This page intentionally left blank fifth edition mastering the world of psychology samuel e wood ellen green wood denise boyd ▶ Houston Community College System Boston Columbus Amsterdam Delhi Indianapolis Cape Town Mexico City Dubai São Paulo New York London Sydney San Francisco Madrid Hong Kong Milan Seoul Upper Saddle River Munich Paris Singapore Montréal Taipei Toronto Tokyo Senior Acquisitions Editor: Amber Chow Editorial Assistant: Alexis Rodriguez VP, Director of Marketing: Brandy Dawson Senior Marketing Manager: Nicole Kunzmann Marketing Assistant: Frank Alarcon Director of Development: Sharon Geary Development Editor: LeeAnn Doherty Director of Production: Lisa Iarkowski Senior Managing Editor: Linda Behrens Program Manager: Diane Szulecki Project Manager: Shelly Kupperman Operations Supervisor: Mary Fischer Operations Specialist: Diane Peirano Creative Design Director: Leslie Osher Interior/Cover Designer: Wanda Espana / Wee Design Group Digital Media Editor: Lisa Dotson Digital Media Project Manager: Pam Weldin Full-Service Project Management: GEX Publishing Services Printer/Binder: R R Donnelley and Sons Cover Printer: Lehigh-Phoenix Color/Hagerstown Cover Image: mikiekwoods/Fotolia Text Font: Sabon Lt std 9.75/12 Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page of appearance Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wood, Samuel E Mastering the world of psychology / Samuel E Wood, Ellen Green Wood, Denise Boyd, Houston Community College System — 5th EDITION pages cm Includes bibliographical references and indexes ISBN-13: 978-0-205-96808-4 (pbk : student edition) ISBN-10: 0-205-96808-2 (pbk : student edition) Psychology—Textbooks I Wood, Ellen R Green II Boyd, Denise Roberts III Title BF121.W656 2013 150 dc23 2013008562 10 Student Edition Books la Carte ISBN-10: 0-205-96808-2 ISBN-13: 978-0-205-96808-4 ISBN-10: 0-205-97197-0 ISBN-13: 978-0-205-97197-8 Brief Contents APA Correlation 10 11 12 13 14 APA-1 Introduction to Psychology Biology and Behavior 38 Sensation and Perception Consciousness Learning Memory 75 115 144 178 Cognition, Language, and Intelligence Human Development 251 Motivation and Emotion Health and Stress 294 328 Personality Theory and Assessment Psychological Disorders Therapies 212 363 392 425 Social Psychology 453 APPENDIX: Statistical Methods AP-1 Answers to Study Guide Questions AN-1 iii Contents Preface x Acknowledgments xviii List of Features xix About the Authors xx APA Correlation APA-1 Introduction to Psychology THINK ABOUT IT An Introduction to Mastering the World of Psychology Studying Psychology: Some Tricks of the Trade Is Psychology a Science? APPLY IT More Tips for Effective Studying The Goals of Psychology Psychology Then and Now Exploring Psychology’s Roots Schools of Thought in Psychology Contemporary Psychological Perspectives 13 Specialties in Psychology 14 Thinking about Theories and Research 16 Evaluating Theories 16 Evaluating Research 16 Biology and Behavior 38 THINK ABOUT IT 39 Discovering the Mysteries of the Nervous System 39 The EEG and the Microelectrode 39 Imaging Techniques 40 The Neurons and the Neurotransmitters 41 The Structure of the Neuron 41 Communication between Neurons 42 Neurotransmitters 44 The Human Nervous System 47 The Peripheral Nervous System 47 The Central Nervous System 49 A Closer Look at the Thinking Part of the Brain 52 Components of the Cerebrum 52 iv Descriptive Research Methods 18 Observational and Case Studies 18 Survey Research 19 The Correlational Method 20 TRY IT What Is the Third Variable Problem? 22 EXPLAIN IT What Is a Credit Score? 22 The Experimental Method 23 Experiments and Hypothesis Testing 23 Limitations of the Experimental Method 25 TRY IT Does Random Assignment Really Make Groups Equal? 26 Research Participants 27 Participant-Related Bias in Psychological Research 28 Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights 28 The Cerebral Hemispheres 53 EXPLAIN IT Why Are Most People Right-Handed? 54 TRY IT A Balancing Act 55 The Four Cerebral Lobes 57 Age, Gender, and the Brain 61 The Ever-Changing Brain 61 TRY IT Mirror Tracing 62 Gender Differences in the Brain 63 Beyond the Nervous System 63 The Endocrine System 63 Genes and Behavioral Genetics 65 APPLY IT Should You Consult a Genetic Counselor? 67 Contents Sensation and Perception 75 THINK ABOUT IT 76 The Process of Sensation 76 The Absolute and Difference Thresholds 76 TRY IT Absolute Threshold 78 Transduction and Adaptation 78 TRY IT Sensory Adaptation 78 Vision 79 The Eye 79 Vision and the Brain 81 Color Vision 82 TRY IT A Negative Afterimage 84 Hearing and Balance 85 Sound 85 The Ear and Hearing 86 EXPLAIN IT Why Can’t Everyone Hear the “Mosquito” Ring Tone? 88 Balance and Movement 89 Smell, Taste, and Touch 90 Smell 90 Consciousness 115 THINK ABOUT IT 116 What Is Consciousness? 116 Changing Views of Consciousness 116 Culture and Altered States of Consciousness 117 Circadian Rhythms 117 EXPLAIN IT How Does the Brain Keep Track of Time? 118 The Influence of Circadian Rhythms 118 Disruptions in Circadian Rhythms 119 Sleep 120 Why We Sleep 120 How We Sleep 120 Variations in Sleep 122 Sleep Deprivation 123 Sleep Disorders 123 APPLY IT How to Get a Good Night’s Sleep 124 Learning Taste 92 Touch and Pain 93 Influences on Perception 95 Attention 95 APPLY IT How Dangerous Is It to Talk on a Cell Phone or Text while Driving? 