 molecular size and solubility and 44–45 permeability enhancement 45 skin trauma and 46–47 volatility and occlusion and 46 perfumes, adverse reactions 106, 107 pericon oil see Mexican marigold oil Perilla frutescens 390 perilla ketone 613 perillaldehyde 613 chemical structure 18f skin reactivity 96t, 613 perilla oil 390 adverse skin reactions 81t, 390 pulmonary toxicity 108, 390 safety measures 652t perillyl alcohol 89, 613 androgenic activity 151, 178 anticancer activity 170, 178, 179, 179t, 614 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t gastrointestinal adverse effects 124, 124t, 614 peripheral nervous system (PNS) 131 permeability coefficient apparent (Papp) 42, 43–44 in vitro skin (Ps) 43–44, 66 peroxides 20 Persian lime oil distilled 336, 337 expressed 337 Peru balsam oil 81t, 96t, 390–391 Peruvian mastic oil 385–386 Peruvian pepper oil 385–386 peruviol see nerolidol pessaries 51 pesticides 8, 8t pesto 3, 177 peta oil 391–392 petitgrain mandarin oil see mandarin leaf oil petitgrain oil see orange leaf oil petit mal seizures 132 petrolatum 75 Petroselinum crispum 380 774 Petroselinum hortense see Petroselinum crispum Petroselinum sativum see Petroselinum crispum Peumus boldus 218, 219 P-glycoprotein (P-gp) 64–65 pharmacogenetics 56 cancer risk and 175 pharmacogenetic toxicity 129–130 pharmacokinetics 39–68 phase I reactions 54 phase II reactions 54–55 pheasant pepper tree oil see may chang oil a-phellandrene 167, 614 phenethyl alcohol see 2phenylethanol phenols 17, 17b phenoxyl radicals 31 phenylacetonitrile see benzyl cyanide b-phenylacrolein see cinnamaldehyde b-phenylacrylic acid see cinnamic acid phenylcarbinol see benzyl alcohol 2-phenylethanol 615 acute toxicity 30t, 615 reproductive toxicity 158t, 615–616 sedative action 141t 2-phenylethyl acetate 616 phenylethyl isothiocyanate 616 anticancer activity 178, 179t, 616–617 carcinogenic potential 167, 168t, 616 phenylethyl methyl ether 617 phenylpropanoids 16, 16b pheromones, insect pH, excipients 12 Phlaris zizanoides see Vetiveria zizanoides Phleum pratense 299 phoebe oil 392 Phoebe porosa 392 Phoenician juniper oil 315–316 Phoenician savin oil 315–316 photoallergy 78, 85 photocarcinogenesis 88–90 mouse data 90 PUVA therapy 89–90 risk/benefit considerations 90 specific furanocoumarins and lactones 86t, 174 photocontact dermatitis 70 photogenotoxicity 89 photomutagenicity 86t, 174 photo-oxidative stress 89 photopatch test 85 photosensitization 27, 70, 84–90 phototoxicity 84–88 adjusting dose and 189 clinical data 85–87 essential oils causing 87–88, 87t IFRA recommended maximum use levels 86b managing risk 88 specific furanocoumarins and lactones 86t susceptible individuals 87 phototypes, skin 76t photoxic reactions and 87 PUVA therapy-related skin cancer risk and 89 skin sensitivity and 76 phthalates (phthalate esters) phytanic acid 132 phytoestrogens 149–150 phytol 132, 617 phytols 22 phytophotodermatitis 85 Picea abies 430 Picea alba see Picea glauca Picea canadensis see Picea glauca; Tsuga canadensis Picea excelsa see Picea abies Picea glauca 431 Picea mariana 429 Picea nigra see Picea mariana Picea rubens 431 pigmented contact dermatitis (PCD) 70, 79–80, 659 pigmented cosmetic dermatitis 80 Pilocarpus jaborandi 310 Pilocarpus microphyllus 310–311 Pimenta acris see Pimenta racemosa var racemosa Pimenta dioica 392, 393 Pimenta officinalis see Pimenta dioica Pimenta racemosa var racemosa 209 pimento berry oil 392–393 antioxidant activity 170t drug interactions 58t safety measures 652t pimento leaf oil 393–394 drug interactions 58t, 394 safety measures 652t Pimpinella anisum 196 Pimpinella oils, estrogenic activity 150 3-pinanone see isopinocamphone; pinocamphone a-pinene 618 anticonvulsant activity 138 carcinogenic/anticancer activity 171, 620 cytochrome P450 interactions 61t elimination 53t, 57, 619 elimination half-life 51t eye irritation 102 inhalation toxicity 49, 619 bronchial hyper-reactivity 103 sensory irritation 101–102, 101t partition coefficient 44t reproductive toxicity 158t, 619 b-pinene 620 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t elimination half-life 51t excretion 53t inhalation toxicity 101–102, 101t, 103 partition coefficient 44t reproductive toxicity 158t, 621 pine oils (including pine needle oils) 394–397, 398–399 black 394–395 dwarf see dwarf pine oil grey 395–396 huon 396, 652t poisoning 650t pondorosa 58t, 396–397 red 397 Scots 173, 398 white 399 Pinimenthol ointment absorption kinetics 41t, 43 upper respiratory tract