V O LU M E O N E ADVANCES H U N D R E D IN AGRONOMY F O U R ADVANCES IN AGRONOMY Advisory Board PAUL M BERTSCH RONALD L PHILLIPS University of Kentucky University of Minnesota KATE M SCOW LARRY P WILDING University of California, Davis Texas A&M University Emeritus Advisory Board Members JOHN S BOYER KENNETH J FREY University of Delaware Iowa State University EUGENE J KAMPRATH MARTIN ALEXANDER North Carolina State University Cornell University Prepared in cooperation with the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America Book and Multimedia Publishing Committee DAVID D BALTENSPERGER, CHAIR LISA K AL-AMOODI CRAIG A ROBERTS WARREN A DICK MARY C SAVIN HARI B KRISHNAN APRIL L ULERY SALLY D LOGSDON V O LU M E O N E ADVANCES H U N D R E D F O U R IN AGRONOMY EDITED BY DONALD L SPARKS Department of Plant and Soil Sciences University of Delaware Newark, Delaware, USA AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA 32 Jamestown Road, London, NW1 7BY, UK Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands First edition 2009 Copyright # 2009 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made ISBN: 978-0-12-374820-1 ISSN: 0065-2113 (series) For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at elsevierdirect.com Printed and bound in USA 09 10 11 12 10 CONTENTS Contributors Preface Advances in Assessing Bioavailability of Metal(Loid)s in Contaminated Soils vii ix Kirk G Scheckel, Rufus L Chaney, Nicholas T Basta, and James A Ryan Introduction Metal Risks in Soil Biological Metal Uptake Metal Extractability to Predict Availability Metal Chemistry Understanding Metal Bioavailability, Bioaccessibility, and Speciation Conclusions Acknowledgments References Nitrogen in Rainfed and Irrigated Cropping Systems in the Mediterranean Region 12 16 22 28 41 43 43 53 John Ryan, Hayriye Ibrikci, Rolf Sommer, and Ann McNeill Introduction Mediterranean Agroecosystems Perspective on Nitrogen in Agriculture Fertilizer use Trends in the Mediterranean Region Response of Rainfed Crops to Nitrogen Fertilizer Assessing Soil Nitrogen Status for Crop Yields Nitrogen Fixation Under Mediterranean Dryland Conditions Potential Losses of Nitrogen in Dryland Cropping Integrated Cropping Systems: Implications for Nitrogen 10 Nitrogen in Supplemental Irrigation Systems 11 Nitrogen Tracer use in Rainfed Cropping Systems 12 Modeling of Nitrogen in Rainfed Cropping Systems 13 Future Perspective Acknowledgments References 55 57 63 66 68 80 85 92 95 105 107 113 120 121 121 v vi Contents Biogeochemical Processes Controlling the Fate and Transport of Arsenic: Implications for South and Southeast Asia 137 Scott Fendorf and Benjamin D Kocar Introduction Arsenic Aqueous Chemistry Arsenic Surface and Solid Phases Desorption of Arsenic in Soils and Sediments Biogeochemical Processes Processes Controlling Arsenic Concentrations in South(east) Asia Summary and Conclusions Acknowledgments References Inorganic and Organic Constituents and Contaminants of Biosolids: Implications for Land Application 138 139 139 146 149 154 157 158 158 165 R J Haynes, G Murtaza, and R Naidu Introduction Sewage Treatment Processes Composition of Biosolids Nutrient Content and Release Heavy Metal Contaminants Organic Contaminants Synthesis and Conclusions References Index 166 168 169 175 182 208 234 237 269 CONTRIBUTORS Numbers in Parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ contributions begin Nicholas T Basta (1) School of Environment and Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA Rufus L Chaney (1) USDA-ARS, Environmental Management and Byproduct Utilization Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, USA Scott Fendorf (137) Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA R J Haynes (165) School of Land, Crop and Food Sciences/CRC CARE, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia Hayriye Ibrikci (53) Soil Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, C ¸ ukurova University, Balcali, Adana, Turkey Benjamin D Kocar (137) Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA Ann McNeill (53) Adelaide University, Roseworthy Campus, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia G Murtaza (165) Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation, Division of Information Technology, Engineering and the Environment, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, South Australia, Australia and Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan R Naidu (165) CRC CARE, Salisbury, South Australia, Australia James A Ryan (1) USEPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA John Ryan (53) International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria vii viii Contributors Kirk G Scheckel (1) USEPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA Rolf Sommer (53) International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria PREFACE Volume 104 contains four outstanding reviews on timely topics that will be of interest to plant, soil, and environmental scientists Chapter is a comprehensive review on frontiers in assessing the bioavailability of metal (loids) in contaminated soils Topics that are covered include metal risks in soils, biological metal uptake, metal chemistry, metal extractability and prediction of availability, and advances in understanding metal bioavailability, bioaccessibility, and speciation Chapter discusses nitrogen in rainfed and irrigated cropping systems in the region including Mediterranean agroecosystems, fertilizer use trends, response of rainfed crops to nitrogen fertilizer, nitrogen fixation under Mediterranean dryland conditions, and modeling of nitrogen in rainfed cropping systems Chapter covers the biogeochemical processes that impact the fate and transport of arsenic with specific emphasis on South and Southeast Asia Processes that are critical include ion displacement, desorption, reduction of arsenate to arsenite, and reductive dissolution of Fe- and Mn-(hydr)oxides Chapter provides a thorough treatment on inorganic and organic contaminants in biosolids and impacts on application to land Discussions on sewage sludge treatment processes, nutrient content and release, heavy metal contaminants, and organic contaminants are provided The authors are congratulated on their first-rate reviews DONALD L SPARKS Newark, Delaware, USA ix C H A P T E R O N E Advances in Assessing Bioavailability of Metal(Loid)s in Contaminated Soils Kirk G Scheckel,* Rufus L Chaney,† Nicholas T Basta,‡ and James A Ryan§,1 Contents 7 11 12 12 13 14 16 16 Introduction Metal Risks in Soil 2.1 Bioavailability and soil element risks 2.2 Phytotoxicity risks from soil elements 2.3 Risks to soil organisms Biological Metal Uptake 3.1 Risks through soil ingestion 3.2 How much soil children ingest? 