96 Prior Knowledge 97 TRY IT Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing 99 Social Perception 99 Principles of Perception 100 Perceptual Organization and Constancy 100 Depth Perception 101 Perception of Motion 103 Unusual Perceptual Experiences 104 Puzzling Perceptions 104 Subliminal Perception, Extrasensory Perception, and Synesthesia 106 Dreams 126 The Content of Our Dreams 126 Interpreting Dreams 126 TRY IT Lucid Dreaming 127 Meditation and Hypnosis 128 Meditation 128 TRY IT The Relaxation Response 128 Hypnosis 129 Psychoactive Drugs 130 How Drugs Affect the Brain 131 Substance Abuse and Addiction 131 Stimulants 133 Depressants 134 Hallucinogens 135 144 THINK ABOUT IT 145 Classical Conditioning 145 Pavlov and the Process of Classical Conditioning 146 Changing Conditioned Responses 147 TRY IT Classical Conditioning 148 John Watson and Emotional Conditioning 149 The Cognitive Perspective 150 Biological Predispositions 151 Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life 152 Operant Conditioning 153 Thorndike, Skinner, and the Consequences of Behavior 153 The Process of Operant Conditioning 154 Reinforcement 155 Schedules of Reinforcement 156 v vi Contents Punishment 158 Escape and Avoidance Learning 161 APPLY IT How to Win the Battle against Procrastination 162 Applications of Operant Conditioning 162 TRY IT Using Behavior Modification 163 Cognitive Learning 164 Memory 178 THINK ABOUT IT 179 The Structure of Human Memory 179 What Is Memory? 179 Sensory Memory 180 Short-Term Memory 180 EXPLAIN IT Why Is Cramming an Ineffective Study Method? 182 Long-Term Memory 183 APPLY IT Improving Memory 184 A Closer Look at Retrieval 186 Measuring Retrieval 186 Influences on Retrieval 186 Remembering as Reconstruction 188 The Process of Reconstruction 188 Source, Flashbulb, and Autobiographical Memories 189 Cognition, Language, and Intelligence Human Development TRY IT Creating a False Memory 190 Influences on Reconstructive Memory 191 Forgetting 193 Ebbinghaus and the Curve of Forgetting 193 Why Do We Forget? 194 TRY IT A Penny for Your Thoughts 195 Biology and Memory 197 The Hippocampus and Hippocampal Region 198 Neuronal Changes and Memory 198 Hormones and Memory 199 Memory Loss 200 Memory in Legal and Therapeutic Settings 202 Eyewitness Testimony 202 The Repressed Memory Controversy 204 212 THINK ABOUT IT 213 Cognition 213 Imagery and Concepts 213 Decision Making 215 TRY IT Using the Additive Strategy to Choose an Apartment 216 EXPLAIN IT Why Do People Overestimate the Likelihood of Rare Events? 217 Problem Solving 219 TRY IT Water Lily Problem 220 Artificial Intelligence 221 Language 222 The Structure of Language 222 Animal Language 223 Language and Thinking 225 Learning a Second Language 226 Learning by Insight 165 Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps 165 Observational Learning 166 Learning from Media 167 EXPLAIN IT How Do the Principles of Learning Explain the Behavior of Smoking Cigarettes? 168 Intelligence 228 The Nature of Intelligence 228 Measuring Cognitive Abilities 230 Intelligence Testing: Past and Present 232 The Range of Intelligence 234 Explaining Differences in Intelligence 236 Nature, Nurture, and IQ 236 Race and IQ 238 APPLY IT How to Build a Powerful Vocabulary Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities 240 Beyond Intelligence 242 Emotional Intelligence 243 Creativity 243 TRY IT Find Your EQ 244 251 THINK ABOUT IT 252 Theories of Development 252 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 253 TRY IT Conservation of Volume 254 Alternatives to Piaget’s theory 257 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 259 239 Contents TRY IT The Heinz Dilemma 259 Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development 262 Prenatal Development and Infancy 264 From Conception to Birth 264 Perceptual and Motor Development 267 Temperament 268 Attachment 268 Early and Middle Childhood 271 Language Development 271 Socialization 273 Gender Role Development 274 Adolescence 276 Puberty and Sexual Behavior 276 Motivation and Emotion 10 Health and Stress Social Relationships 277 Emerging Adulthood 278 EXPLAIN IT Why Are Peer Groups Important in Adolescence? 278 Early and Middle Adulthood 279 Physical and Cognitive Changes 279 Social Development 280 APPLY IT Where Are You in the Career Development Process? 282 Later Adulthood 283 Physical and Cognitive Changes 283 TRY IT Stereotypes about Later Adulthood 284 Social Adjustment 284 Successful Aging 285 Death and Dying 285 294 THINK ABOUT IT 295 Explaining Motivation 295 Foundations of Motivation 295 Biological Approaches to Motivation 297 EXPLAIN IT Why Are Dangerous Hobbies Appealing to Some People? 299 Behavioral and Social-Cognitive Approaches to Motivation 299 TRY IT What Is Your n ACH? 301 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 302 Hunger 303 Internal and External Cues 303 Explaining Variations in Body Weight 305 Obesity and Weight Loss 305 Eating Disorders 307 Sexual Motivation 309 Sexual Attitudes and Behavior 309 Sexual Desire and Arousal 311 Sexual Orientation 312 Social Attitudes toward Gays and Lesbians 314 Emotion 314 Theories of Emotion 314 Emotion and the Brain 317 Gender Differences in Emotion 318 The Expression of Emotion 318 TRY IT Recognizing Basic Emotions 319 APPLY IT The Quest for Happiness 321 328 THINK ABOUT IT 329 Sources of Stress 329 The Life Events Approach 329 TRY IT Finding a Life Stress Score 330 Everyday Stressors 331 Stress in the Workplace 332 Social Sources of Stress 333 The Health-Stress Connection 335 The Biopsychosocial Model of Health and Illness 335 The Physiology of the Health-Stress Connection 337 Theories of Stress Response 338 Risk and Resilience 340 EXPLAIN IT Why Do Pop Quizzes Facilitate Learning? 