infections 104 pink pepper oil 385–386 pinocamphone 621 developmental toxicity 159 neurotoxicity 133, 137t, 621 safe dose limits 133t, 484t, 621, 622 Pinus ayacahuite 459 Pinus banksiana see Pinus divaricata Pinus canadensis see Tsuga canadensis Pinus caribaea 459 Pinus contorta var latifolia 459, 461 Pinus divaricata 395 Pinus elliottii 459, 461 Pinus halepensis 459, 461 Pinus insularis 459, 461 Pinus kesiya see Pinus insularis Pinus latteri 459, 461 Pinus merkusii 459 Pinus montana see Pinus mugo Pinus mugo 395 Pinus mugo var mugo 395 Pinus mugo var pumilio 395 Pinus mugus see Pinus mugo var mugo Pinus nigra 394 Pinus palustris 459, 461 Pinus pinaster 459, 461 Pinus pondorosa 396 Index Pinus pumilio see Pinus mugo var pumilio Pinus radiata 461 Pinus resinosa 397 Pinus roxburghii 459, 461 Pinus spectabilis see Abies spectabilis Pinus strobus 399 Pinus sylvestris 398 Pinus tabulaeformis 459, 461 Pinus teocote 459 Pinus webbiana see Abies spectabilis Pinus yunnanensis 459, 461 Piper betle see betel Piper cubeba 263 piperitone 137, 137t, 622 Piper nigrum 384, 386 piperonal 53t, 622 piri-piri oil 399–400 Pisticia lentiscus 349 placental transfer 154 plai oil 400 plants, essential oil-bearing 5–6, 6b plasma protein binding 52, 53f platelets (thrombocytes) 115–116 Plectranthus barbatus 257 Plectranthus forskohlii see Plectranthus barbatus Plectranthus fruticosus 400 plectranthus oil 400–401 abortifacient effect 161, 401 fetotoxicity 155–156, 400–401 teratogenicity 156 Ploesslea floribunda oil see Boswellia papyrifera oil Poa pratense 299 poet’s narcissus absolute see narcissus absolute Pogostemon cablin 382 Pogostemon patchouly see Pogostemon cablin poisoning 25–27 first aid 649–650, 650b, 659 signs and symptoms 649, 650t see also toxicity Polianthes tuberosa 456 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 186 Polygonum minus 317 polysensitized patients 72 po mu oil 425 pondorosa pine oil 58t, 396–397 Populus balsamifera 202 porphyrias 127, 659 porphyrin production 127 Port Orford cedarwood oil 239 potentiation 24–25 Pott, Percival 67 poverty bush oil 468–469 practitioner safety 651 prangolarin see oxypeucedanin pregnancy contraindicated essential oils 152t, 162 FDA classification of drug safety 148–149, 149b restricted essential oils 156t safe levels of exposure 158t, 163 safety guidelines 659 termination of 149, 159–161 toxicity during 153–157 xenobiotics in 147–149 premature infants 659 prickly ash oil 385–386 priprioca (piri-piri) oil 399–400 progesterone 149, 152 p-trans-propenylanisole see (E)-anethole propenylguaiacol see isoeugenol 4-propenylveratrole see O-methyl isoeugenol propiconazole propyl allyl disulfide 622 prostatic hyperplasia, benign (BPH) 151 protein binding, plasma 52, 53f Provence rose absolute 30t, 406–407 provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) 35 Prunus amygdalus var amara see Prunus dulcis var amara Prunus communis var amara see Prunus dulcis var amara Prunus dulcis var amara 191, 192 prussic acid see hydrocyanic acid Pseudevernia furfuracea 456 pseudopinene see b-pinene Pseudotsuga menziesii 281 Psiadia altissima 198 Psidium guyanensis oil, anticonvulsant activity 138 Psoraderm see bergapten psoralen 623 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t, 623 photoallergy 85 photocarcinogenicity 89 phototoxicity 86t, 623 psoriasis 46–47 psychotropic activity 144–145 Pteronia incana 401 pteronia oil 401 pulegone hepatotoxicity 57 nephrotoxicity 120–121 neurotoxicity 135, 137t safe exposure limits 36t a-pulegone 623 b-pulegone 623 acute toxicity 30t, 624 carcinogenic potential 168t, 625 hepatotoxicity 127, 128, 128b, 625 hypoglycemic effects 118 isomer differences 56 neurotoxicity 132, 133 safe exposure limits 133t, 484t, 626 pulmonary function parameters 103t pulmonary toxicity 108–109 pumilio pine oil see dwarf pine oil pungent basil oil 208–209 punk tree oil see cajuput oil purity, essential oils purple coneflower oil 271 PUVA therapy 89–90, 171 Pyrethrum majus see Chrysanthemum balsamita Q quality, essential oil 1, 7–12 quality control 654 quantitative risk assessment (QRA), IFRA 94–97, 96t quantitative structure–activity relationships (QSAR) 34, 98 quenching 25, 73–74 quinone reductase 170 R racial differences adverse skin reactions 72 skin sensitivity 76 Racosperma dealbatum see Acacia dealbata Radiotherapy 656 raindrop technique 46, 66 ramanas rose oil 406 rambiazana oil 402 rambiazinza vavy oil 402 ramy oil see Ocimum gratissimum oil Ravensara anisata see Ravensara aromatica