3.3 Food-chain transfer and risks Metal Extractability to Predict Availability 4.1 In vitro bioaccessibility 4.2 Common soil extractions to predict risk of phytotoxicity or food-chain risk Metal Chemistry 5.1 Metal equilibrium in soils 5.2 Metal speciation in soils Understanding Metal Bioavailability, Bioaccessibility, and Speciation 6.1 Lead 6.2 Arsenic Conclusions Acknowledgments References * { { } 21 22 22 25 28 28 35 41 43 43 USEPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA USDA-ARS, Environmental Management and Byproduct Utilization Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, USA School of Environment and Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA USEPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA Retired Advances in Agronomy, Volume 104 ISSN 0065-2113, DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2113(09)04001-2 # 2009 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved Inorganic and Organic Constituents and Contaminants of Biosolids 257 Oleszczuk, P (2006) Persistence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sewage sludge-amended soil Chemosphere 65, 1616–1626 Oleszczuk, P (2007) Changes of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during composting of sewage sludges with chosen physico-chemical properties and PAHs content Chemosphere 67, 582–591 Oleszek-Kudlak, S., Grabda, M., and Czaplicka, M (2005) Fate of PCDD/PCDF during mechanical-biological sludge treatment Chemosphere 61, 389–397 Oliver, B G., and Cosgrove, E G (1974) The efficiency of heavy metal removal by a conventional sludge treatment plant Water Res 8, 869–874 Oliver, D P., Tiller, K G., Alston, A., Cozens, G D., and Merry, R H (1998) Effects of pH and applied cadmium on cadmium concentration in wheat grain Aust J Soil Res 36, 571–583 Oliver, R., May, E., and Williams, J (2005) The occurrence and removal of phthalates in a trickle filter STW Water Res 39, 4436–4444 Ozaki, M., Suwa, M., and Suzuki, Y (2006) Study on risk management of heavy metals for reuse of biosolids Water Sci Technol 53, 189–195 Pagliai, M., Guidi, G., La Marca, M., Giachetti, M., and Lucamante, G (1981) Effects of sewage sludges and composts on soil porosity and aggregation J Environ Qual 10, 556–561 Painter, H A., and Zabel, T (1989) The behaviour of LAS in sewage treatment Tenside Surf Det 26, 108–115 Palmquist, H., and Hanaeus, J (2005) Hazardous substances in separately collected greyand blackwater from ordinary Swedish households Sci Total Environ 348, 151–163 Parakash, O., Alva, A K., Sajwanm, K S., and Ornes, W H (1997) Effects of flyash/ sewage sludge amendment on transport of metals in a sandy loam soil In ‘‘Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on the Biogeochemistry of Trace Elements’’, Berkley, pp 25–26 Parker, C F., and Sommers, L E (1983) Mineralization of nitrogen in sewage sludge J Environ Qual 12, 150–156 Parker, C E., Jones, W A., Mathews, H B., McConnell, E E., and Hass, J R (1980) The chronic toxicity of technical and analytical pentachlorophenol in cattle II Chemical analysis of tissues Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 55, 359–369 Parr, J F., Epstein, E., and Willson, G B (1978) Composting sewage sludge for land application Agric Environ 4, 123–137 Pascual, J A., Moreno, J L., and Hernandez, T (2002) Persistence of immobilized and total urease and phosphatise activities in a soil amended with organic wastes Bioresour Technol 82, 73–78 Pepper, I L., Brooks, J P., and Gerba, C P (2006) Pathogens in Biosolids Adv Agron 90, 1–41 Perales, J A., Manzano, M A., Sales, D., and Quiroga, J M (2003) Biodisposition of linear alkylbenzene sulphonates and their associated sulphenyl carboxylic acid metabolites in sea water Int Biodeterior Biodegradation 51, 187–194 Perez-Cid, B., Lavilla, I., and Bendicho, C (1999) Comparison between conventional and ultrasound accelerated Tessier sequential extraction schemes for metal fractionation in sewage sludge J Anal Chem 363, 667–672 Peterson, R E., Theobald, H M., and Kimmel, G L (1993) Developmental and reproductive toxicity and related compounds: Cross-species comparisons Crit Rev Toxicol 23, 283–335 Peterson, A E., Speth, P E., Corey, R B., Wright, T H., and Schlect, P I (1994) Effect of twelve years of liquid digested sludge applications on soil phosphorus levels In ‘‘Sewage Sludge: Land Utilization and the Environment’’ (C E Clapp, W E Larson, and R H Dowdy, Eds.), pp 237–248 Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI 258 R J Haynes et al Petruzzelli, L., Celi, L., Cignetti, A., and Marsan, F A (2002) Influence of soil organic matter on the leaching of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil J Environ Sci Health Part B 37, 187–199 Piccolo, A., Zaccheo, P., and Genevini, P G (1992) Chemical characterization of humic substances extracted from organic-waste-amended soils Bioresour Technol 40, 275–282 Pierzynski, G M (1994) Plant nutrient aspects of sewage sludge In ‘‘Sewage Sludge: Land Utilization and the Environment’’ (C E Clapp, W E Larson, and R H Dowdy, Eds.), pp 21–26 Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI Pijnenburg, A M., Everts, J W., de Boer, J., and Boon, J P (1995) Polybrominated biphenyl and diphenylether flame retardants: Analysis, toxicity, and environmental occurrence Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 141, 1–26 Pilon-Smits, E (2005) Phytoremediation Ann Rev Plant Biol 56, 15–39 Plaza, C., Brunetti, G., Senesi, N., and Polo, A (2005) Proton binding to humic acids from organic amendments and amended soils by the NICA-Donnan model Environ Sci Technol 39, 6692–6697 Plaza, C., Brunetti, G., Senesi, N., and Polo, A (2006) Molecular and quantitative analysis of metal ion binding to humic acids from sewage sludge and sludge-amended soils by fluorescence spectroscopy Environ Sci Technol 40, 917–923 Poiger, T., Field, J A., Field, T M., and Giger, W (1993) Determination of detergentderived fluorescent whitening agents in sewage sludges by liquid chromatography Anal Method Instrum 1, 104–113 Poiger, T., Field, J A., Field, T M., Siegrist, H., and Giger, W (1998) Behaviour of fluorescent whitening agents during sewage treatment Water Res 32, 1939–1947 Pratt, P E., Broadbent, F E., and Martin, J P (1973) Using organic wastes as nitrogen fertilizers Calif Agric 27, 10–13 Purdom, C E., Hardiman, P A., Bye, V J., Eno, N C., Tyler, C R., and Sumpter, J P (1994) Estrogenic effects of effluents from sewage treatment works Chem Ecol 8, 275–285 Raber, B., and Kogel-Knabner, K J (1997) Influence of origin and properties of dissolved organic matter on the partition of polycyclic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Eur J Soil Sci 48, 443–455 Rafferty, B., Dawson, D E., and Colgan, P A (1994) Seasonal variations in the transfer of 137Cs and K to pasture grass and its ingestion by grazing animals Sci Total Environ 145, 125–134 Rahman, F., Langford, K H., Scrimshaw, M D., and Lester, J N (2001) Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants Sci Total Environ 275, 1–17 Ramos, I., Esteban, E., Lucena, J J., and Garate, A (2002) Cadmium uptake and subcellular distribution in plants of Lactuca sp Cd–Mn interaction Plant Sci 162, 761–767 Rappe, C (1994) Dioxin, patterns and source identification Fresenius J Anal Chem 348, 63–75 Rappe, C., Andersson, R., Bonner, M., Cooper, K., Fiedler, H., and Howell, F (1998) PCCDs and PCDFs in municipal sewage sludge and effluent from POTW in the state of Mississippi, USA Chemosphere 36, 315–328 Rauser, W E (1999) Structure and