341 TRY IT How Resilient Are You? 343 vii Health and Illness 344 Coronary Heart Disease 344 Cancer 346 Gender and Health 346 Ethnic Group Differences in Health 347 Lifestyle and Health 348 Smoking and Health 348 APPLY IT Interpreting Health Information on the Internet 349 Alcohol Abuse 350 Sexually Transmitted Diseases 351 TRY IT AIDS Quiz 354 Diet and Exercise 355 Alternative Medicine 356 viii Contents 11 Personality Theory and Assessment THINK ABOUT IT 364 Psychoanalytic Theories 364 Freud’s Theory of Personality 364 The Psychosexual Stages of Development 366 Evaluating Freud’s Contribution 368 The Neo-Freudians 368 Humanistic Theories 370 Two Humanistic Theories 370 Self-Esteem 371 TRY IT How High Is Your Self-Esteem? 372 Trait Theories 372 Early Trait Theories 372 The Five-Factor Model 374 12 Psychological Disorders Therapies Nature, Nurture, and Personality Traits 376 Personality and Culture 377 Social-Cognitive Theories 378 The Situation–Trait Debate 378 Self-Efficacy and Locus of Control 379 TRY IT What Is Your Locus of Control? 379 EXPLAIN IT How Personality Theories Answer the Question, “Why Do Some People Fail to Develop a Conscience?” 380 Personality Assessment 381 Observation, Interviews, and Rating Scales 381 Personality Inventories 382 APPLY IT Put Your Best Foot Forward 383 Projective Tests 385 392 THINK ABOUT IT 393 Defining Psychological Disorders 393 What Is Abnormal Behavior? 393 Classifying and Tracking Psychological Disorders 395 Explaining Psychological Disorders 396 Anxiety Disorders 397 Panic Attacks, Agoraphobia, and Panic Disorder 398 Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia), and Specific Phobia 399 APPLY IT Overcoming the Fear of Public Speaking 400 TRY IT Phobia Names 401 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 401 Depressive and Bipolar Disorders 403 Major Depressive Disorder 403 Bipolar Disorders 403 Explaining Depressive and Bipolar Disorders 404 13 363 EXPLAIN IT How Do Cultural Beliefs about Ideal Emotional States Lead to Depression? 406 Suicide and Race, Gender, and Age 406 Schizophrenia 407 Symptoms of Schizophrenia 407 Explaining Schizophrenia 408 Somatic Symptom, Dissociative, Gender, and Personality Disorders 411 Somatic Symptom Disorders 411 Dissociative Disorders 412 Sexual Dysfunctions 413 Personality Disorders 413 Childhood Disorders 415 Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder 415 Autism Spectrum Disorder 416 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 417 425 THINK ABOUT IT 426 Insight Therapies 426 Psychodynamic Therapies 426 Humanistic Therapies 427 Gestalt Therapy 428 Relationship Therapies 429 Family Therapy and Couple Therapy 429 Group Therapy 429 Behavior Therapies 430 Behavior Modification Techniques Based on Operant Conditioning 430 Behavior Therapies Based on Other Learning Theories 431 TRY IT A Possible Hierarchy of Fears 432 Cognitive Behavior Therapies 434 Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy 434 Beck’s Cognitive Therapy 435 Biomedical Therapies 436 Drug Therapy 437 EXPLAIN IT Why Are Smoking Rates So High among People with Schizophrenia? 438 Electroconvulsive Therapy 440 Psychosurgery 441 Glossary G-1 Subject Index A ABC theory, 434–435 Abnormal behavior, 393–394 criteria for, 393–394 causing personal distress, 394 danger to self or others, 394 legal responsibility for one’s own acts, 394 maladaptive behavior, 393–394 strange within the person’s culture, 394 unusual for age group, 394 Absolute threshold, 76–77 Acamprosate, 351 Acceptance stage, death and dying, 286 Accommodation, 80, 253 Accountability, 333 Acculturative stress, 335 Acetylcholine (Ach), 45, 46, 61 Achievement motivation, 296, 300–301, 466 Achievement tests, 231 Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), 352–355 Acrophobia, 400 Action potential, 43, 44 Activation phase, of motivation, 295 Activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreaming, 127 Active euthanasia, 287 Active listening, 428 Actor-observer effect, 456 Acupuncture, 94 Adaptive theory of sleep, 120 Addiction, 152 See also Substance abuse and addiction Additive strategy, 215, 216 ADHD See Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Adolescence, 276–279 emerging adulthood, 278–279 puberty, 276–277 sexual behavior, 276–277 sleep patterns in, 122 social relationships, 277–278 Adolescent egocentrism, 255 Adolescent growth spurt, 276 Adoption studies, 68, 237–238, 376, 377, 474–475 Adrenal glands, 65, 312 Adrenalin, 199 Adulthood early and middle, 279–283 emerging, 278–279 late, 283–287 Adult-onset genetic disorders, 67 Aerial perspective, 102, 103 Aerobic exercise, 355 Affective neuroscience, 317–318 Afferent (sensory) neurons, 41, 49 African Americans culturally sensitive therapy and, 445 health and illness in, 347–348 racism experienced by, 334 Afterimage, 83–84 Age/aging, 285 brain and, 61–62, 76 sleep