Ravensara aromatica 402, 403 ravensara bark oil 58t, 402 ravensara leaf oil 403 ravintsara oil 303–304 RD50 101t, 102 REACH (Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals) 33 reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS) 105 reactive oxygen species (ROS) carcinogenesis 166 cytotoxic 31 photogenotoxicity 89 reconstituted oils 9–10 rectal administration 50–51, 123 rectification red bergamot oil 210 red blood cells (erythrocytes) 116–117 red camphor oil see brown camphor oil red cedar oil see cedrela oil; Virginian cedarwood oil red cedarwood oil 240 red myrtle oil 358 red pine oil 397 red spruce oil 431 reduction reactions 54 reference dose (RfD) 35 Refsum’s disease 132, 617 regulatory guidelines 188–189 renal disease/impairment 52, 117b, 121, 658, 659 reporting, adverse event 37, 649–650 reproductive NOAEL or LOAEL values 158t, 163 reproductive system 147–164 reproductive toxicology 147–149 resinification 12 resinoids composition isolation respiratory depression 109 respiratory disease 104–107 respiratory system 99–110 adverse effects of airborne substances 100–103 transient receptor potential (TRP) channels 103 respiratory tract infections 99, 104 resurrection lily oil 345 rhodinolic acid see citronellic acid Rhododendron anthopogon 403 Rhododendron groenlandicum see Ledum groenlandicum rhododendron oil 403–404 Rhus cotinus see Cotinus coggyria Rhus taratana 436 Ribes nigrum 216 risk characterization 35 consumer awareness 37 estimating 32–34 minimizing 34–37 risk assessment 34–35 river tea tree oil see black tea tree oil; cajuput oil R notation, chiral molecules 14–15 rock cedar oil 239–240 Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine see Pinus contorta var latifolia Roman chamomile oil 244–245 antidiuretic effect 121 sedative action 141t 775 Index Roman coriander oil see black seed oil romba oils see Ocimum gratissimum oils Rosa damascena var trigintipetala see Rosa x damascena Rosa gallica f trigintipetala see Rosa x damascena Rosa gallica var centifolia see Rosa x centifolia rosalina oil 404 Rosa rugosa oil 406 Rosa x centifolia 406, 407 Rosa x damascena 404 rose absolute (Provence) 30t, 406–407 rose de Mai absolute see rose absolute ‘rose geranium’ oils 294 rosemary oil 407–409 antioxidant activity 170t, 409 blood pressure effects 112t, 115, 409 drug interactions 61t, 409 hyperglycemic effect 118, 409 neurotoxicity 134t, 138 safety measures 652t rose of cedar wood oil 239 rose oil 404–406 Damask see Damask rose oil Japanese 406 rose otto see Damask rose oil rose oxide 626 rosewood oil 179t, 409–410 rosha grass oil see palmarosa oil rosin 461 Rosmarinus officinalis 407 route of administration 40, 41t royal jasmine absolute see jasmine absolute Rozman scale 177, 177f rubbing ointments, asthma 106 rubefacients 66 Rudbeckia purpurea see Echinacea purpurea rue absolute, phototoxicity 87, 411 rue oil 410–412 nephrotoxicity 120, 121 phototoxicity 87, 411 reproductive toxicity 152t, 161, 411 rugosa rose oil 406 Russa grass oil 295–296 Russian basil oil 208–209 Russian fir needle oil see Siberian fir needle oil Rutaceae, phototoxic potential 87, 87t Ruta chalapensis 411 Ruta graveolens oil 410, 411–412 Ruta montana 410 776 S sabinene 158t, 626 3-sabinone see thujone (Z)-sabinyl acetate 627 abortifacient effect 161, 627 embryo and fetotoxicity 152, 155–156 reproductive LOAEL 158t, 163 teratogenicity 156 Sachalin fir needle oil 284 sacred basil oil 204 safety advice, authors’ 188 safety (uncertainty) factors 35–36 safety guidelines, general 649–654 safety profiles essential oil constituents 483–648 essential oils 187–256 saffron absolute 81t, 412 saffron oil 81t, 412 saffron resinoid 412 safrole 627 carcinogenic potential 167, 168t, 172, 173t, 174, 175, 176, 176t, 629, 630 antagonistic interactions 178 betel quid chewers 184 chemical structure 172f cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t excretion 53t, 627–628 genetic variation in bioactivation 175 hepatotoxicity 126, 127, 628 mutagenicity/genotoxicity 167t, 628–629 nephrotoxicity 120 reproductive toxicity 154, 162, 628 safe dose levels 484t, 630 sage oils 412–417 African wild 412–413 blue mountain 413 cardiovascular effects 111–112, 112t, 113, 115 clary see clary sage oil Dalmatian see Dalmatian sage oil Greek 146, 415 neurotoxicity 133–135, 134t, 138 Spanish see Spanish sage oil white 416 wild mountain see wild mountain sage oil St John’s wort oil 417 salai (mullilam) oil 355 salicylaldehyde 630 acute toxicity 30t, 630 hepatotoxicity 