function of metal chelators produced by plants Cell Biochem Biophys 31, 19–48 Raychoudhury, S S., Flowers, A F., Millette, C F., and Finlay, M F (2000) Toxic effects of polychlorinated biphenyls on cultured rat sertoli cells J Androl 21, 964–973 Rayne, S., Ikonomou, M G., MacMurray, D., and Whale, D (2003) Anaerobic microbial and photochemical degradation of 4,40 -dibromodiphenyl ether Water Res 37, 551–560 Reilly, C (1991) Metal Contamination of Food, 2nd edn Elsevier, Essex, UK Richards, B K., Steenhuis, T S., Peverly, J H., and Liebowitz, B N (1997) Effect of processing mode on trace elements in dewatered sludge products J Environ Qual 26, 782–788 Inorganic and Organic Constituents and Contaminants of Biosolids 259 Richards, B K., Steenhuis, T S., Peverly, J H., and McBride, M B (1998) Metal mobility at an old, heavily loaded sludge application site Environ Pollut 99, 365–377 Richardson, M L., and Bowron, J M (1985) The fate of pharmaceutical chemicals in the aquatic environment J Pharm Pharmacol 37, 1–12 Riederer, M., Daiss, A., Gilbert, N., and Kohle, H (2002) Semi-volatile organic compounds at the leaf/atmosphere interface: Numerical simulation of dispersal and foliar uptake J Exp Bot 53, 1815–1823 Roberts, P., Roberts, J P., and Jones, D L (2006) Behaviour of the endocrine disrupting chemical nonylphenol in soil: Assessing the risk associated with spreading contaminated waste to land Soil Biol Biochem 38, 1812–1822 Robinson, M B., and Polglase, P J (2000) Volatilization of nitrogen from dewatered biosolids J Environ Qual 29, 1351–1355 Robinson, M B., and Roper, H (2003) Volatilization of nitrogen from land applied biosolids Aust J Soil Res 41, 711–716 Rogers, H R (1996) Sources, behaviour and fate of organic contaminants during sewage treatment and in sewage sludges Sci Total Environ 185, 3–26 Rogers, S L., and McLaughlin, M J (1999) Relationship between biosolid metal concentration, metal fraction and bioavailability In ‘‘Fifth International Conference on the Biogeochemistry of Trace Elements Vol 1’’ (W W Wenzel, D C Adriano, B J Alloway, H E Doner, C Keller, N W Lepp, M Mench, R Naidu, and G M Pierzynski, Eds.), pp 280–281 Vienna, Austria Rogers, H R., Campbell, B., Crathorne, B., and Dobbs, A J (1989) The occurrence of chlorobenzenes and permethrins in twelve UK sewage sludges Water Res 23, 913–921 Rosario, A L., Mohamed, F A., Salud, S J., and Manuela, L J V (2007) A review of environmental exposure to persistent organochlorine residuals during the last fifty years Curr Drug Saf 2, 163–172 Rost, U., Joergensen, R G., and Chander, K (2001) Effects of Zn enriched sewage sludge on microbial activities and biomass in soil Soil Biol Biochem 33, 633–638 Rostagno, C M., and Sosebee, R B (2001) Surface application of biosolids in the Chihuahuan Desert Effects on soil physical properties Arid Land Res Manag 15, 233–244 Routledge, E J., Sheahan, D., Desbrow, C., Brighty, G., Waldock, M., and Sumpter, J (1998) Identification of estrogenic chemicals in STW effluent In vivo responses in trout and rouch Environ Sci Technol 32, 1559–1565 Rowell, D M., Prescott, C E., and Preston, C M (2001) Decomposition and nitrogen mineralization from biosolids and other organic materials: Relationship with initial chemistry J Environ Qual 30, 1401–1410 Rudel, H (2003) Case study: Bioavailability of tin and tin compounds Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 56, 180–189 Ruzgas, T., Emneus, J., Goprton, L., and Marko, V G (1995) Ther development of a peroxidise biosensor for monitoring phenol and related aromatic compounds Anal Chem Acta 31, 245–253 Ryan, J A., Keeney, D R., and Walsh, L M (1973) Nitrogen transformations and availability of anaerobically digested sewage sludge J Environ Qual 2, 489–492 Ryan, J A., Bell, R M., Davidson, J M., and O’Connor, G A (1988) Plant uptake of nonionic organic chemicals from soils Chemosphere 17, 2299–2323 Saison, C., Perrin-Ganier, C., Schiavon, M., and Morel, J.-L (2004) Effect of cropping and tillage on dissipation of PAH contamination in soil Environ Pollut 130, 272–285 Sajjad, A., Alwan, A., Weslowski, D., and Bernard, S (2005) A 30-city survey of selected metals in biosolids generated in the midwestern United States Proc Water Environ Fed Technol 15, 711–725 260 R J Haynes et al Salt, D E., Smith, R D., and Raskin, I (1998) Phytoremediation Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 49, 643–668 Salt, D E., Kato, N., Kramer, U., Smith, R D., and Raskin, I (2000) The role of root exudates in nickel hyperaccumulation and tolerance in accumulator and nonaccumulator species of Thlaspi In ‘‘Phytoremediation of Contaminated Soil and Water’’ (N Terry and G Banuelos, Eds.), pp 189–200 CRC, Boca Raton Sanchez-Monedero, M A., Cegarra, J., Garcia, D., and Roig, A (2002) Chemical and structural evolution of humic acids during organic waste composting Biodegrad 13, 361–371 Sanchez-Monedero, M A., Mondini, C., de Nobili, M., Leita, L., and Roig, A (2004) Land applicatiuon of biosolids Soil response to different stabilization degree of the treated organic matter Waste Manag 24, 325–332 Sandaa, R.-A., Torsvik, V., Enger, O., Daae, F L., Castberg, T., and Hahn, D (1999a) Analysis of bacterial communities in heavy metal-contaminated soils at different levels of resolution FEMS Microb Ecol 30, 237–251 Sandaa, R.-A., Enger, O., and Torsvik, V (1999b) Abundance and diversity of Archaea in heavy metal contaminated soils Appl Environ Microbiol 65, 3293–3297 Sandaa, R.-A., Torsvik, V., and Enger, O (2001) Influence of long-term heavy-metal contamination on microbial communities in soil Soil Biol Biochem 33, 287–295 Sanders, J R., McGrath, S P., and Adams, T Mc M (1986) Zinc, copper and nickel concentrations in ryegrass grown on sewage sludge-contaminated soils of different pH J Sci Food Agric 37, 961–968 Sanders, J R., McGrath, S P., and Adams, T Mc M (1987) Zinc, copper and nickel in soil extracts and crops grown on four soils treated with metal-loaded sewage sludges Environ Pollut 44, 193–210 Sastre, I., Vicente, M A., and Lobo, M C (1996) Influence of the application of sewage sludge s on soil microbial activity Bioresour Technol 57, 19–23 Scancar, J., Milacic, R., Strazar, M., and Burica, O (2000) Total metal concentrations and partitioning of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe Ni and Zn in sewage sludge Sci Total Environ 250, 9–19 Schaecke, W., Tanneberg, H., and Schilling, G (2002) Behaviour of heavy metals from sewage sludge in a Chernozem of the dry belt in Saxony-Anhalt/Germany J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 165, 609–617 Schnoor, J L., licht, L A., McCutcheon, S C., Wolfe, N L., and Carreira, L H (1995) Phytoremediation of organic and nutrient contaminants Environ Sci Technol 29, 318–323 Schwab, A P., Al-Assi, A A., and Banks, M K (1998) Adsorption of naphthalene onto plant roots J Environ Qual 27, 220–224 Scow, K M (1982) Rate of biodegradation In ‘‘Handbook of Chemical Property Estimation Methods Environmental Behaviour of Organic Compounds’’ (W J Lyman, W F Reehl, and D H Rosenblatt, Eds.), pp 9.1–9.85 McGraw Hill, New York Scrimshaw, M D., and Lester, J N (2003) Fate