patterns and, 122 successful aging, 285 suicide rates and, 406 Ageism, 28 Aggression, 474–477 alcohol and, 475 biological factors in, 474–475 crowding and, 476 frustration-aggression hypothesis, 475 media and, 169–170 against outsiders, 476 pain and, 476 scapegoating, 476 social learning theory of, 476–477 testosterone and, 475 Agoraphobia, 398 Agreeableness, 375 AIDS See Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) AIDS-related dementia, 355 Alarm stage, 338 Alcohol, 131, 134, 137 abuse, 132, 350–351 aggression and, 475 poisoning, 350 during pregnancy, 266 Alcoholic Anonymous (AA), 351, 429 Alertness, 118–119 Algorithms, 220 All-or-none law, 43 All-or-nothing thinking, 436 Alpha waves, 120–121 Altered states of consciousness, 117 Alternative medicine, 356–357 Altruism, 473 Alzheimer’s disease, 200, 201 Amacrine cells, 81 Ambiguous figures, 104 Amenorrhea, 307 American College Testing Program (ACT), 231 American Psychological Association (APA), ethics code, 442–443 Amnesia, 200–201 anterograde, 200 dissociative, 412 infantile, 204 retrograde, 200 Amphetamines, 131, 133–134, 137, 417–418 Amplitude, 86 Amygdala, 51, 317 Anal retentive personality, 366 Analogy heuristic, 219 Anchoring, 218–219 Androgens, 65, 275, 312 Anecdotal evidence, 17 Anemia, 355 Anger, 318, 319, 345 Animal language, 223–225 arbitrariness, 223 cultural transmission, 223 displacement, 223 duality of patterning, 223 interchangeability, 223 prevarication, 223 productivity, 223 reflexiveness, 223 specialization, 223 Animals, used in research, 29–30 Anorexia nervosa, 307–308 Antabuse, 433 Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), 318 Anterograde amnesia, 200–201 Antianxiety drugs, 439–440 Antibodies, 337, 338 Anticonvulsant drugs, 439, 440 Antidepressant drugs, 438–439 Antigens, 337 Antipsychotics, 437–438 Antiretroviral drugs, 352 Antisocial personality disorder, 414 Anvil, 86–87 Anxiety, 393, 398 Anxiety disorders, 395, 397–402 agoraphobia, 398 explanations for, 400–401 generalized anxiety disorder, 399 obsessive-compulsive disorder, 401–402 panic attacks, 398 panic disorder, 399 performance anxiety, 399 phobias, 400, 401 social anxiety disorder, 399–400 APA code of ethics, 28–29 Aphasia, 59, 60 Applied research, Approach-approach conflict, 332 Approach-avoidance conflict, 332 Aptitude tests, 231 Arbitrariness, 223 Archetypes, 369 Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), 231 Arousal, 298 Arousal theory, 298, 299, 303 Arthritis, 94, 283–284 Artificial intelligence, 221 Artificial neural networks (ANNs), 221 Artistic personality type, 282 Asian Americans, 347 Asperger’s Syndrome, 416–417 Assimilation, 253 Assisted suicide, 287 Association areas, 53 Asthma, 348 Atkinson-Shiffrin model, 188 Atmospheric perspective, 103 Atmospheric perspective, 102, 268–271 Attachment avoidant attachment, 270 contact comfort, 269 disorganized/disoriented attachment, 270 father-child, 270–271 infant-caregiver attachment, 268–271 resistant attachment, 270 secure attachment, 270 separation anxiety, 270 stranger anxiety, 270 Attention, 95–97 cocktail party phenomenon, 96–97 cross-modal perception, 97 inattentional blindness, 95–96 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 46, 348, 417–418 in adulthood, 418 explanations for, 417 treatment of, 417–418 SI-1 SI-2 Subject Index Attitudes and attitude change, 469–472 behavioral component, 469–470 cognitive component, 469, 470 cognitive dissonance and, 470–471 emotional component, 469, 470 persuasion and, 471–472 Attraction, 458–461 factors influencing, 458–459 mere-exposure effect, 458 physical attractiveness, 458–459 proximity, 458 halo effect, 458 intimate relationships, 459–461 reciprocity or reciprocal liking, 458 romantic attraction, 459–460 Attribution, 454, 456–457 actor-observer effect, 456 dispositional attribution, 456 fundamental attribution error, 456–457 self-serving bias, 456 situational attribution, 456 Atypical neuroleptics, 437–438, 440 Audience effects, 465–466 Audition, 86 See also Hearing Auditory canal, 86, 87 Auditory cortex, 60 Auditory nerve, 87 Authoritarian parents, 273 Authoritative parents, 273–274 Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), 415, 416–417 explanations for, 417 social functioning, variations, 416–417 treatment of, 417 Autobiographical memories, 191 Autokinetic illusion, 104 Automatic thoughts, 436 Automaticity, 183 Autonomic nervous system, 47–48 parasympathetic nervous system, 47, 48–49 sympathetic nervous system, 47, 48–49 Autonomy, 377 Autonomy versus shame and doubt, 263, 264 Autosomes, 65 Availability heuristic, 216, 217, 219 Aversion therapy, 433 Avoidance learning, 161 Avoidance-avoidance conflict, 332 Avoidant attachment, 270 Avoidant personality disorder, 414 Axon, 42 Axon terminal, 42 B B cells, 337 Babbling, 271 Backward search, 219 Bacterial STDs, 351 Balance, 76 hearing and, 85–90 movement and, 89–90 Barbiturates, 131, 134–135, 137 Bargaining stage, death and dying, 286 Bariatric surgery, 306 Basic emotions, 318–319 Basic research, BBC Prison Study, 469 Beck’s cognitive therapy, 435–436 Behavior modification, 162–164, 430–431 Behavior therapies, 430–433, 446 aversion therapy, 433 based on operant conditioning, 430–431 exposure and response prevention, 432–433 flooding, 431–432 participant modeling, 433 systematic desensitization, 431 Behavioral assessment, 