127, 631 salicylates drug interactions 65 nephrotoxicity 119, 121 sensitivity 659 teratogenicity 156 see also aspirin; benzyl salicylate; methyl salicylate salicylic acid benzyl ester see benzyl salicylate Salmonella/microsome assay 172–173 Salvia apiana 416 Salvia fruticosa 415 Salvia hispanorum see Salvia lavandulifolia Salvia lavandulifolia 415 Salvia libanotica oil 138, 179t, 526 Salvia officinalis oil see Dalmatian sage oil Salvia sclarea 253 Salvia stenophylla 413 Salvia triloba see Salvia fruticosa Sampacca longifolia see Michelia alba sandalwood oil 417–419, 420 adverse skin reactions 83t, 85, 93t, 418–419, 418t anticancer activity 179t blood pressure effect 114 East African 417–418 East Indian see East Indian sandalwood oil lactation 162 New Caledonian 419 Western Australian 58t, 420 West Indian (amyris) 193–194 sanna oil 420–421 santalol (including a-santalol) 631 adverse skin reactions 85, 631 anticancer activity 89, 179t, 631 blood pressure effect 114 partition coefficient 44t Santalum album 418, 419 Santalum austrocaledonicum 419 Santalum cygnorum see Santalum spicatum Santalum spicatum 420 Santolina chamaecyparissus 328 santolina oil 328 saro oil 421 Sassafras albidum oil 421, 422 sassafras oil 421–422 Brazilian 421–422, 652t carcinogenic activity 183, 422 Chinese 228, 421, 422, 652t drug interactions 58t poisoning 650t safety measures 652t satapashpi seed oil see Indian dill seed oil satsuma oil 87, 422–423 Satureia hortensis (summer savory) oil 424, 425 Satureia montana (winter savory) oil 424–425 Satureja capitata oil see Thymbra capitata oil Satureja khuzestanica oil hypoglycemic effects 118, 376, 425 reproductive toxicity 443 Saudi frankincense oil see Boswellia sacra oil Saussurea costus 262 Saussurea lappa see Saussurea costus savin oil 423–424 confusion with juniperberry oil 315 hepatotoxicity 126, 424 neurotoxicity 138 reproductive toxicity 152, 152t, 156, 163, 423–424 savory oil 424–425 acute toxicity 30t, 425 adverse skin reactions 77t, 425 drug interactions 58t, 425 safety measures 652t sedative action 141t scarlet monarda oil 210 scented myrrh oil see opopanax oil Schinus molle 385 Scientific Committee on Consumer Products (SCCP) 94, 95 sclareol 632 anticancer activity 178, 179t, 632 clary sage products 253, 254 Scots pine needle oil 173, 398 seasonal allergic rhinitis 105 seasonal variations, essential oil composition sea wormwood oil 474 pregnancy and lactation 152t safety measures 652t sedatives 140–143, 141t seizures 132–133 olfactory stimulation 137–138 see also anticonvulsants; convulsants b-selinenol see b-eudesmol sensitive skin 76–77 sensitization assessment factor (SAF) 95 sensitization, skin 70, 77–84 grading of risk 81t occupational risk 84 oxidized products 72–73, 82b see also allergic contact dermatitis sensory hyper-reactivity (SHR) 100, 107 sensory irritation (SI) 100–102 substances causing 101t terpene oxidation and 101–102 thresholds 102 Index Seriphidium maritimum see Artemisia maritima Serotonin 659 b-sesquiphellandrene 632 sesquiterpenes 15, 16b sesterterpenes 15 Seville orange leaf oil see orange leaf oil Seville orange oil see bitter orange oil shikimole see safrole shiso oil see perilla oil shiu (shiu-sho) oil 304–305 shrubby basil oil 208–209 shrubby hare’s ear oil 447–448 Siam benzoin 210, 211 Siamese ginger oil 289–290 Siam wood oil 425 Siberian fir needle oil 77, 77t, 284–285 Siberian pine needle oil see Siberian fir needle oil Siberian silver fir needle oil see Siberian fir needle oil Sichuan pepper oil 386 silver fir cone oil 282 silver fir needle oil 285–286 silver spruce see silver fir Skimmia laureola 426 skimmia oil 87–88, 426 skin 69–98 absorption through see percutaneous absorption administration to see dermal administration adverse reactions see adverse skin reactions metabolism 55–56 phototypes 76t sensitive 76–77 sensitization see sensitization, skin structure 41–42, 41f trauma, transdermal absorption and 46–47 skin cancer 88–90 PUVA therapy-related risk 89–90 skin diseases 659 slash pine see Pinus elliottii small galangal oil 345 smoke plant/tree oil 433–434 smooth angelica oil 195 snakeroot oil 426, 652t S notation, chiral molecules 14–15 snowbush oil 427 sofia oil 295–296 Solidago canadensis 297 solvent extraction solvents, contaminating 8–9 Somalian myrrh oil see myrrh oil sorbitan sesquioleate (SSO) 82 sour orange leaf oil see orange leaf oil southern birch oil see sweet birch oil Southern spring flower oil 468–469 southernwood oil 427, 652t sowa seed oil