ADVANCES IN AGRONOMY Advisory Board PAUL M BERTSCH RONALD L PHILLIPS University of Kentucky University of Minnesota KATE M SCOW LARRY P WILDING University of California, Davis Texas A&M University Emeritus Advisory Board Members JOHN S BOYER KENNETH J FREY University of Delaware Iowa State University EUGENE J KAMPRATH MARTIN ALEXANDER North Carolina State University Cornell University Prepared in cooperation with the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America Book and Multimedia Publishing Committee DAVID D BALTENSPERGER, CHAIR LISA K AL-AMOODI CRAIG A ROBERTS WARREN A DICK MARY C SAVIN HARI B KRISHNAN APRIL L ULERY SALLY D LOGSDON Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101–4495, USA 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA 32 Jamestown Road, London, NW1 7BY, UK The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands First edition 2013 Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford,UK: phone: (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax: (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made ISBN: 978-0-12-417187-9 ISSN: 0065-2113 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at store.elsevier.com Printed and bound in USA 13 14 15 16 10 CONTRIBUTORS David Bonnett International Center for Maize and Wheat Improvement (CIMMYT), Texcoco, Mexico Hadi Bux Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan Peidu Chen Nanjing Agriculture University, Nanjing, China Ian Dundas School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia Emin Bulent Erenoglu Soil Science and Plant Nutrition Department, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey Sumaira Farrakh Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan Shmulik P Friedman Institute of Soil, Water, and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel Hayriye Ibrikci Soil Science and Plant Nutrition Department, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey Alvina Gul Kazi Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan Masahiro Kishii International Center for Maize and Wheat Improvement (CIMMYT), Texcoco, Mexico Cheng-Bao Li Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China Tariq Mahmood Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan Aime´ J Messiga Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Quebec, Canada Christian Morel INRA, UMR 1220, TCEM (INRA-ENITAB), Villenave d’Ornon, France A Mujeeb-Kazi National Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE) Faisalabad, Pakistan vii viii Contributors Francis Ogbonnaya Grain Research and Development Corporation (GRDC), Barton ACT 2600, Australia Awais Rasheed Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan Abdul Rashid Pakistan Academy of Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan John Ryan International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria Rolf Sommer International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria Jose´ Torrent Departamento de Agronomı´a, Universidad de Co´rdoba, Co´rdoba, Spain Richard R.-C Wang USDA-ARS, Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Logan, Utah, USA Yu-Jun Wang Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China Joann K Whalen Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Macdonald Campus of McGill University, Quebec, Canada Steven Xu USDA-ARS, Northern Crop Science Laboratory, Fargo, North Dakota, USA Sui Kwong Yau Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon Dong-Mei Zhou Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China Noura Ziadi Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Quebec, Canada PREFACE Volume 122 of Advances in Agronomy contains four excellent reviews dealing with crop and soil sciences Chapter is a comprehensive review of micronutrient constraints on crop production in the Middle East–West Asia region Topics that are covered include climate and soils of the region, soil factors and micronutrient behavior, diagnostic approaches for determining micronutrient problems, micronutrient research dealing with soil behavior and crop responses, and managing micronutrient deficiencies Chapter deals with assessment and modeling of soil available phosphorus in sustainable cropping systems Detailed discussions are included on phosphorus in agricultural soils and measurements to assess soil available phosphorus Chapter discusses the Wien effect in suspensions and its application in soil science Topics that are covered include fundamentals of the Wien effect and measurement methodologies