381–382 Behavioral genetics, 67–68, 236 Behavioral perspective, 13, 14 Behaviorism, 9–10, 116, 149 Bell curve, 234 Belonging needs, 302 Benzodiazepines, 131, 135, 439–440 Bereavement, 287, 338 Beta waves, 121 Bias experimenter, 25 gender, 28 observer, 18 participant, 24–25, 28 selection, 24 Biased sample, 19 Big Five personality dimensions, 374 Bilateral ECT, 441 Bilingualism, 226–227 Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale, 232–233 Binocular depth cues, 102 Binocular disparity, 102 Biofeedback, 162, 163 Biological (physiological) psychology, 12 Biological clock, 51 Biological perspective, 13, 14, 396, 397 Biological predispositions, 151–152 Biomedical model, 335–336 Biomedical therapies, 436–441, 446 drug therapy, 437–440 electroconvulsive therapy, 440–441 psychosurgery, 441 rapid transcranial magnetic stimulation, 441 Biopsychosocial perspective, 396, 397 Bipolar cells, 81 Bipolar disorders, 403–407 bipolar I disorder, 403–404 bipolar II disorder, 403–404 explanations for, 404–405 genetic basis for, 404 manic episodes, 403 pediatric bipolar disorder, 415 prevalence of, 403–404 Birth, 266 Birth defects, 67 Blind spot, 80, 81, 82 Blood sugar levels, 304 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, 229 Body mass index (BMI), 305, 355 Body temperature, 51, 118 Body weight, 305 See also Eating disorders obesity, 305–307 weight loss, 305–307 Bone conduction, 88–89 Borderline personality disorder, 413, 414 Bottom-up processing, 97–98, 99 Bounded rationality, 215 Brain, 47 affect of alcohol abuse on, 350–351 AIDS and the, 354–355 cerebrum, 52–60 EEG, 39–40 emotion and the, 317–318 ever-changing, 61–62 myelination, 61 plasticity, 61–62 pruning, 61 forebrain, 51–52 gender differences in, 63 hindbrain, 49–50 how drugs affect the, 131 hunger and, 304 imaging techniques, 40–41, 117 keeping track of time by, 118 major structures of, 50 memory and the, 197–199 midbrain, 50–51 vision and, 81–82 Brain reserve theory, 201 Brainstem, 49 Brain-wave patterns, during sleep, 120–121 Brief psychodynamic therapy, 427 Brightness, 83 Brightness constancy, 101 Broca’s aphasia, 59 Broca’s area, 58, 59, 227 Bulimia nervosa, 308 Burnout, 333 Bystander effect, 473–474 C Caffeine, 133, 137 California Personality Inventory (CPI), 384 California Test of Mental Maturity, 234 Callous-unemotional (CU) traits, 380 Cancer, 346 Cannon-Bard theory, 315, 316 Cardinal traits, 372–373 Careers, 281–282 Caring, 262 Case study, 18–19, 27, 368 Catastrophic events, 331 Catastrophizing, 436 Catharsis, 368 Causal hypothesis, 23 Causation, 21 Cause-effect conclusions, 21 Cell body, 41, 42, 45 Cell phones, using while driving, 96 Central nervous system (CNS), 47, 49–52 brain, 47 forebrain, 51–52 hindbrain, 49–50 midbrain, 50–51 cerebellum, 49–50 pons, 49 reticular activating system (RAS), 49 spinal cord, 47, 49 spinal reflex, 49 Central traits, 373 Cerebellum, 49–50, 53 Cerebral cortex, 52–53 association areas, 53 lobes, 53 Cerebral hemispheres, 52–57 lateralization, 54 left hemisphere, 54–55 right hemisphere, 55 split-brain operation, 55–57 Cerebral lobes, 53, 57–60 frontal lobes Broca’s area, 59 motor cortex, 57–59 prefrontal cortex, 57 occipital lobes, 59–60 parietal lobes, 59 temporal lobes, 60 Cerebrum, 52–60 cerebral hemispheres, 53–57 components of, 52–53 cerebral cortex, 52–53 cerebral hemispheres, 52 corpus callosum, 52, 53 Cervical cancer, 352 Challenge, 341 Childhood development, 271–276 Childhood disorders, 415–418 attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, 417–418 Subject Index autism spectrum disorder, 415, 416–417 disruptive mood dysregulation disorder, 415–416 fragile X syndrome, 417 pediatric bipolar disorder, 415 Children exposure to aggressive model, 169–170 false memories in, 204 obesity in, 306 sleep patterns in, 122 Chimpanzees, use of language by, 224–225 Chlamydia, 351 Chromosomes, 65–66 Chronic disease, 283–284 Chronic pain, 94, 337 Chunking, 181 Cigarettes See Smoking cigarettes Cingulotomy, 441 Cingulum, 441 Circadian rhythms, 117–120 disruptions in, 119 influence of, 118–119 suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), 118 Circadian theory of sleep, 120 Circumcision, 354 Clairvoyance, 106 Classical conditioning, 145–153 biological predispositions, 151–152 changing conditioned responses, 147–149 characteristics of, 164 cognitive perspective, 150–151 conditioned response, 146 conditioned stimulus, 146 discrimination, 149 ecological relevance, 152–153 emotional conditioning, 149–150 in everyday life, 152–153 extinction, 147–148 generalization, 148 higher-order conditioning, 146–147 Pavlov and, 146–147 phobias and, 401 stimulus, 145 spontaneous recovery, 148 taste aversion, 151–152 unconditioned response, 146 unconditioned stimulus, 146 Classically conditioned responses, 147–148 Claustrophobia, 400 Client-centered therapy, 10, 428 Clinical or psychiatric social worker, 442 Clinical psychologists, 14, 442 Closure, 100, 101 Clozapine, 437–438 Coaction effects, 465–466 Cocaine, 131, 134, 137, 266 Cochlea, 87 Cocktail party phenomenon, 96–97 Codeine, 135 Cognition, 213–222 artificial intelligence, 221 concepts, 213–215 decision making, 215–219 imagery, 213 problem solving, 219–221 Cognitive abilities See also Intelligence gender differences in, 240–242 in late adulthood, 283–284 measuring, 230–232 achievement test, 231 aptitude