and behaviour of endocrine disrupters in sludge treatment and disposal In ‘‘Endocrine Disrupters in Wastewater and Sludge Treatment Processes’’ ( J W Birkett and J N Lester, Eds.), pp 145–176 Lewis, Boca Raton Sellstrom, U., de Wit, C A., Lundgren, N., and Tysklind, M (2005) Effect of sewage sludge application on concentrations of higher-brominated diphenyl ethers Environ Sci Technol 39, 9064–9070 Senesi, N., and Plaza, P (2007) Role of humification processes in recycling organic wastes of various nature and sources as soil amendments Clean 35, 26–41 Senesi, N., Miano, T M., Provenzano, M R., and Brunetti, G (1991) Characterization, differentiation and classification of humic substances by fluorescence spectroscopy Soil Sci 152, 259–271 Inorganic and Organic Constituents and Contaminants of Biosolids 261 Senesi, N., Plaza, C., Brunetti, G., and Polo, A (2007) A comparative survey of recent results on humic-like fractions in organic amendments and effects on native soil humic substances Soil Biol Biochem 39, 1244–1262 Servos, M R., Bennie, D T., Burnison, B K., Jurkovic, A., McInnis, R., Neheli, T., Schnell, A., Seto, P., Smyth, S A., and Ternes, T A (2005) Distribution of estrogens, 17 b- estradiol and estrone in Canadian municipal wastewater treatment plants Sci Total Environ 336, 155–170 Sewart, A., Harrad, S J., McLauglan, M S., McGrath, S P., and Jones, K C (1995) PCDD/Fs and non-o-PCBs in digested UK sewage sludges Chemosphere 30, 51–67 Shammas, N K., and Wang, L W (2007a) Land application of biosolids In ‘‘Handbook of Environmental Engineering, Vol Biosolids Treatment Processes’’ (L K Wang, N K Shammas, and Y.-T Hung, Eds.), pp 705–745 Humana Press, Totowa, New Jersey Shammas, N K., and Wang, L W (2007b) Aerobic digestion In ‘‘Handbook of Environmental Engineering, Vol Biosolids Treatment Processes’’ (L K Wang, N K Shammas, and Y.-T Hung, Eds.), pp 177–205 Humana Press, Totowa, New Jersey Shanker, R., Ramakrishna, C., and Seth, P K (1985) Degradation of some phthalic acid esters in soil Environ Pollut Series A 39, 1–7 Sharpley, A N., Chapra, S C., Wedepohl, R., Sims, J T., Daniel, T C., and Reddy, K R (1994) Managing agricultural phosphorus for protection of surface waters: Issues and options J Environ Qual 23, 437–451 Shaw, B P., Presad, M N V., Jha, V K., and Sahu, B B (2006) Detoxification/defense mechanisms in metal-exposed plants In ‘‘Trace Elements in the Environment Biogeochemistry, Biotechnology and Bioremediation’’ (M N V Presad, K S Sajwan, and R Naidu, Eds.), pp 291–324 Taylor Francis, Boca Raton Shen, Y.-H (1999) Sorption of natural dissolved organic matter on soil Chemosphere 38, 1505–1515 Shepherd, M A (1996) Factors affecting nitrate leaching from sewage sludges applied to a sandy soil in arable agriculture Agric Ecosyst Environ 58, 171–185 Shim, H., Chauhan, S., Ryoo, D., Bowers, K., Thomas, S M., Canada, K A., Burken, J G., and Wood, T K (2000) Rhizosphere competiiveness of trichloroethylene-degrading, poplar-colonizing recombinant bacteria Appl Environ Microbiol 66, 4673–4678 Shiu, W Y., and Mackay, D (1986) A critical review of aqueous solubilities, vapour pressures Henry’s law constants and octanol-water partition coefficients of the polychlorinated biphenyls Phys Chem Ref Data 15, 911–929 Shober, A L., Hesterberg, D L., Sims, J T., and Gardner, S (2006) Characterization of phosphorus species in biosolids and manures using XANES spectroscopy J Environ Qual 35, 1983–1993 Siciliano, S D., and Germida, J J (1998) Mechanisms of phytoremediation: Biochemical and ecological interactions between plants and bacteria Environ Rev 6, 65–79 Siddiqi, M A., Laessig, R H., and Reed, K D (2003) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): New pollutants—Old diseases Clin Med Res 1, 281–290 Sidle, R C., and Kardos, L T (1977) Transport of heavy metals in a sludge-treated forested area J Environ Qual 6, 431–437 Siemens, J., Ilg, K., Lang, F., and Kaupenjohann, M (2004) Adsorption controls mobilization of colloids and leaching of dissolved phosphorus Eur J Soil Sci 55, 253–263 Silver, S (1996) Bacterial resistances to toxic metal ions – a review Gene 179, 9–19 Simonich, S L., and Hites, R A (1994) Vegetation-atmosphere partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Environ Sci Technol 28, 939–943 Sims, J T., and Boswell, F C (1980) The influence of organic wastes and inorganic nitrogen sources on soil nitrogen, yield and chemical composition of corn J Environ Qual 9, 512–518 262 R J Haynes et al Sims, J L., and Kline, J S (1991) Chemical fractionation and plant uptake of heavy metals in soils amended with co-composted sewage sludge J Environ Qual 20, 387–389 Singh, R P., and Agrawal, M (2008) Potential benefits and risks of land application of sewage sludge Waste Manage 28, 347–358 Sloan, J J., Dowdy, R H., Dolan, M S., and Linden, D R (1997) Long-term effects of biosolids applications on heavy metal bioavailability in agricultural soils J Environ Qual 26, 966–974 Sloan, J J., Dowdy, R H., and Dolan, M S (1998) Recovery of biosolids-applied heavy metals sixteen years after application J Environ Qual 27, 1312–1317 Smernik, R J., Oliver, I W., and Merrington, G (2003a) Characterization of sewage sludge organic matter using solid-state carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy J Environ Qual 32, 1516–1522 Smernik, R J., Oliver, I W., and Merrington, G (2003b) Advanced solid-state carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic studies of sewage sludge organic matter: Detection of ‘‘domains’’ J Environ Qual 32, 1523–1533 Smernik, R J., Oliver, I W., and McLaughlin, M J (2004) Changes in the nature of sewage sludge organic matter during a twenty-one month incubation J Environ Qual 33, 1924–1929 Smith, S R (1996) Agricultural Recycling of Sewage Sludge and the Environment CAB International, Wallingford Smith, S R (2000) Are controls on organic contaminants necessary to protect the environment when sewage sludge is used in agriculture? Progr Environ Sci 2, 129–146 Smith, S R (2001) The scientific basis to recycling sewage sludge in agriculture In ‘‘Recycling and Reuse of Sewage Sludge’’ (R K Dhir, M C Limbachiya, and M J McCarthy, Eds.), pp 141–158 Thomas Telford, London Smith, K E C., and Jones, K C (2000) Particles and vegetation: Implications for the transfer of particle-bound organic contaminants to vegetation Sci Total Environ 246, 207–236 Smith, S R., Woods, V., and Evans, T D (1998) Nitrate dynamics in biosolids-treated soils I Influence of biosolids type and soil type Biores Technol 66, 139–149 Smith, M T E., Cade-Menun, B J., and Tibbett, M (2006) Soil phosphorus dynamics and phytoavailability from sewage sludge at different stages in a treatment stream Biol Fertil Soils 42, 186–197 Soler Rovira, P A., Brunetti, G., Polo, A., and Senesi, N (2002) Comparative chemical and spectroscopic characterization of humic acids from sewage sludges and sludgeamended soils Soil Sci 167, 179–201 Solis, G J., Alonso, E., and Riesco, P (2002) Distribution of metal extractable fractions during anaerobic sludge treatment in southern Spain WWTPS Water Air Soil Pollut 40, 139–156 Sommers, L E (1977) Chemical