Chapter deals with genetic diversity to improve wheat production and impacts on food security Topics covered include plant breeding and genetic strategies I appreciate the excellent reviews of the authors DONALD L SPARKS Newark, Delaware, USA ix CHAPTER ONE Micronutrient Constraints to Crop Production in the Middle East–West Asia Region: Significance, Research, and Management John Ryan*, Abdul Rashid†, José Torrent{, Sui Kwong Yau}, Hayriye Ibrikci}, Rolf Sommer*, Emin Bulent Erenoglu} *International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria † Pakistan Academy of Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan { Departamento de Agronomı´a, Universidad de Co´rdoba, Co´rdoba, Spain } Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon } Soil Science and Plant Nutrition Department, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey Contents Introduction 1.1 Awareness of micronutrients in the Middle East–West Asia region 1.2 Milestones in micronutrient research Middle East–West Asia: An Overview 2.1 Climate: Rainfall and temperature 2.2 Land features and soils 2.3 Farming systems and crops Soil Factors and Micronutrient Behavior 3.1 Iron in soils and cropping implications 3.2 Zinc, copper, manganese, and boron Micronutrient Disorders: Diagnosis Approaches 4.1 Crop sensitivity to micronutrient deficiencies 4.2 Deficiency symptoms in common Middle East–West Asia crops 4.3 Soil testing in the Middle East–West Asia region 4.4 Plant analysis, a complement to soil testing 4.5 Crop responses to micronutrients Micronutrient Research: Significance, Soil Behavior, and Crop Responses 5.1 The intractable problem of iron 5.2 Zinc, a serious regional concern 5.3 Boron, too little or too much? 5.4 Manganese and copper: Minor concerns Managing Micronutrient Deficiencies 6.1 Conventional approaches Advances in Agronomy, Volume 122 ISSN 0065-2113 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-417187-9.00001-2 # 2013 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved 10 11 13 13 21 23 24 26 28 29 32 34 34 37 41 54 55 55 John Ryan et al 6.2 Biofortification, an emerging concept 6.3 Fertilizer-use efficiency and residual effects 6.4 Soil micronutrient budgets and balances 6.5 Micronutrient content of crop seeds Future Research Needs Conclusions Acknowledgments References 57 59 61 62 65 68 69 69 Abstract In addition to nine major nutrients, eight micronutrients [i.e., boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn)] are also essential for healthy growth and reproduction of higher plants Globally, crop production is largely dependent on chemical fertilizer use, especially in developed countries While fertilizer use, particularly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), has increased substantially in the past four decades in developing countries, such as Pakistan and India, fertilizer use is limited in many areas of the world where agriculture is constrained by harsh climatic conditions, especially low rainfall The disparity between developed and developing countries is particularly acute with respect to micronutrient awareness and use One area of the world that is characterized by major climatic and soil constraints, often exacerbated by unfavorable socioeconomic conditions, is the Middle East–West Asia region This review provides a current perspective on that region of the world where crop yields are invariably low due to drought, with limited inputs and inherent soil nutrient deficiencies With a high population, there is an urgent need to sustainably expand output However, there is generally limited awareness of the potential significance of micronutrients in agriculture as factors in crop production, as well as limited research on micronutrients in most countries of the region The long history of cultivated agriculture in the Middle East–West Asia region and the peculiar characteristics of its soils and climate predispose it toward problems of micronutrient deficiencies Over three decades ago, a global study on micronutrients indicated widespread deficiencies of iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), in contrast to copper (Cu) and manganese (Mn), but suggested the likelihood of excess levels of boron (B) in some countries of the region This overview primarily addresses three focal points in the region, Pakistan in the east, Syria/Lebanon/Turkey in the center, and Spain on the western fringes, reflecting the zones of activity of the respective authors; the latter focal point is a