test, 231 characteristics of, 231–232 intelligence test, 231, 232 Cognitive Abilities Test, 234 Cognitive behavior therapies (CBTs), 434–436, 446 Cognitive behavioral therapist, 426 Cognitive development alternative theories of, 257–259 moral development and, 260–261 neo-Piagetian approach, 257–258 Piaget’s theory of, 253–257 accomodation, 253 adolescent egocentrism, 255 assimilation, 253 concrete operations stage, 254–255, 257 conservation task, 256 cross-cultural research on, 255 formal education, 255 formal operations stage, 255, 257 object permanence, 253 preoperational stage, 253–254, 257 schemes, 253 sensorimotor stage, 253, 257 symbolic function, 253–254 Vygotsky’s sociocultural approach, 258–259 Cognitive development theory, 275 Cognitive dissonance, 470–471 Cognitive errors, 436 Cognitive learning, 164–173 insight, 165, 167 latent learning, 165–166, 167 observational learning, 166–167 Cognitive maps, 165 Cognitive perspective, 13, 14, 150–151, 396–397 Cognitive processes, 165 Cognitive psychology, 10–11 Cognitive theory of dreaming, 127 Cognitive theory of stress, Lazarus’s, 339–340 Cognitive therapy (CT), 435–436, 446 Cognitive-neoassociationistic model, 476 Cohabitation, 280 Collective unconscious, 369 Collectivism, 377 Color blindness, 84–85 Color vision, 82–85 brightness, 83 color blindness, 84–85 hue, 83 saturation, 83 sensing color, 82–83 theories of, 83–84 afterimage, 83–84 opponent-process theory, 83 trichromatic theory, 83, 84 Colored hearing, 107 Combat-related guilt, 331 Commitment, 341, 460 Companionate love, 460, 461 Comparative psychology, 225 Compassion, 262 Compliance, 464–465 Componential intelligence, 229, 230 Comprehensive System, 385–386 Compulsions, 401–402 Concept-driven processing, 98 Concepts exemplars, 214 formal concepts, 214 natural concepts, 214 prototypes, 214, 215 Concrete operations stage, 254–255, 257 Conditioned response (CR), 146, 149–150 Conditioned stimulus (CS), 146 Conditions of worth, 371 Cones, 80–81, 82 Confederates, 461 Confidentiality, 443 Confirmation bias, 221 SI-3 Conformity, 461–462 Confounding variables, 24 Confucianism, 377 Congruence, 428 Conscience, 380 Conscientiousness, 374–375 Consciousness, 115–143 altered states of, 117 changing views of, 116–117 circadian rhythms and, 117–120 description, 116–117 dreams, 126–128 hypnosis, 129–130 meditation, 128–129 psychoactive drugs and, 130–137 sleep, 120–125 Consequences Test, 245 Conservation, 254–255 Conservation tasks, 256 Consolidation, 179 Consolidation failure, 196, 197 Constitutional vulnerability, 408–409 Consummate love, 460, 461 Contact comfort, 269 Contemporary psychological perspectives, 13–14 behavioral perspective, 13, 14 biological perspective, 13, 14 cognitive perspective, 13, 14 evolutionary perspective, 13, 14 humanistic perspective, 13, 14 psychoanalytic perspective, 13, 14 sociocultural perspective, 13, 14 Context effect, 187 Contextual intelligence, 229, 230 Continuity, 100 Contraception, 351 Control, 341, 343 Control group, 24–25 Conventional level, of moral development, 259, 261 Conventional personality type, 282 Convergent thinking, 244 Conversion disorder, 411–412 Convolutions, 53 Coping, 340–341 Coping strategies, 340–341 emotion-focused coping, 340, 341 proactive coping, 340–341 problem-focused coping, 340, 341 Cornea, 79–80, 82 Coronary heart disease, 344–345 Corpus callosum, 52, 53 Correlation coefficient, 20 Correlational methods, 20–21, 27 causation and, 21 cause-effect conclusions, 21 correlation coefficient, 20 negative correlations, 20–21 positive correlations, 20 uses of, 21 Cortex, 317 Cortisol, 119, 200, 318 Counseling psychologists, 15, 442 Couple therapy, 429, 446 Crack, 134, 266 Cramming, 182, 184 Creativity, 243–245 creative problem-solving process illumination, 243 incubation, 243 preparation, 243 translation, 243 divergent thinking, 244 Credit score, 22 Criminal identity, 278 SI-4 Subject Index Criterion-referenced achievement tests, 231 Critical period, 265 Critical thinking, 16–17 Cross-cultural research, 25 on cognitive development, 255 Cross-modal perception, 97, 99 Crowding, 476 Cryptomnesia, 190 Crystallized intelligence, 280 CT scan (computerized axial tomography), 40 Cultural transmission, 223 Culturally sensitive therapy, 444–445 Culture abnormal behavior and, 394 altered states of consciousness and, 117 attributional biases and, 457 depression and, 406 emotion and, 319–320 individualism/collectivism dimension, 377 mood disorders and, 405 moral development and, 261 personality and, 377 punishment and, 160–161 reaction to death and dying and, 286 reconstructive memory and, 192–193 Culture-fair intelligence test, 232 Cumulative recorder, 154 Curve of forgetting, 193–194 Cytomegalovirus, 409 D Dalmane, 135 Dark adaptation, 81 Data collection, Data-driven processing, 97–98 Death and dying, 285–287 acceptance stage, 286 bargaining stage, 286 cultural differences in reactions to, 286 On Death and Dying, 286 denial stage, 286 depression stage, 286 euthanasia, 286–287 grieving process, 287 hospice care, 287 Debriefing, 29 Decay theory, 194–195, 197 Deception, 29 Decibels (dB), 86 Decision making, 215–219 additive strategy, 215, 216 anchoring, 218–219 bounded rationality, 215 elimination by aspects, 215–216, 219 emotion and, 317–318 framing, 217–218, 219 group decision making, 467–468 heuristics, 216–217, 219 