see Indian dill seed oil Spanish broom absolute 219–220 Spanish cedar oil 240–241 Spanish jasmine absolute see jasmine absolute Spanish lavender oil 328–329, 652t Spanish marjoram (Thymus mastichina) oil 11, 346 Spanish sage oil 415–416 estrogenic activity 150 neurotoxicity 134t, 143 reproductive toxicity 152t, 416 safety measures 652t Spanish tarragon oil see Mexican marigold oil Spanish wild marjoram oil see Spanish marjoram oil Spartium junceum 219 spearmint oil 427–428 adverse oral reactions 28 adverse skin reactions 81t, 83t, 428 spermatogenesis 151 spiked ginger lily oil 420–421 spiked thyme oil 451–452 spike lavender oil 329–330 hypotensive effects 113–114 safety measures 652t spikenard oil 428–429 spike thyme oil 451–452 spiroether 61t spirometry 103t spotted gum oil 335–336 sprague oil see ajowan oil spruce oil 429–432 black 429 hemlock 429–430 Norway 430–431 red 431 white 431–432 standard margin of safety 24, 24b Staphylococcus aureus 31 star anise oil 58t, 197–198 steam distillation stenophylla oil 413 stilbestrol 156 stinking mahogany oil 240–241 storage 10, 654 preventing degradation 11, 12 temperatures 11–12, 11t storax oil see styrax oil stratum corneum 41, 42 hydration state 46 stress, psychological adverse skin reactions and 71, 76, 98 multiple channel syndrome 107 Styrax benzoin 210 styrax oil 432–433 adverse skin reactions 81t, 432–433 pregnancy 157 Styrax paralleloneurus 210 Styrax tonkinensis 210 styrene 433 developmental neurotoxicity 157 neurotoxicity 131 subacute toxicity 28 Sudanese frankincense oil see Boswellia papyrifera oil sugandha oil 433 sugandhawal oil 462 sugandh kokila oil 433 sugandhmantri root oil 294 sulfation 55 sulfur compounds 21, 21b sumach oil, Venetian 433–434 Sumatra benzoin 210 Sumatra camphor oil 227 sunbeds 659 sunlight exposure 659 sunpati oil 403–404 sunscreens 90 superoxide dismutase 170 suppositories 50–51, 123 surgery, before or after 117b, 660 swamp cedar oil see thuja oil swamp paperbark tree oil 404 swamp tea tree oil see cajuput oil swangi see combava sweet annie oil 473–474 sweet bay oil see laurel leaf oil sweet birch oil 215–216 drug interactions 58t, 216 neurotoxicity 134t pregnancy and lactation 152t safety measures 652t sweet birch tar oil see birch tar oil sweet dragon oil see Mexican marigold oil sweet false chamomile oil see blue chamomile oil sweet fennel oil 277–278 drug interactions 58t, 278 hepatoprotective effects 128t, 278 neurotoxicity 136 reproductive toxicity 152t, 155, 161, 278 see also fennel oil sweet fern oil 279 sweet flag oil see calamus oil sweet gale oil see bog myrtle oil sweetgum oil see styrax oil sweet inula oil 310 sweet mace oil see Mexican marigold oil sweet marjoram oil 346–347 sweet myrrh oil see opopanax oil sweet olive absolute 378 sweet orange oil 372–373 sweet-scented marigold oil see Mexican marigold oil sweet verbena tree oil see lemon myrtle oil sweet vernalgrass oil 58t, 434–435 sweet voilet absolute 467–468 sweet-wood (cascarilla) oil 234–235 sweet wormwood oil 473–474 synergistic effects 24–25 allergic skin reactions 73 carcinogens 177–184 systemic effects, essential oil profiles 188 Syzygium aromaticum 254, 256, 257 T tacamahac oil see balsam poplar oil taget absolute 435–436 Tagetes lucida 144, 345–346 Tagetes minuta oil 435–436 erythrotoxic effects 117 Tagetes patula 435–436 taget oil 435–436 anticonvulsant action 139 erythrotoxic effects 117 hypotensive effect 114 possible phototoxicity 88, 436 sedative action 143 Tahitian vanilla see Vanilla tahitensis tailed pepper (cubeb) oil 263–264 tambookie grass oil 189–190 tambuti oil 189–190 tamoxifen 178 Tanacetum annuum 438 Tanacetum parthenium 280 Tanacetum vulgare 438 tana oil 436 tangelo oil 436–437 tangerine oil 437–438 anticancer activity 179t, 438 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t tansy oil 438 blue 438–439 drug interactions 58t neurotoxicity 134t, 138, 438 pregnancy and lactation 152t safety measures 652t Tanzanian spring flower oil 468–469 Tarchonanthus camphoratus 412–413 tarragon oil 439–440 anticancer/carcinogenic activity 183, 184–185, 439–440 anticonvulsant action 139 antiplatelet activity 116, 439 drug interactions 58t Tasmanian blue gum oil see Eucalyptus globulus oil 777 Index Tasmanian spring flower oil 468–469 TD50 176, 176t tea leaf absolute 81t, 96t, 440 tea olive absolute 378 tea tree oil 440–445 adverse skin reactions 28, 81t, 83, 84, 441t, 442–444 antibacterial effects 31, 444–445 antioxidant activity 170t, 444 black 445–446, 652t