developed region, where, because of soil and climatic similarities, the research is relevant to the whole Middle East–West Asia region While providing some international context, this article brings together and summarizes published work in the areas of crop and soil micronutrient availability, their behavior in soils in relation to crop growth, and strategies to deal with either deficiency or toxicity, including crop selection for tolerance and subsequent genetic manipulation Considerable strides have been made in elucidating the significance of both Zn and Fe in the region's mainly calcareous soils, through soil and plant analysis, with the resulting knowledge providing a sound basis for management interventions through validated Micronutrient Constraints to Crop Production field research While B deficiency is common in some countries such as Pakistan, the problem of B toxicity (BT), where it exists, is only handled by crop adaptation The review also highlights the implications of micronutrient constraints in the soil– plant–human–animal continuum Intensification of agricultural production as a result of overall macronutrient use, expansion of irrigation, and introduction of new or “niche” crops is likely to accentuate micronutrient deficiencies in the region, but developments such as conservation agriculture may counteract this trend As the trend for land-use intensification increases because of higher yields due to fertilizer use and irrigation and the introduction of new crops, and as other nutrient constraints are eliminated, micronutrients will inevitably assume greater significance in the future agriculture of the Middle East–West Asia region together with improvements in plant breeding and crop management INTRODUCTION The urgency of addressing the issue of a fast expanding world population, in particular by eliminating hunger and malnutrition in lessdeveloped countries, underlines the need for policies that ensure sustainable agricultural productivity while preserving the environment and the natural resource base Nobel Laureate and father of the Green Revolution, Norman Borlaug highlighted the central role of soil fertility and mineral nutrition, along with improved crop varieties and water availability, in ensuring nutrition (Borlaug, 2003) and addressing the enormous challenges facing mankind in dealing with it (Borlaug, 2007) The task of ridding the world of hunger and the continued provision of adequate food for future world population calls for exceptional response from the global scientific community (Godfray et al., 2010) No wonder, never before has the issue of food security so impacted the public through the media (Cribb, 2010) Much of the world’s food supply today is attributed to the use of chemical fertilizers (Stewart et al., 2005), in addition to improved crop varieties and better crop management; future increases will be even more dependent on fertilizer inputs, particularly nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and, to a lesser extent, potassium (K) Soil deficiencies of these major nutrients are now well understood and largely eliminated in modern commercial agriculture through the routine use of fertilizers However, in many developing countries, chemical nutrient infertility still poses a major limit on crop productivity (Loneragan, 1997) In addition to nine major nutrients, eight micronutrients essential for healthy growth and reproduction of higher plants are boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper John Ryan et al (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn) (Alloway, 2008b) In general, while the use of fertilizers N, P, and K has increased in recent decades in developing countries (IFA, 2011), the use of micronutrients is very limited, and even nonexistent in many cases, especially in dryland agriculture (Tow et al., 2011) However, in many situations, the amounts of fertilizer of any description available are inadequate for optimum economic yields; agriculture in such situations is constrained by adverse biophysical and socioeconomic circumstances Only in relatively recent times has there been a focus on the issues of dryland ecosystems of the world and their potential for sustainable cropping (Stewart and Robinson, 1997) In the context of the Middle East, Lal (2002) pointed to the potential of dry areas to produce crops as well as sequester carbon if properly managed 1.1 Awareness of micronutrients in the Middle East–West Asia region Despite being the center-of-origin of