composition of sewage sludges and analysis of their potential use as fertilizers J Environ Qual 6, 225–232 Sommers, L E., Nelson, D W., and Yost, K J (1976) Variable nature of chemical composition of sewage sludges J Environ Qual 6, 225–232 Sonnenschein, C., and Soto, A M (1998) An updated review of environmental estrogen and androgen mimics and antagonists J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 65, 143–150 Soon, Y K., and Bates, T E (1982) Extractability and solubility of phosphate in soils amended with chemically treated sewage sludges Soil Sci 34, 89–96 Soon, Y K., Bates, T E., and Moyer, J R (1980) Land application of chemically treated sludge: III Effects on soil and plant heavy metal content J Environ Qual 9, 497–504 Sopper, W E (1992) Reclamation of mine land using municipal sludge In ‘‘Soil Restoration’’ (R Lal and B A Stewart, Eds.), pp 351–431 Springer Verlag, New York Sorme, L., and Lagerkvist, R (2000) Sources of heavy metals in urban wastewater in Stockholm Science Total Environ 298, 131–145 Inorganic and Organic Constituents and Contaminants of Biosolids 263 Sousa, A I., Cacador, I., Lillebo, A I., and Pardal, M A (2008) Heavy metal accumulation in Halimione portulacoides: Intra- and extra- cellular metal binding sites Chemosphere 70, 850–857 Sparks, D L (2003) Environmental Soil Chemistry Second edition Academic Press, Amsterdam Speir, T W., Horswell, J., van Schaik, A P., McLaren, R G., and Fietje, G (2004) Composted biosolids enhance fertility of a sandy loam soil under dairy pasture Biol Fertil Soils 40, 349–358 Sprynskyy, M., Kosobucki, P., Kowalkowski, B., and Buszewski, B (2007) Influence of clinoptilolite rock on chemical speciation of selected heavy metals in sewage sludge J Hazard Mater 149, 310–316 Staples, A C., Peterson, D R., Parketon, T H., and Adams, W J (1997) The environmental fate of phthalate esters: A review Chemosphere 35, 667–749 Stevens, J., Green, N J L., and Jones, K C (2001) Survey of PCDD/Fs and non-ortho PCBs in UK sewage sludges Chemosphere 44, 1455–1462 Stevens, J., Northcott, G., Stern, G., Tomy, G., and Jones, K C (2003) PAHs, PCBs, PCNs, organochlorine pesticides, synthetic musks and polychlorinated n-alkanes in UK sewage sludge: Survey results and implications Environ Sci Technol 37, 462–467 Stevenson, F J (1994) Humus Chemistry: Genisis, Composition Reactions, Wiley, New York Stevenson, F J., and Vance, G F (1989) Naturally occurring aluminium-organic complexes In ‘‘The Environmental Chemistry of Aluminium’’ (G Sposito, Ed.), pp 117–146 CRC Press, Boca Raton Stoveland, S., Astruc, M., Lester, J N., and Perry, R (1979) The balance of heavy metals through a sewage treatment works II Chromium, nickel and zinc Sci Total Environ 12, 25–36 Stoven, K., Al-Issa, A., Rogasik, J., Kratz, S., and Schnug, E (2005) Effect of long term sewage sludge applications on micro-organisms in an arable soil Landbauforsch Volk 55, 219–226 Stum, W (1992) Chemistry of the Solid-Water Interface John Wiley, New York Stum, W., and Sulzberger, B (1992) The cycling of iron in natural environments: Considerations based on laboratory studies of heterogeneous redox processes Geochim Cosmochim Acta 56, 3233–3257 Sui, Y., Thompson, M L., and Mize, C W (1999) redistribution of biosolids-derived total phosphorus applied to a Mollisol J Environ Qual 28, 1068–1074 Sukkariyah, B F., Evanylo, G., Zelazny, L., and Chaney, R L (2005a) Cadmium, copper, nickel and zinc availability in a biosolids-amended Piedmont soil years after application J Environ Qual 34, 2255–2262 Sukkariyah, B F., Evanylo, G., Zelazny, L., and Chaney, R L (2005b) Recovery and distribution of biosolids-derived trace metals in a clay loam soil J Environ Qual 34, 1843–1850 Sullivan, D E (1983) Biodegradation of a cationic surfactant in activated sludge Water Res 17, 1145–1151 Surampalli, R Y., Lai, K C K., Banjeri, J., Smith, J., Tyagi, R D., and Lohani, B N (2008) Long-term land application of biosolids—A case study Water Sci Technol 57, 345–352 Susarla, S., Medina, V F., and McCutcheon, S C (2002) Phytoremediation: An ecological solution to organic chemical contamination Ecol Eng 18, 647–658 Taricska, J R., Long, D A., Chen, P C., Hung, Y.-T., and Zou, S.-H (2007) Anaerobic digestion In ‘‘Handbook of Environmental Engineering, Vol Biosolids Treatment Processes’’ (L K Wang, N K Shammas, and Y.-T Hung, Eds.), pp 135–176 Humana Press, Totowa, New Jersey 264 R J Haynes et al Terry, R E., Nelson, D W., and Sommers, L E (1979) Carbon cycling during sewage sludge decomposition in soils Soil Sci Soc Am J 43, 494–499 Terry, R E., Nelson, D W., and Sommers, L E (1981) Nitrogen transformations in sewage sludge-amended soils as affected by soil environmental factors Soil Sci Soc Am J 45, 506–513 Tessier, A., Campbell, P G C., and Bisson, M (1979) Sequential extraction procedure for speciation of particulate trace elements Anal Chem 51, 844–851 Thawornchaisit, U., and Pakulanon, K (2007) Application of dried sewage sludge as phenol biosorbent Bioresour Technol 98, 140–144 Thiele, B., Gunther, K., and Schwuger, M J (1997) Alkylphenol ethoxylates: Trace analysis and environmental behaviour Chem Rev 97, 3247–3272 Togna, M T., Kafkewitz, D., and Armenante, P M (1995) Rapid dehalogenation of 2, 4, 6-trichlorophenol at alkaline pH by an anaerobic enrichment culture Lett Appl Microbiol 20, 113–116 Tom-Petersen, A., Leser, T D., Marsh, T L., and Nybroe, O (2003) Effects of copper amendment on the bacterial community in agricultural soil analysed by T-RFLP technique FEMS Microb Ecol 46, 53–62 Topac, F O., Baskaya, H S., Alkan, U., and Katkat, A V (2008) Effects of long term irrigation with polluted water and sludge amendment on some soil enzyme activities J Resid Sci Technol 5, 33–40 Topp, E I., Scheunert, I., Attar, A., and Korte, F (1986) Factors affecting the uptake of 14Clabelled organic chemicals by plants from soil Ecotoxicol Environ Safety 11, 219–228 Toribio, M., and Romanya, J (2006) Leaching of heavy metals (Cu, Ni and Zn) and organic matter after sewage sludge application to Mediterranean forest soils Sci Total Environ 363, 11–21 Totsche, K U., Danzer, J., and Kol-Knabner, I (1997) Dissolved organic matter-enhanced retention of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil miscible displacement experiments J Environ Qual 26, 1090–1100 Trapp, S., and Pussemeir, L (1991) Model calculations and measurements of uptake and translocation of carbamates by bean plants Chemosphere 22, 327–345 Tsadilas, C D., Mitsios, I K., and Golia, E (2005) Influence of biosolids application on some soil physical properties Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 36, 709–716 Udom, B E., Mbagwu, J S J., Adesodun, J K., and Agbim, N N (2004) Distributions of zinc, copper, cadmium and lead in a tropical ultisol after long-term disposal of sewage sludge Environ Int 30, 467–470 Ure, A M (1995) Methods of analysis for heavy metals in soils In ‘‘heavy metals in soils’’ (B J Alloway, Ed.), pp 58–102 Blackie, London Ure, A M., Quevauviller, A M., Muntau, H., and Griepink, B (1993) Improvements in the determination of extractable contents of trace metals in soil