carcinogenic/anticancer activity 179t, 444 composition 7, 440 cytotoxicity 32t drug interactions 58t estrogenic activity 151, 443–444 lemon-scented 446–447 poisoning 25, 26, 26t, 444, 650t pregnancy and lactation 156t quality 1, 440 safety measures 652t systemic allergic reactions 171 vaginal administration 51 tebuconazole tejpat oil 447 drug interactions 58t, 447 safety measures 652t skin sensitization 81t, 447 Teloxys ambrosioides see Chenopodium ambrosioides var anthelminticum temperature percutaneous absorption and 46 storage 11–12, 11t templin see silver fir Tenasserim pine see Pinus latteri Tenoria fruticosa see Bupleurum fruticosum teratogenicity 153, 156–157 terebenthene see b-pinene terebinth oil see turpentine oil termination of pregnancy 149, 159–161 terpenes chemistry 15, 16t elimination 57 enhancing dermal drug absorption 45 oxidation, respiratory irritation and 101–102 terpenoids 15, 16, 16b a-terpinene 632 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t partition coefficient 44t reproductive toxicity 157, 633 g-terpinene 633 mutagenicity/genotoxicity 173–174, 634 778 partition coefficient 44t percutaneous absorption 43t terpinen-4-ol 634 anticancer activity 179t, 634 hypotensive effect 114 partition coefficient 44t percutaneous absorption 43t terpineol 635 a-terpineol 635 cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t partition coefficient 44t percutaneous absorption 43t sedative action 141t d-terpineol 17f, 635 terpinolene 636 terpinyl acetate 636 sedative action 141t toxicity 108 a-terthienyl 88 testosterone 151 tetradifon tetraterpenes 15 Texan cedarwood oil 239–240 Texas tarragon oil see Mexican marigold oil Thai ginger oil see finger root oil thalidomide 148, 156, 163 Thea sinensis see Camellia sinensis Therapeutic Goods Administration, Australia 649 therapeutic index (TI) 24, 24b thioallyl ether see diallyl sulfide 3,3’-thiobis-1-propene see diallyl sulfide Thomas balsam resinoid see tolu balsam resinoid thorow-wax oil 447–448 threshold model, carcinogens 176, 177 threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) 36 throat irritation, volatile organic compounds 100 thrombocytes 115–116 thrombocytopenia 117b, 660 thujan-3-one see thujone cis-4-thujanyl acetate see (Z)-sabinyl acetate Thuja occidentalis 448 thuja oil 448 acute toxicity 30t, 448 neurotoxicity 134t, 135, 138, 448 poisoning 650t pregnancy and lactation 152t safety measures 652t Thuja plicata 468 thujaplicin 637 b-thujaplicin 637 acute toxicity 30t, 637 reproductive toxicity 157, 158t, 637 thujone 638 acute toxicity 30t, 639 carcinogenic potential 168t, 640–641 cardiovascular effects 111 developmental toxicity 159 neurotoxicity 133–135, 137t, 639–640, 640t psychotropic action 145 safe doses 36, 36t, 133t, 484t, 641 a-thujone 638 neurotoxicity 133–135, 639, 640 percutaneous absorption 43–44 b-thujone 638 chemistry 18f neurotoxicity 133–135, 639 Thujopsis dolobrata var hondai 301 Thymbra capitata oil 11, 375–376 thymbra oregano oil 451–452 Thymbra spicata 451 thyme camphor see thymol thyme oils 448–449, 450–454 adverse skin reactions 77t, 81t, 449, 451, 453 antioxidant activity 170t, 454 antiplatelet activity 116, 449, 451, 453 blood pressure effects 112t, 113, 115 borneol CT 448–449 carvacrol CT 452–454 chemotypes drug interactions 58t, 449, 451, 454 effects of altitude geraniol CT 449 hepatoprotective effects 128t, 453 lemon 450 limonene CT 450–451 linalool CT 451 pregnancy and lactation 154–155, 156t, 451, 453 safety measures 652t spike 451–452 thujanol CT 452 thymol/carvacrol CT 452–454 thymol/carvacrol interactions 25 thymol CT 452–454 thymol 641 acute toxicity 30t, 642 anticonvulsant action 139 antiplatelet activity 116, 642 blood pressure effects 113 chemical structure 18f cytotoxicity 31, 642 gastrointestinal effects 124–125, 642 hepatoprotective effects 128t, 129, 642 mutagenicity/genotoxicity 173–174 pharmacokinetics 41t, 44t, 51t, 642 thymoquinone 643 anticancer activity 179t, 644 effects on erythrocytes 116–117 gastrointestinal effects 125t hepatoprotective effects 128, 128t, 643–644 renoprotective action 121, 643 reproductive toxicity 155, 158t, 643 Thymus capitatus oil see Thymbra capitata oil Thymus lanuginosus var citriodorum see Thymus x citriodorus Thymus mastichina oil 11, 346 Thymus satureioides 448 Thymus serpyllum 450, 452, 453, 454 Thymus serpyllum var citriodorus see Thymus x citriodorus Thymus serpyllum var vulgaris see Thymus x citriodorus Thymus vulgaris 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454 