settled agriculture and of western civilization, as well as the location where many of the world’s major crops, especially cereals, pulses, and nuts, have evolved (Damania et al., 1998; Harlan, 1992), the Middle East–West Asia region is still largely a food-deficit region, with the exception of a few countries, such as Turkey, approaching self-sufficiency in staple foods The underlining factors, both biophysical and socioeconomic, contributing to the food insecurity were recently stressed by Khuri et al (2011) with respect to the Arab countries of the Middle East The vast swathe of the globe, from Morocco to Pakistan, is characterized by a Mediterranean-type of climate merging into a continental one (Kassam, 1981), and an agricultural system that is largely traditional and more of a subsistence character (Gibbon, 1981) As the dominant climatic feature is low and erratic rainfall, the dominant system of rainfed cropping, involving cereals and legumes and associated livestock production, is invariably restricted by drought (Cooper et al., 1987) Despite the perception of its traditional agriculture of cropping and pastural systems, change is taking place, either from nature or from man Given the current debate on climate change, drought is likely to be exacerbated in some areas of the world—the Middle East–West Asia region, already under climate pressure, is likely to be one such region (IPCC, 2008) Due to increased land-use pressure, driven by high population growth rates in the past few decades, there has been increasing emphasis on irrigation where water is available, either from rivers or from groundwater, mechanization, and the use of chemical fertilizers, mainly N and P (Ryan, 2002) Micronutrient Constraints to Crop Production In essence, the developments that have occurred earlier in the West are now emerging in the Middle East–West Asia region However, the state of awareness on micronutrients in agriculture of the Middle East–West Asia region has lagged behind that of the major nutrients For example, in two workshops of the soil test-calibration program involving soil fertility and crop scientists from the West Asia–North Africa (WANA) region, including the authors of this review (Ryan and Matar, 1990, 1992), no mention was made of micronutrients, as the general perception was that the only nutrients of importance were N and P In a subsequent, more comprehensive international workshop on soil fertility, there were only a few reports on micronutrients, that is, from Turkey, Iraq, and Syria (Ryan, 1997) Similarly, a recent major review on dryland agriculture (Rao and Ryan, 2004), including several contributions from the Middle East–West Asia, contained only one paper that referred to micronutrients However, some earlier internal publications at the American University of Beirut (Ryan et al., 1981b), Pakistan (Anonymous, 1998), and Turkey (Cakmak, 1998) did bring together various in-country publications dealing with micronutrients, which were not typical of the Middle East–West Asia region as a whole The first publication that ever indicated any potential problems with micronutrients, especially iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and boron (B), emanated from a Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)-sponsored study on micronutrient status in selected countries around the world, led by Sillanpaăaă (1982), which formed the basis of subsequent reports (Katyal and Vlek, 1985; Sillanpaăaă, 1990) That study involved sampling soils from around the world and conducting pot experiments in the greenhouse with various micronutrients added to each soil batch Subsequently, recent reports by Rashid and Ryan (2004, 2008) were further attempts to develop a coherent picture of micronutrient research in soils and crops of the Mediterranean climatic region This chapter elaborates on micronutrient research, highlighting recent developments, particularly in relation to Fe, Zn, and B, and stressing the role of plant adaptation to micronutrient deficiencies and 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164–165 Aegilops speltoides Tausch chromosome 2S#1 (Sr32), 219–220 chromosome 2S#2 (Sr39/Lr35), 220–221 chromosome 2S#3 (Sr2S#3), 221 Agricultural soils and phosphorus See Phosphorus Alien genes chromosome translocations, 203 germplasm introgression, 204–205 intergeneric hybrids, 203 monosomic, 203 ph1b cytogenetic stock, 203 stress related production constraints biotic genes, 206 Triticeae, 205 Thinopyrum resources, 204–205 