and sediment prior to certification Ph, EUR Report 14763 EN, CEC, Brussels Urrutia, M M (1997) General bacterial sorption processes In ‘‘Biosorbents for Metal Ions’’ ( J Wase and C Forster, Eds.), pp 39–66 Taylor & Francis, London USEPA (1993) Federal Register, 40 CFR Part 503 Standards for Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge: Final Rules, Washington, DC, USA USEPA (1995) Process Design Manual: Land Application of Sewage Sludge and Domestic Septage Office of Research and Development, Cicinnati, OH EPA/625/R-95/001 USEPA (2008) ‘‘United States Environmental Protection Agency Technology Transfer Network Air toxics web site Pentachlorophenol’’ Available from http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/ pentachl.html, accessed June 2008 Vaca-Paulin, R., Esteller-Alberich, M V., Luga-de la Fuente, J., and ZavaletaMancera, H A (2006) Effect of sludge or compodst on the sorption and distribution of copper and cadmium in soil Waste Manage 26, 71–81 Inorganic and Organic Constituents and Contaminants of Biosolids 265 Van Assche, F., and Clijsters, H (1990) Effects of metals on enzyme activity in plants Plant Cell Environ 13, 195–206 Van Den Berg, G A., Loch, J P G., and Winkels, H J (1998) Effect of fluctuating hydrological conditions on the mobility of heavy metals in soils of a freshwater estuary in the Netherlands Water Air Soil Pollut 102, 377–388 van den Hoek, J., Salverada, M H., and Tuinstra, L G M (1975) The excretion of six organochloride pesticides into the milk of the dairy cow after oral administration Neth Milk Dairy J 35, 147–157 Van Riemsdijk, W H., Lexmond, T M., Enfield, C G., and van der Zee, S E A T M (1987) Phosphorus and heavy metals: Accumulation and consequences In ‘‘Animal Manures on Grassland and Fodder Crops Fertilizer or Waste?’’ (H G van der Meer, Ed.), pp 213–227 Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, The Netherlands Villar, P., Callejon, M., Alonso, E., Jimenez, J C., and Guiraum, A (2006) Temporal evolution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sludge from wastewater treatment plants: Comparison between PAHs and heavy metals Chemosphere 64, 535–541 Vinten, A J., Yaron, B., and Nye, P H (1983) Vertical transport of pesticides into soil when adsorbed on suspended particles J.Agric Food Chem 31, 662–664 Vogeler, I., Green, S R., Mills, T., and Clothier, B E (2006) Modelling nitrate and bromide leaching from sewage sludge Soil Till Res 89, 177–184 Volkering, F., Breure, A M., and Rulkens, W H (1998) Microbiological aspects of surfactant use for biological soil remediation Biodegrad 8, 401–417 Vonderheide, A P., Mueller-Spitz, S R., Meija, J., Welsh, G L., Mueller, K E., Kinkle, B K., Shann, J R., and Caruso, J A (2006) Rapid breakdown of brominated flame retardants by soil microorganisms J Anal At Spectrom 21, 1232–1239 Voulvoulis, N., and Lester, J N (2006) Fate of organotins in sewage sludge during anaerobic digestion Sci Total Environ 371, 373–382 Voulvoulis, N., Scrimshaw, M D., and Lester, J N (2004) Removal of organotins during sewage treatment: A case study Environ Technol 25, 733–740 Walter, I., Martinez, F., Alonso, L., de Garcia, J., and Cuevas, G (2002) Extractable soil heavy metals following the cessation of biosolids application to agricultural soil Environ Pollut 117, 315–321 Walton, B T., and Anderson, T A (1990) Microbial degradation of trichloroethylene in the rhizosphere: Potential application to biological remediation of waste sites Appl Environ Microbiol 56, 1012–1016 Wang, M.-J., and Jones, K C (1994a) Behaviour and fate of chlorobenzenes (CBs) introduced into soil-plant systems by sewage sludge application: A review Chemosphere 28, 1325–1360 Wang, M.-J., and Jones, K C (1994b) Behaviour and fate of chlorobenzenes in spiked and sewage sludge-amended soil Environ Sci Technol 28, 1843–1852 Wang, M.-J., McGrath, S P., and Jones, K C (1995) Chlorobenzenes in field soil with a history of multiple sewage sludge applications Environ Sci Technol 29, 356–362 Wang, J., Liu, P., Shi, H., and Qian, Y (1997) Biodegradation of phthalic acid esters in soil by indigenous and introduced microorganisms Chemosphere 35, 1745–1754 Wang, C., Hu, X., Chen, M.-L., and Wu, Y.-H (2005) Total concentrations and fractions of Cd, Cr, Pb, Cu Ni and Zn in sewage sludge from municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants J Hazard Mater Part B 119, 245–249 Wang, C., Li, X.-C., Ma, H.-T., Quian, J., and Zhai, J.-B (2006a) Distribution of extractable fractions of heavy metals in sludge during the wastewater treatment process J Hazard Mater Part A 137, 1277–1283 Wang, C., Li, X.-C., Wang, P.-F., Zou, L.-M., and Ma, H.-T (2006b) Extractable fractions of metals in sewage sludges from five typical urban wastewater treatment plants of China Pedosphere 16, 756–761 266 R J Haynes et al Wang, Y., Zhang, Q., Lv, J., Li, A., Liu, H., Li, G., and Jiang, G (2007) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and organochlorine pesticides in sewage sludge of wastewater treatment plants in China Chemosphere 68, 1683–1691 Wang, X., Chen, L., Xia, S., and Zhao, J (2008) Changes of Cu, Zn, and Ni chemical speciation in sewage sludge co-composted with sodium sulphide and lime J Environ Sci 20, 156–160 Webber, M D., Rogers, H R., Watts, C D., Boxall, A B A., Davis, R D., and Scoffin, R (1996) Monitoring and prioritization of organic contaminants in sewage sludges using specific chemical analysis and predictive, non-analytical methods Sci Total Environ 185, 27–44 Weggler-Beaton, K., McLaughlin, M J., and Graham, R D (2000) Salinity increases cadmium uptake by wheat and Swiss chard from soil amended with biosolids Aust J Soil Res 38, 37–45 Welsch-Pausch, K., McLachlan, M S., and Umlauf, G (1995) Determination of the principal pathways of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans to Lolium multiflorum (Welsh Ray Grass) Environ Sci Technol 29, 1090–1098 Wild, S R., and Jones, K C (1992) Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon uptake by carrots grown in sludge-amended soil J Environ Qual 21, 217–225 Wild, S R., and Jones, K C (1995) Polynuclear aromatic carbons in the United Kingdom environment: A preliminary source inventory and budget Environ Pollut 88, 91–108 Wild, S R., Harrad, S J., and Jones, K C (1993) Chlorophenols in digested U.K sewage sludges Water Res 27, 1527–1534 Willett, L B., Liu, T Y., and Fries, G F (1990) Reevaluation of polychlorinated biphenyl concentrations in milk and body fat of lactating cows J Dairy Sci 73, 2136–2142 Wilson, S C., Duarte-Davidson, K C., and Jones, K C (1996) Screening the environmental fate of organic contaminants in sewage sludges applied to agricultural soils: The potential for downward movement to groundwaters Sci Total Environ 185, 45–57 Wilson, S C., Alcock, R E., Sewart, A P., and Jones, K C (1997) Persistence of organic contaminants in sewage sludge-amended soil: A field experiment J Environ Qual 26, 1467–1477 Wittich, R M (1998) Degradation of dioxin-like compounds by microorganisms Appl Microb Biotechnol 49, 489–499 Wolfe, N L., and Hoehamer, C F (2003) Enzymes used by plants and microorganisms to detoxify organic compouds In ‘‘Phytoremediation: Transformation and Control of Contaminants’’ (S C McCutcheon and J L Schnoor, Eds.), pp 157–187 Wiley, New York Wong, J W C., Li, K L., and Selvam, A (2007) The sorption of Cd and Zn by different soils in the presence of dissolved organic matter from sludge Geoderma 137, 310–317 Wu, D K C (1987) Utilization of sewage sludge on land—Is it safe and economical? Resour Conserv 13, 273–280 Xia, K., and Jeong, C Y (2004) Photodegradation of the endocrine-disrupting chemical 4-nonylphenol in biosolids applied to soil J Environ Qual 33, 1568–1574 Xiong, L.