Thymus x citriodorus 450 Thymus zygis 451, 452, 453, 454 tick bush oil 468–469 timur seed oil 455 tissues, accumulation in 52 T lymphocytes 78, 79f, 171 tolerable daily intake (TDI) 35 newer approaches 36–37, 36t tolu balsam resinoid 81t, 454–455 Toluifera pereirae see Myroxylon balsamum var pereirae tomar seed oil 455 tonic-clonic seizures 132 tonic seizures 132 tonka absolute 455–456 tonka bean camphor see coumarin toothpick ammi oil see khella oil toxic essential oils, combinations of 189 toxicification 56–57 toxicity 2–3, 23–38 acute see acute toxicity animal see animal toxicity cellular see cytotoxicity chronic 28 classifications 28–29, 31t estimating risk 32–34 human 25–28 manifestations 23–24 mathematical models 34 measuring see toxicity tests metabolism and 56–57 minimizing risk 34–37 Index of mixtures 24–25 packaging and labeling 37 patterns 34 signs and symptoms 649, 650t subacute 28 toxicity tests 28–32 alternatives to animal tests 33–34 methodological concerns 1–2 OECD approved 28, 29b reproductive toxicity 148 toxicodynamics 24 toxicokinetics 24 toxicology 23 toxic substances 24–25 trace constituents 7, 188 Trachyspermum ammi 191 Trachyspermum copticum see Trachyspermum ammi traditional medicine transient receptor potential (TRP) channels 103, 104t trans-isomers 14 transplants 660 trauma, transdermal absorption and 46–47 tree basil oil 208–209 treemoss absolute 456 adverse skin reactions 81t, 92t, 96t, 456 triacylglycerols, transdermal absorption 45 2,4,6-trichloroanisole Trigonella foenum-graecum 278 Trilisa odoratissima 268 3,4,5-trimethyl-1-allylbenzene see elemicin 1,3,3-trimethyl-2-norbornanone see fenchone triterpenes 15 Trolab patch testing system 75 Tropaeolum majus 362 true camphor oil 228 true camphor tree oil 303 TRUE Test system 75 Tsuga canadensis 429 tuberose absolute 456–457 tulsi oil 204 Turkish sage oil see Greek sage oil turmeric leaf oil 457–458 turmeric oil 457–458, 459 drug interactions 58t hypoglycemic effects 117 neuroprotective action 146 wild 459 turmeric rhizome oil 458 ar-turmerone 179t, 644 Turnera aphrodisiaca see Turnera diffusa var aphrodisiaca Turnera diffusa var aphrodisiaca 267 Turnera diffusa var diffusa see Turnera diffusa var aphrodisiaca Turnera microphylla see Turnera diffusa var aphrodisiaca turpentine 461 turpentine oil 459–461 adverse skin reactions 27, 76, 460 inhalation toxicity 132, 460 neurotoxicity 136–137, 138 twisted leaf pine see Pinus teocote UDP-glucuronyltransferase 55–56, 64, 170 ultraviolet (UV) light clinical safety 659 degrading effects 12 photoallergic reactions 85 photocarcinogenesis 88–90 phototoxic reactions 85–86 uncertainty factors 35–36 2-undecanone 645 undiluted essential oils 660 conversion tables 665–666 patch testing 74 transdermal absorption 45, 46 up and down procedure (UDP) 33 upper respiratory tract infections 104 urinary system 119–122 urine 119 excretion via 53t, 57 urticaria, immediate contact 78 uterine cancer 657 vanillin 645 anticancer activity 179t, 646 excretion 53t, 645 mutagenicity 174, 646 partition coefficient 44t vaporization 660 vasculitis 117b, 660 vassoura oil 125t, 463 vehicles oral administration 49 percutaneous absorption and 45–46 Venetian sumach oil 433–434 verbena (lemon) absolute 81t, 464 verbena oil 463–466 honey 463–464 lemon see lemon verbena oil phototoxicity 98, 465 white 465–466 verbenone 646 vernalgrass (sweet) oil 58t, 434–435 Vetiveria zizanoides 466 vetiver oil 466–467 Vicks VapoRub 104, 105 Victorian emerald cypress oil 266 Viola odorata 467 violet leaf absolute 467–468 Virginian cedarwood oil 240 Vitex agnus castus 246 volatile organic compounds (VOC) 100 adverse effects 100–103 RD50 values 101t, 102 sensory irritation 100–102 transdermal absorption 46 V W vaginal administration 51, 656 vakula absolute see bakul absolute vakul absolute see bakul absolute valeranone 140, 141t, 143 valerenal 140, 141t, 143 valerenic acid 140, 141t, 143 Valeriana fauriei see Valeriana officinalis Valeriana jatamansi 462 Valeriana officinalis 461, 462 Valeriana wallichii see Valeriana jatamansi valerian oil 461–462 European type 461–462 Indian 462 sedative action 140, 141t, 143 vanilla absolute 462–463 Vanilla fragrans see Vanilla planifolia Vanilla planifolia 462–463 Vanilla tahitensis 462 vanillic aldehyde see vanillin warfarin 65, 117b, 660 warning labels 34 wartara seed oil 455 Wasabia japonica root oil 116 waste disposal 654 water, spoilage 12 water-soluble molecules distribution within body 51 excretion in urine 119 