translocation, global wheat breeding breeding programs, 207–208 SrR gene/Sr50, 208 T1AL.1RS, 208, 208f T5AS.5RL, 208, 209f T1BL.1RS translocation, 206–207, 207f wheat improvement, 204 production constraints, 208–209 productivity, 204 Alien resources Leymus racemosus and H vulgare barley translocation lines, 232 wheat monosomic lines, 232, 233t new translocations production chromosome, 232–234 homoeologous translocation, 234 ph1b genetic stock, 234 “Robertsonian”, 234 stocks, 237, 239t wheat and Haynaldia villosa chromosomes, 237, 238t B Barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV), 230 Binding energy, ions cations to negatively charged particles montmorillonite, 155 yellow-brown and black soils, 154–155 evaluation activity measurements, 151 charge density-pH curves, 153–154 EC0 measurements, 151–153 soil organic matter effect, 158–159 variable-charge soils latosol, 156 mineral constituents, 156 red soil, 156 weak-field EC0 method, 157–158 Biofortification density and balance, nutrients, 58 Fe-deficiency-induced anemia, 57–58 micronutrient malnutrition, 57 Zn deficiency, 58 fertilization, 58–59, 60t 259 260 Boron deficiency, 24, 41–45, 46 excess, in soils grid-sampling survey, 47 toxicity in field crops, 45, 46, 46t, 47–48 plant available band placement, 45 China, 44 deficiency, 42–43 India, 44–45 Pakistan, 43–44 toxicity (see Boron toxicity (BT)) Boron toxicity (BT) accumulation, plants, 48 borax, 49–50 field crops, 46t irrigation water, 49, 51, 52t region/areas, eastern Mediterranean countries, 50–51, 50t symptoms, 48–49 tolerance, 53–54 BT See Boron toxicity (BT) BYDV See Barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) C Calcareous soils B deficiency, 44–45 Cu bioavailability, 22–23 Fe deficiency, 13–14, 34 Fe oxides, 16–17 rootstocks, 35–36 Zn fertilizer, 22 Cereal yellow dwarf virus (CYDV), 230 CGIAR system See Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) system Charge density-pH curves variable-charge soils, 153–154, 154f yellow-brown and black soils, 153–154, 153f Chemical extraction methods, soil available phosphorus characteristics, soil test method, 99–102, 103t description, 99–102 Index soil test methods, 99–102, 100t, 101t Chromosomes 6Ae#1 (Sr26) chromotypes, 218–219 resistance gene, 218 rust-resistant lines, 218–219 wheat chromosome, 218 7Ai (Sr44), 219 translocations chromosome 1R, 209–216 chromosome 5R, 216 chromosome 6R, 216–217 Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) system, 7–8, 67 Crop nutrition disorders crop responses, 32–33, 33t diagnosis, 23–24 plant analysis critical levels, 30–32 diagnostic criteria, 30, 31t nutrient indexing information, 29–30 sensitivity dicotyledons and monocotyledons, 24 medium/high sensitivity, 27t Middle East–West Asia, 24, 25t susceptibility, crop genotypes, 24, 26t Zn, 24 soil testing DTPA test, 28–29 guidelines, interpretation, 29, 30t Pakistan, 29 susceptibility, crop genotypes, 24, 26t symptoms, Middle East–West Asia crops, 26–28 CYDV See Cereal yellow dwarf virus (CYDV) D DDL See Diffuse double layer (DDL) DebyeHuăckel theory, 132133 Diffuse double layer (DDL), 129–130, 140, 143–144, 152–153, 163, 166 Dissociation degree, ions cations adsorbed, red soil, 150 evaluation, 149 Index E EC0 measurements, binding energy electrode/chemical potentials, 152–153 electrophoretic mobilities, 152–153 Marshall’s active fraction, 152 soil particles, 151–152 Wien effect, 151 Electrolyte solutions, Wien effect conducting behavior dissociation field effect, 132 nitrate solutions, 131132, 132f mechanisms DebyeHuăckel theory, 132133 electrophoretic force, 133–134 relaxation force, 133 Electroultrafiltration (EUF), 107, 111–112 EUF See Electroultrafiltration (EUF) F Fertilizer-use efficiency, 59–61 Food security breeding programs, 195–196 description, 194 genomic stocks, 195 hexaploid germplasm, 194–195 pentaploid breeding, 194 yield maximization, 196 G Gene pools, Triticeae hybrid generation outputs, 183–185 Pasban 90, 185 plant breeding, 183–185 wheat, 185–186 Genetic biofortification, 58 Genetic diversity abiotic stress tolerance, 231–232 addition line production Aegilops caudata L, 223 Aegilops searsii, 224 Ae speltoides Tausch, 222–223, 223t Amblyopyrum muticum, 224 Th ponticum OK721154, 224 alien genes, 203–209 alien resources, 224 description, 181 durum and bread wheat origin, 182, 183f 261 food security, 194–196 genomic technologies, 240–241 hybrid production area, 182 hypersensitive disease, 238–240 pest/biotic stress resistance, 230–231 recombination studies, 