-M., and Lu, R.-K (1992) Effect of liming on plant accumulation of cadmium under upland or flooded conditions Environ Pollut 79, 199–203 Ying, G.-G., Williams, B., and Kookana, R (2002) Environmental fate of alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates—A review Environ Int 28, 215–226 Yuan, S Y., Su, C J., and Chang, B V (1999) Microbial dechlorination of hexachlorobenzene in anaerobic sewage sludge Chemosphere 38, 1015–1023 Zaman, M., Matsushima, M., Chang, S X., Inubshi, K., Nguyen, L., Goto, S., Kaneko, F., and Yoneyama, T (2004) Nitrogen mineralization, N2O production and soil microbial properties as affected by long-term applications of sewage sludge composts Biol Fertil Soils 40, 101–109 Inorganic and Organic Constituents and Contaminants of Biosolids 267 Zbytniewski, R., and Buszewski, B (2005) Characterization of natural organic matter (NOM) derived from sewage sludge compost Part 1: Chemical and spectroscopic properties Bioresour Technol 96, 471–478 Zhang, X.-X., Cheng, S.-P., Zhu, C.-J., and Sun, S.-L (2006) Microbial PAH-degradation in soil: Degradation pathways and contributing factors Pedosphere 16, 555–565 Zhang, Y., Zhang, H.-W., Zhang, Y., Su, Z.-C., and Zhang, C.-G (2008) Soil microbial characteristics under long-term heavy metal stress: A case study in Zhangshi wastewater irrigation area, Shenyang Pedosphere 18, 1–10 Zheng, X., and Zhou, Y (2006) Study on phthalate esters in Beijing sewage sludge J Beijing Univ Technol 32, 333–336 Zmora-Nahum, S., Markovich, O., Tarchitzky, J., and Chen, Y (2005) Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) as a parameter of compost maturity Soil Biol Biochem 37, 2109–2116 Zornoza, P., Vazquez, S., Esteban, E., Fernandez-Pascual, M., and Carpena, R (2002) Cadmium-stress in nodulated white lupin: Strategies to avoid toxicity Plant Phys Biochem 40, 1003–1009 Zorpas, A A., Inglezakis, V J., and Loizidou, M (2008) Heavy metals fractionation before, during and after composting of sewage sludge with natural zeolite Waste Manage 28, 2054–2060 Index A Agricultural production systems SIMultor (APSIM) legume–cereal rotations systems, 115 SOILN module, 114 water-use efficiency (WUE) and N-use efficiency (NUE) assesment, 115–116 wheat–chickpea rotation trial, 116 Arsenic (As) aqueous chemistry, 139 bioavailability assessment chemical forms, 37–39 factors, 36–37 modification, 39 reliable relative bioavailability (RBA), 40–41 risk assessment, 39–40 soil, 35–36 biogeochemical processes arsenic desorption, anaerobiosis, 150–154 microbial arsenate reduction, 149–150 concentrations controlling processes, South (east) Asia biogeochemical and hydrologic process, 156 microbial reduction of, 155 oxidative weathering, 154 reductive release of, 155–156 desorption, soils and sediments comparative desorption, 147–149 displacement and mobilization, 146–147 oxidative dissolution, 146 pollution and hazardous concentrations, 138–139 surface and solid phases adsorption envelopes, As(V) and As(III), 143–144 arsenate precipitation, 145 arsenite vs arsenate, 142–145 humic substances adsorption, 142 retention of, 139–142 sulfidogenesis, 145–146 B Barley-based rotation trials, 104 Biodegradation branched hydrocarbon chains, 209 brominated flame retardants, 222 chlorobenzenes (CBs), 215 chlorophenols, 218 dioxin, 220 estrogenic organics, 225 linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), 224 phthalic acid esters (PAEs), 211–212 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), 223 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 216 Biogeochemical processes arsenic desorption, anaerobiosis, 150–154 microbial arsenate reduction, 149–150 Biological metal uptake children ingestion of, 13–14 food-chain transfer and risks, 14–16 soil ingestion risks, 12–13 Biosolids heavy metal contaminants animal ingestion, 207–208 definition, 182 extractable fractions, 185–187 plant response and metal uptake, 202–207 soil application, 187–202 total concentrations, 183–185 inorganic components ash content, 174–175 X-ray fluorescence analysis, 175 nutrient content and release calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), 181 electrical conductivity (EC), soil, 182 micronutrients, 181–182 nitrogen (N), 175–179 pH change, soil, 182 phosphorus (P), 179–181 potassium (K), 181 organic contaminants branched hydrocarbon chains, 209 brominated flame retardants, 222–223 chlorobenzenes (CBs), 214–215 chlorophenols, 217–218 endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), 209–210 European union limits, 211 natural and synthetic hormones, 225–226 octonol–water partition coefficient (Kow), 209 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 216–217 organotin compounds, 220–222 pharmaceuticals and personal care products, 225 269 270 Index Biosolids (cont.) phthalic acid esters (PAEs), 211–212 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 215–216 polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs)/ dibenzofurans (PCDFs), 218–220 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 213–214 potential transfer to groundwater, plants, and animals, 227–234 presence and level, 208–209 surfactants, 223–224 organic matter characterization, humic substances, 170–171 composition, 169–170 composting, 171 humification, 170 soil application, 171–174 water-soluble labile portion, 171 sewage treatment processes dewatering method, 169 primary and secondary treatment, 168 stabilization methods, 169 thickening, sludge, 168–169 C CERES-wheat crop simulation model, 116–117 Chlorobenzenes (CBs), 214–215 Chlorophenols, 217–218 Conservation/compost tillage trial, 104–105 E Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), 209–210 extractable fractions available and unavailable forms, 186–187 chemical speciation, 185–186 cocomposting method, 187 sequential fractionation schemes, 186 plant response and metal uptake accumulation of, 205–207 metal toxicity and tolerance, 202–205 phytotoxicity, 202 soil application biosolids property effect, 189–191 extraction methods of, 187–189 metal availability over time, 193–194 microbial/biochemical effects, 198–202 mobility and leaching of, 194–198 soil property effect, 191–193 total concentrations effluent source, 183 guidelines and regulations, 185 waste water treatment plants, 183–185 I Integrated cropping systems barley-based rotation trials, 104 conservation/compost tillage trial, 104–105 cropping systems productivity trial grain and straw yields and quality, 97–99 soil nitrogen dynamics, 99–100 soil organic matter, 100–101 water-use efficiency, 99 crop