percutaneous absorption 44, 66 weaver’s broom absolute 219–220 weeping tea tree oil see cajuput oil Western arborvitae oil see Western red cedar oil Western Australian sandalwood oil 58t, 420 Western red cedar oil 468 neurotoxicity 134t, 138, 468 pregnancy and lactation 152t safety measures 652t Western yellow pine oil see pondorosa pine oil U West Indian bay oil 209–210, 324 adverse skin reactions 81t, 209 antioxidant activity 170t, 209 drug interactions 58t, 209 West Indian cedar oil 240–241 West Indian lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) oil 334–335 gastrointestinal toxicity 125, 125t see also lemongrass oil West Indian lime oil see Mexican lime oil West Indian sandalwood oil 193–194 white birch tar oil see birch tar oil white camphor oil 228 white cedar oil see thuja oil white champaca absolute 245–246 white champaca oil see magnolia flower oil; magnolia leaf oil white cloud oil 468–469 white cypress (pine) oil 266–267 white fir see silver fir white ginger lily see ginger lily white jade orchid oil see magnolia flower oil; magnolia leaf oil white kunzea oil 468–469 white lippia oil 465–466 white pepper oil 386–387 white pine oil 399 white sage oil 416 white sandalwood oil see East Indian sandalwood oil white skin 42, 76, 659 white spruce oil 431–432 white tea tree (kanuka) oil 316 white turmeric oil see zedoary oil white verbena oil 465–466 white wormwood absolute 474 white wormwood (Artemisia herba alba) oil 474–475 antigenotoxicity 89 pregnancy and lactation 152t safety measures 652t wild bergamot oil 213–214 wild camphor tree oil 412–413 wild chamomile oil 244 wild forest mint oil 352 wild ginger oil 426 wild marjoram oil 347, 348 adverse skin reactions 77t, 347 carvacrol CT 347 drug interactions 58t, 347 linalool CT 348 see also oregano oil wild mountain sage oil 416–417 adverse skin reactions 77t, 81t, 417 drug interactions 58t, 417 wild oregano oil see wild marjoram oil wild turmeric oil 459 779 Index wild verbena oil 463–464 winged prickly ash oil 455 wintergreen oil 469–470 drug interactions 58t, 470 human vs animal toxicity 32 nephrotoxicity 120 neurotoxicity 131–132, 134t, 137 poisoning 25–26, 469–470, 650t pregnancy and lactation 152t, 469 safety measures 652t winter tarragon oil see Mexican marigold oil woolly butt oil see Eucalyptus macarthurii oil wormseed oil 470–471 acute toxicity 30t, 470–471 animal toxicity 28, 471 nephrotoxicity 120 neurotoxicity 131–132 poisoning 650t safety measures 652t wormwood (white) absolute 474 780 wormwood oil 471–475 African see lanyana oil annual (sweet) 473–474 blood pressure effects 113 Indian see common mugwort oil nephrotoxicity 120 neurotoxicity 134t, 135, 138, 145, 472–473 pregnancy and lactation 152t safety measures 652t sea 474 white see white wormwood oil WP50 X xanthorrizol 179, 179t, 647 xanthotoxin see methoxsalen Xanthoxylum alatum see Zanthoxylum armatum xenobiotics 23 in pregnancy and lactation 147–149 Y yarmor oil see turpentine oil yarrow oil 475–476 chamazulene CT 475–476 drug interactions 58t, 476 green 476 neurotoxicity 134t, 476 pregnancy and lactation 152t sedative action 141t yellow camphor oil 58t, 228–229 yellow pine see Pinus palustris yellow sandalwood oil see East Indian sandalwood oil ylang-ylang absolute 476–477 ylang-ylang oil 477–478 adverse skin reactions 81t, 83t, 84, 93t, 96t, 478, 479, 479t hypotensive effect 114 Young’s formula 50, 66 Yunnan pine see Pinus yunnanensis yu-sho 303 yuzu oil 87, 480 Z Zanthoxylum alatum see Zanthoxylum armatum Zanthoxylum armatum 455 Zanthoxylum limonella see Zanthoxylum rhetsa Zanthoxylum piperitum 386 Zanthoxylum rhetsa 355 zdravetz oil 480–481 zedoary oil 481–482 reproductive toxicity 149, 152t, 155, 481–482 Zingiber cassumunar see Zingiber montanum Zingiber montanum 400 Zingiber officinale 294 Zingiber purpureum see Zingiber montanum zinziba oil 463–464 ... (Umbelliferae) Asteraceae (Compositae) Cupressaceae Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Lauraceae Myrtaceae Pinaceae Poaceae Rutaceae Zingiberaceae primary industry or harvested in the wild The principal ten essential. .. Victoria, Australia Ermias Dagne, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia John Day, The Paperbark Company, Harvey, W .A. , Australia Hussein Fakhry, A Fakhry & Co., Cairo, Egypt Earle Graven,... Belgium Naiyin Wang, Sinae Trading Company, Orpington, Kent, UK For other assistance Anne Marie Api, RIFM, Hackensack, New Jersey, for information about melissa and lavender cotton oils Salaam Attar,