209–222, 210t resistance genes, 225 species sources, 181–182 Thinopyrum (see Thinopyrum) transfer prerequisites alien species, 187 emasculation and pollination, 187–188 induced polyploidy, 188 plant-level manipulation, 186–187 procedures, 187 translocations biotic stress resistance, 226, 227t chromosome (see Chromosomes, translocations) T1AL.1RS, 226, 228f T2AS-2RS.2RL, 226, 230f T4BS.4BL-2R, bread wheat, 226, 228f T4BS.4BL-5RL, 226, 229f T2BS.2RL, 226, 229f T6BS.6RL, 226, 229f T7DS.7 DL.7Ag, 226, 228f utilization, 186 wheat grain quality and genetic resources, 196–202 improvement, 189–194 wild species, 225–226 Genetic resources HMW-GSs, 200–201 hybridization, 202 molecular markers, 200 puroindoline genes, 201–202 tertiary gene pool, 199 tertiary pool species, 202 Triticeae, 200 wild ancestors, 201–202 Gibbs free adsorption energy, 131, 159–160, 161f, 163–164, 164f, 167f, 171f GPC See Grain protein content (GPC) Grain protein content (GPC) durum and bread wheat, 198–199 food crops, biofortification, 197–198 Gpc-B1 gene, 197–198 262 Grain protein content (GPC) (Continued ) phytic acid (PA), 199 QTLs controlling, 197–198 H Hybridization, 188, 222–223 I ICOBTE See International Conference on the Biogeochemistry of Trace Elements (ICOBTE) In situ measurements, soil available phosphorus, 107–109 International Conference on the Biogeochemistry of Trace Elements (ICOBTE), Iron carbonate chemistry ACCE, 14–15 calcium carbonate equivalent (CCE), 14 chlorosis, 13–14 HCO3-concentration, 15 Mediterranean region, 13–14 surface area, soil carbonate, 14–15 chelated forms, 34–35 and chlorosis, 35, 36–37 chlorosis indicators ACCE, 17 Feox and Feca, 18 “indice de pouvoir chlorosant” (IPC), 17–18 leaf chlorophyll concentration, 18–19 soil Fe tests, 18 crop nutrition, 37 deficiency, 17, 20–21, 27t, 34, 35–36, 57–58 fertilizers and soil reactions application method, 19 ferrous phosphate, 20 ferrous sulfate heptahydrate, 20 synthetic Fe(III)-chelates, 19–20 Fe-tolerant rootstocks, 35–36 Lebanon, 35 mineralogy and forms calcareous soils, 16–17 Feox/Fed ratio, 17 oxides, 15–16 Index solubility, oxides, 16 oxides, 37 Isotopic dilution method, soil available phosphorus evaluation, 109–110, 111f L Land features and soils, Middle East–West Asia region high pH, 10–11 soil organic matter (SOM), 10 texture, 10 Land-use pressure, 4–5, 11 M Manganese adsorption, 54 calcareous and high-pH soils, 54 deficiency, 22, 54 occurrence, 22 relative stability, 22–23 Micronutrients behavior and soil factors iron, 13–21 zinc, copper, manganese, and boron, 21–23 deficiencies management biofortification, 57–59 budgets and balances, 61–62, 63t content, crop seeds, 62–65 DTPA test, 56 fertilizer categories, 55 fertilizer-use efficiency and residual effects, 59–61 foliar sprays, 55 synthetic chelates, 56 ZnSO4Á7H2O, 56–57 disorders (see Crop nutrition disorders) iron (see Iron) mapping, 65–66 Middle East–West Asia region (see Middle East–West Asia region) research boron, 41–54 geographic distribution, intractable problem, iron, 34–37 manganese and copper, 54 zinc, 37–41 wastewater, irrigation, 66–67 263 Index Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS), 106–107 Negatively charged particles montmorillonite, 163–164 yellow-brown soil and black soil deionized water, 161–162, 161f dielectric strengths, 162–163 heavy metal ions, 161–162, 162t pulse energy, 163 NIRS See Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) Phosphorus crop production optimal growth, 87 phytic acid, 87–88 cycle, plant–soil system annual flows and compartments, 88, 89f diffusion, 88–90 plow layer, 90 soil P compounds, 88 description, 86 fractionation methods, 105–106 “4-R” approach, 86–87 soil available phosphorus (see Soil available phosphorus, sustainable cropping systems) Phytate/phytin, 87–88 Prebreeding/breeding strategies, wheat amphiploid, 193–194 diverse genetic resources, 192 genome hexaploids, 192–193 meiosis, 193 stress screening, 192–193 Process-based mass-balance model assessment, soil available phosphorus, 114–115 diffusive soil phosphorus estimation, 113 dynamics, plant-available soil P, 111, 112f Pi flux, solid-to-solution interface, 112 P ions (Pi), 111–112 transfer, diffusive P ion, 113–114 O R Optical measurements, soil available phosphorus EUF, 107 NIRS, 106–107 Organic matter (OM), soil suspensions EC0 values, 141 electrical conductivities field strength, 140–141, 142f ions and soil particles, 140–141 REC See Relative electrical conductivities (REC) Relative electrical conductivities (REC) field-strength dependence, 134, 135f latosol suspension, 139 Middle East–West Asia region awareness, 4–6 climate annual precipitation, and crops, rain, variation, winter temperatures, countries, 7–8, 7f farming systems and crops agroecological conditions, 12–13, 12f cereals, 11 land-use pressure, 11 “niche” crops, 12 yielding potential, 12 land features and soils, 10–11 Molybdenum (Mo) deficiency, 54 N P Pest/biotic stress resistance BYDV and CYDV, 230 fungal and viral disease, 231 Th intermedium and Th ponticum, 230–231 S Short-high-voltage pulse (SHP) apparatus description, 144–145 pulse pattern, 144–145 SHP See Short-high-voltage pulse (SHP) apparatus Soil available phosphorus, sustainable cropping systems agricultural management composting, 97–98 264 Soil available phosphorus, sustainable cropping systems (Continued ) fertilizers, 96 mycorrhizal plants, 94–95 organic fertilizers, 96–97 stratification, 95–96 tillage, 95–96 definition, 90–91 environmental conditions drying and rewetting cycles, 98–99 freezing and thawing cycles, 98 measurements in situ, 107–109 isotopic dilution method, 109–110, 111f laboratory methods, 99–107 modeling (see Process-based mass-balance model) properties cluster roots, 93 hydroxyapatite, 92 isotopic dilution studies, 94 microbial reactions, 91–92 mycorrhizal symbiosis, 93–94 pH, 91–92 texture, 92 Soil organic matter effect, mean free adsorption energy Cd2ỵ bound, 166169 mono-and divalent cations, 166169, 167f paddy soil particles, 166–169, 168f Soil suspensions, Wien effect concentration effect, KNO3 solution, 134, 137f electrolytic conductance, 134, 134f influential factors electrolyte concentration, 139–140 electrolyte type, 136–138 OM presence, 140–142 particle concentration, 140 soil type, 139 measurement electrode cell, 145–146 measuring procedure, 147–148 SHP apparatus, 144–145 mechanisms particle movement, 143–144 Index polarization, 143–144, 143f observations, 135 REC field-strength dependence, 134, 135f yellow-brown soil particles mass concentration, 134, 138f Stripping intensity, ions cations, soil types, 148–149 evaluation, 148 Sustainable cropping systems See Soil available phosphorus, sustainable cropping systems T Thinopyrum timopheevii Zhuk chromosome 2G#2 (Sr40), 221–222 chromosome 2G#3 (SrTt3), 222 chromosome 4G#1 (Sr37), 221 screening alien species, rust resistance, 222 Thinopyrum transfers Ae speltoides Tausch, 219–221 Th intermedium, 219 Th ponticum, 218–219 T timopheevii Zhuk, 221–222 Toxicity boron (see Boron toxicity (BT)) zinc, 67 W Wastewater, irrigation, 66–67, 68–69 Water extraction methods, soil available phosphorus, 102–105 Weak-field EC0 method description, 157 monovalent anions, 158 monovalent cations, 157–158 Wheat grain quality and genetic resources cereal, 196 GPC and nutritional aspects, 197–199 mineral and phytate competition, 196 monogenic quality traits, 197 improvement bridge crosses, 190–192 germplasm, 189 prebreeding/breeding strategies, 192–194 265 Index synthetic hexaploid wheats, 189, 190f tertiary gene pool species, 189 Wien effect method adsorption energies, ions, 159–172 advantages, 173 binding energies, ions, 151–159 DDL, 129–130 description, 131 dilute-suspension, 172–173 dissociation degree, ions, 149–150 electrical conductivity, 130 electrical field, 130 electrolyte solutions, 131–134 polarization mechanisms, 174 preadsorbed cationic and anionic, 174 soil particles and dissolved ions, 128–129 soil samples, 174–175 soil suspensions (see Soil suspensions, Wien effect) stripping intensity, ions, 148–149 Z Zinc application methods, 40 balance, 63t cereal grain, 41 deficiency, 27t, 37, 38, 39, 40, 67 Fe oxides and carbonates, 21–22 fertilization, 41, 58–61, 60t, 62–65, 67 forage crops, 39 immobilization, 22 Indian subcontinent, 39 Morocco, 38 oxide, 41 Pakistan, 39 phytoavailability, 21 relative stability, 22–23 soil, 37–38 and SOM, 22 Syria, 38–39 toxicity, 67 Turkey, 40 ... Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China Noura Ziadi Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Quebec, Canada PREFACE Volume 122 of Advances in Agronomy contains four... improvements in plant breeding and crop management INTRODUCTION The urgency of addressing the issue of a fast expanding world population, in particular by eliminating hunger and malnutrition in lessdeveloped... despite advances in modeling capability, prediction of rain is beset with difficulties Generally, highest rainfall occurs in coastal areas, decreasing with distance inland Micronutrient Constraints