sequence effect, 95 grazing management rotation trial, 101–104 F L Fertilizers, nitrogen rainfed crops response genetic differences, crops, 79–80 Morocco and the Maghreb countries, 73–79 soil organic matter, 68–69 West Asian countries, 70–73 usage trend, 66–67 Food-chain transfer metals, 14–16 plants, organic chemicals leaves uptake, 231–232 rhizosphere activity, 232–233 root uptake and translocation, 228–231 Leaching, heavy metals, 194–198 Lead (Pb), bioavailability assessment absorption, 29 bioaccessibility, soil Pb, 34–35 blood level reduction, children, 29–30 soil/dust Pb chemical speciation, 30 chloropyromorphite (CP) formation, 33–34 feeding tests, 32–33 RBA assessment, 30–32 source, 28 G Grazing management rotation trial, 101–104 H Heavy metal contaminants, biosolids animal ingestion, 207–208 definition, 182 M Mediterranean agroecosystems climate rainfall sketch and intensity, 59–60 seasonal rains and temperature effect, 58 crops and farming systems agroecological condition, 62 barley production, 61–62 niche crops production, 62 wheat production, 61 271 Index fertilizer use trends, 66–67 integrated cropping systems barley-based rotation trials, 104 conservation/compost tillage trial, 104–105 cropping systems productivity trial, 96–101 crop sequence effect, 95 grazing management rotation trial, 101–104 land features, 60–61 nitrogen, 65–66 nitrogen fixation, dryland conditions food legumes, 86 pasture and forage legumes, 89–91 rhizobia, inoculation, and cultivar interactions, 86–89 rainfed crops response to genetic differences, crops, 79–80 Morocco and the Maghreb countries, 73–79 soil organic matter, 68–69 West Asian countries, 70–73 soil status assessment Cate–Nelson graphical method, 81 Kjeldahl method, 81 mineralization indices, 83–84 mineral N tests, 82 nitrate test, 81–82 plant analysis, 84–85 Metal(Loid)s, bioavailability assessment arsenic chemical forms, 37–39 factors affect, 36–37 modification, 39 reliable relative bioavailability (RBA), 40–41 risk assessment, 39–40 soil, 35–36 biological metal uptake children ingestion of, 13–14 food-chain transfer and risks, 14–16 soil ingestion risks, 12–13 chemistry equilibrium, soil, 22–25 speciation in, 25–28 extractability, availability prediction chelation methods, 21–22 diffusive gradients in thinfilms method, 22 in vitro bioaccessibility, 16–21 lead (Pb) absorption, 29 bioaccessibility, soil Pb, 34–35 blood level reduction, children, 29–30 soil/dust Pb, 30–34 source, 28 soil risks bioavailability and soil element, 7–8 microbes and fauna toxicity, 11–12 phytotoxicity from, 8–11 Micellization, 224 N Neutron activation analysis (NAA), metal bioaccessibility, 17–18 Nitrogen (N) biosolids agronomic biosolids rate, 178–179 agronomic response, 177 ammonia volatilization, 177 mineralization, 176–177 fertilizer and rainfed crops response field responses, 69–79 genetic differences, crops, 79–80 soil organic matter, 68–69 fixation, mediterranean dryland conditions food legumes, 86 pasture and forage legumes, 89–91 rhizobia, inoculation, and cultivar interactions, 86–89 integrated cropping systems barley-based rotation trials, 104 conservation/compost tillage trial, 104–105 cropping systems productivity trial, 96–101 crop sequence effect, 95 grazing management rotation trial, 101–104 mediterranean region, 65–66 modelling systems APSIM usage, 115–116 arid environment models, 118–120 CERES-wheat model, 117 crop–soil simulation models, 114 CropSyst model, 118 root zone water quality model (RZWQM), 117 SOILN module, 114–115 potential losses, dryland cropping ammonia volatilization, 93–94 environmental concerns, 92 loss mechanisms, 92–93 urea fertilizers effect, 94–95 rainfed environments, 64–65 soil status assessment Cate–Nelson graphical method, 81 Kjeldahl method, 81 mineralization indices, 83–84 mineral N tests, 82 nitrate test, 81–82 plant analysis, 84–85 supplemental irrigation systems seasonal weather effect, 106 wastewater usage, 106–107 yeild responses, 105–106 tracer (15N), rainfed cropping systems N fixation estimation, grain legumes, 111–113 rotation effect implications, 110–111 wheat, cereal–legume rotation, 108–110 272 Index O Organic contaminants, biosolids branched hydrocarbon chains, 209 brominated flame retardants applications, 222 biodegradation, 223 source, 222–223 chlorobenzenes (CBs) concentrations in, 214–215 derivatives and applications, 214 land application, 215 chlorophenols atmospheric deposition, 218 pentachlorophenol (PCP), 217–218 endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), 209–210 European union limits, 211 natural and synthetic hormones, 225–226 octonol–water partition coefficient (Kow), 209 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 216–217 organotin compounds biodegradation, 221 classes and apllication, 220 concentrations in, 221 source, 220–221 pharmaceuticals and personal care products, 225 phthalic acid esters (PAEs) applications, 211 microbial degradation, 211–212 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) applications, 215 atmospheric deposition and soil application, 216 polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs)/ dibenzofurans (PCDFs) biodegradation, 220 source, 219–220 toxicity, 219 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) land application, 214 source and lipophilicity, 213 potential transfer to groundwater, plants, and animals, 227–234 presence and level, 208–209 surfactants linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), 223–224 micellization, 224 properties, 223 Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 216–217 Organotin compounds, 220–222 P Phosphorus (P), biosolids phytoavailability, 180–181 soil accumulation, 180 surface runoff, 181 Phthalic acid esters (PAEs), 211–212 Phytotoxicity, metal effect Ni–Al layered double hydroxides (LDH), Ni-induced Fe deficiency symptoms, 10 precipitation and synchrotron XRF (S-XRF) analysis, 11 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 215–216 Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs)/ dibenzofurans (PCDFs), 218–220 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 213–214 R Reliable relative bioavailability (RBA) arsenic (As) (see Arsenic (As), bioavailability assessment) lead (Pb) (see Lead (Pb), bioavailability assessment) Root zone water quality model (RZWQM), 117 S Sewage treatment processes biosolids (see Biosolids) dewatering method, 169 primary and secondary treatment, 168 stabilization methods, 169 thickening, sludge, 168–169 Soil-N routine/module (SOILN), 114–115 Sulfidogenesis, 145–146 Surfactants, 223–224 ... may Advances in Assessing Bioavailability of Metal(Loid)s in Contaminated Soils form in Ni enriched soils, both Ni–Al layered double hydroxides (LDH) and Ni-silicates (Scheckel and Sparks, 200 1). .. sensitive plants (Li et al., 200 0) Unfortunately, others followed the toxicological approach to establish limits for soil Ni, by adding soluble Ni salts followed by immediate cropping, failing to... world (Kukier and Chaney, 2004; Siebielec et al., 200 7) McNear et al (200 7) examined the Advances in Assessing Bioavailability of Metal(Loid)s in Contaminated Soils 11 speciation of Ni in Welland