intuition, 218, 219, 317–318 Declarative memory, 184–185 Deep brain stimulation, 201 Defense mechanisms, 365–366 denial, 366 displacement, 366 projection, 366 rationalization, 366 reaction formation, 366 regression, 366 repression, 365, 366 sublimation, 366 Deindividuation, 468 Delta waves, 121 Delusion of grandeur, 408 Delusion of persecution, 408 Delusions, 408 Dementia, 201 AIDS-related dementia, 355 Dendrites, 41, 42 Denial, 366 Denial stage, death and dying, 286 Dependent personality disorder, 414 Dependent variable, 23–24 Depressants, 131, 134–135 alcohol, 134, 137 barbiturates, 134–135, 137 minor tranquilizers, 135, 137 narcotics, 135, 137 Depression, 384 Depression stage, death and dying, 286 Depressive disorders, 403–407 culture and, 406 explanations for, 404–406 gender and, 405 major depressive disorder, 403 stressors, 405 suicide, 406–407 Depth perception, 101–103 binocular depth cues, 102 binocular disparity, 102 infants, 267 monocular depth cues, 102–103 atmospheric perspective, 102, 103 interposition, 102, 103 linear perspective, 102, 103 motion parallax, 102–103 relative size, 102, 103 shadow or shading, 102, 103 texture gradient, 102, 103 Derailment, 408 Description, as goal of psychology, Descriptive research methods, 18–21 correlational method, 20–21 observational and case studies, 18–19 case study, 18–19 laboratory observation, 18 naturalistic observation, 18 survey research, 19–20 Descriptors, 364 Designer drugs, 136 Development adolescence, 276–279 career development, 281–282 early and middle adulthood, 279–283 early and middle childhood, 271–276 gender role development, 274–275 infant development, 267–271 language development, 271–273 late adulthood, 283–287 prenatal development, 263, 264–267 psychosexual stages of, 366–367 theories of, 252–264 alternative theories of, 257–259 Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, 262–264 Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, 259–262 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, 253–257 zone of proximal development, 258–259 Developmental psychologists, 15 Developmental psychology, 252 Developmental theories, 252 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder, 5th Edition (DSM-5), 395 Diet, 355–356 Dieting, 306–307 Difference threshold, 76–77 Diffusion of responsibility, 473–474 Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), 41 Directive therapy, 428 Discounting the positive, 436 Discrimination, 149, 154–155, 477–481 decrease in, 479–480 roots of, 477–479 Discriminative stimulus, 155 Disgust, 319 Disinhibitory effect, 167 Disorganized/disoriented attachment, 270 Displacement, 181, 223, 366 Display rules, 320 Dispositional attribution, 456 Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD), 415–416 Dissociation, 205, 412 Dissociative amnesia, 412 Dissociative disorders, 412–413 Dissociative fugue, 412 Dissociative identity disorder (DID), 412–413 Divergent thinking, 244 Diversity education, 480 Divorce, 281 Dogs, sense of smell in, 91 Dominant-recessive pattern, 66 Door-in-the-face technique, 464–465 Dopamine (DA), 46, 131, 404, 411 Double-blind technique, 25 Dream analysis, 426 Dreams, 126–128 activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreaming, 127 cognitive theory of dreaming, 127 content of, 126 evolutionary theory of dreaming, 127 interpreting, 126–127 latent content, 127 lucid dreams, 126, 127 manifest content, 127 NREM dreams, 126 REM dreams, 126 Drive, 297 Drive-reduction theory, 297–298, 299, 303 Driving, while texting or using cell phone, 96 Drug therapy, 437–440 antianxiety drugs, 439–440 anticonvulsant drugs, 439 antidepressant drugs, 438–439 antipsychotics, 437–438 disadvantages of, 440 lithium, 439 maintenance doses, 440 Drug tolerance, 132 Duality of patterning, 223 Durex Global Sex Survey, 310 Dynamic assessment, 239 Dyssomnias, 124–125 E Ear and hearing, 86–89 audition, 86 auditory nerve, 87 balance and movement, 89–90 eardrum (tympanic membrane), 86 inner ear cochlea, 87 hair cells, 87 semicircular canals, 87, 90 middle ear, 86–87 eardrum (tympanic membrane), 87 ossicles, 86–87 oval window, 87 outer ear, 86 auditory canal, 86, 87 pinna, 86, 87 Eardrum, 86, 87 Early adulthood, 263 Subject Index Early and middle adulthood development, 279–283 social development, 280–283 careers, 281–282 living arrangements, 280–281 marriage and divorce, 281 parenthood, 281 Early and middle childhood development, 271–276 gender role development, 274–275 language development, 271–273 physical and cognitive changes, 279–280 socialization, 273–274 Early childhood, 263 Early intervention, 237–238 Early-maturing boys, 276 Early-maturing girls, 276 Eating disorders, 307–309 anorexia nervosa, 307–308 bulimia nervosa, 308 Eclectic position, 14 Ecological relevance, 152–153 Ecstasy, 136, 137 Educational psychologists, 15 EEG See Electroencephalogram (EEG) Efferent (motor) neurons, 41, 49 Egg cells, 65 Ego, 365 Ego integrity versus despair, 263, 264 Eidetic imagery, 180 Ejaculation, 312 Elaborative rehearsal, 183 Elderly, 283–287 See also Late adulthood; Older adults Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), 440–441 Electroencephalogram (EEG), 39–40 Electromagnetic spectrum, 79 Electronic games, 170–171 Electronic multitasking environment, 168–169 Elektra complex, 366–367 Elimination by aspects, 215–216, 219 Embryo, 265 Emerging adulthood, 252, 278–279 Emotion, 314–321 basic emotions, 318–319 brain and, 317–318 display rules, 320 expression of, 318–320 facial-feedback hypothesis, 320 gender differences in, 318 theories of, 314–316 Cannon-Bard theory, 315, 316 James-Lange theory, 315, 316 Lazarus theory, 316 Schachter-Singer theory, 315–316 Emotional conditioning, 149–150 Emotional infidelity, 295, 310 Emotional intelligence, 243 Emotional quotient (EQ), 243, 244 Emotional reasoning, 436 Emotional states, cultural beliefs about, 406 Emotion-focused coping, 340, 341 Empathy, 243, 473 “Empty chair” technique, 428 Empty love, 460 Empty nest syndrome, 282–283 Encoding, 179 Encoding failure, 194, 197 Endocrine system, 63–65 adrenal glands, 65 hormones, 63–64 pancreas, 65 parathyroid glands, 65 pineal gland, 64 pituitary gland, 64 thymus gland, 65 thyroid gland, 65 Endorphins, 46, 94, 131, 266 Enterprising personality type, 282 Entertainment media, 169–170 Epinephrine, 46, 65, 121, 126, 131, 199 Episodic memory, 184–185 Erogenous zone, 366 Escape learning, 161 Esteem needs, 302, 370–371 Estrogen, 65, 94, 200, 312 E-therapy, 443 Ethics code, 442–443 Ethnic group differences in health, 347–348 in IQ scores, 232, 238–240 Ethnocentrism, 479 Euthanasia, 286–287 Everyday stressors, 331–332 Evidence anecdotal, 17 evaluation of new, 17 quality of, 17 Evolution, Evolutionary perspective, 13, 14 Evolutionary psychology, 11–12 Evolutionary theory of dreaming, 127 Evolutionary theory of sleep, 120 Excitement phase, of sexual response cycle, 311 Executive control, 226 Executive processing, 57 Exemplars, 214 Exercise, 284, 355–356 Exhaustion stage, 338 Existential intelligence, 228 Expectancy, 300 Expectancy theory, 300, 303 Experiential intelligence, 229, 230 Experimental group, 24 Experimental method, 23–26, 27 causal hypothesis, 23 control group, 24–25 dependent variable, 23–24 example of experimental study, 23 experimental group, 24 independent variable, 23–24 limitations of, 25–26 confounding variables, 24 double-blind technique, 25 experimenter bias, 25 placebo effect, 24–25 quasi-experiments, 25 random assignment, 24, 25 selection bias, 24 variables, 23 Experimental psychologists, 15 Experimenter bias, 25 Experiments, 21 Expert systems, 221 Expertise, 191–192 Explanation, as goal of psychology, Explicit memory, 184–185 Exposure and response prevention, 432–433 External locus of control, 380 Extinction, 147–148, 154 Extrasensory perception (ESP), 106 Extraversion, 374, 375 Extrinsic motivation, 296–297 Eye, 79–81 blind spot, 80, 81, 82 cones, 80–81, 82 cornea, 82 fovea, 80, 81, 82 iris, 80, 82 lens, 80, 82 SI-5 optic nerve, 80, 81, 82 pupil, 80, 82 retina, 80, 81, 82 rhodopsin, 81 rods, 80–81, 82 Eyewitness testimony, 202–203 F Facial expressions, 39, 99, 319–320 Facial-feedback hypothesis, 320 Facilitation effect, 167 False memories, 190, 204, 205 False-motion perceptions, 104 Family therapy, 429, 446 Farsightedness (hyperopia), 80 Fast food, 355 Father-child attachment, 270–271 Fatuous love, 460, 461 Fear, 319 hierarchy of fears, 432 irrational, 395 of public speaking, 400 Feature detectors, 82 Feminine psychology, 369–370 Fertilization, 266 Fetal alcohol effects, 266 Fetal alcohol syndrome, 266 Fetus, 265 Fidelity, 311 Fight-or-flight response, 48, 65, 199, 337, 341 Figure-ground, 100 “5-a-day” plan, 355 Five-factor model, 374–376, 381 agreeableness, 375 conscientiousness, 374–375 extraversion, 375 gender differences in, 376 neuroticism, 375–376 openness, 374 Fixation, 366 Fixed-interval (FI) schedule, 157, 158 Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule, 156, 158 Flashbacks, 136, 331 Flashbulb memories, 190–191, 199 Flat affect, 408 Flooding, 431–432 Flow, 321 Fluid intelligence, 280 Fluoxetine (Prozac), 439 Flynn effect, 238 Foot-in-the-door technique, 464 Forebrain, 51–52 amygdala, 51 cerebral cortex, 52 cerebrum, 52–60 hippocampus, 51–52 hypothalamus, 51 limbic system, 51–52 thalamus, 51 Forensic psychologists, 14, 394 Forgetting, 193–197 curve of, 193–194 reasons for, 194–197 consolidation failure, 196, 197 decay theory, 194–195, 197 encoding failure, 194, 197 interference, 195–196, 197 motivated forgetting, 196, 197 prospective forgetting, 196, 197 retrieval failure, 196–197 Formal academic knowledge, 229 Formal concepts, 214 Formal education, 255 Formal operations stage, 255, 257 Fortune-telling, 436 SI-6 Subject Index Fovea, 80, 81, 82 Fragile X syndrome, 66, 417 Frames of mind, 228, 230 Framing, 217–218, 219 Fraternal twins, 68 Free association, 426 Free will, 10 Frequency, 85–86 Frequency theory, 89 Frontal lobe Broca’s area, 59 motor cortex, 57–59 prefrontal cortex, 57 Frustration-aggression hypothesis, 475 Full-scale IQ score, 234 Fully functioning person, 371 Functional fixedness, 220 Functional MRI (fMRI), 40, 41 Functionalism, Fundamental attribution error, 456–457 G g factor, 228, 230 GABA, 46, 404 Ganglion cells, 81–82 Ganzfeld procedure, 106 Gate-control theory, 93–94 Gay men, social attitudes toward, 314 Gender bias, 28, 262 Gender constancy, 275 Gender differences in the brain, 63 in cognitive abilities, 240–242 in emotion, 318 in health, 346–347 in intellectual functioning, 280 in rates of depression, 405 in sexual attitudes and behavior, 309–311 in suicide rates, 406 Gender role development, 274–275 Gender stability, 275 Gender-schema theory, 275 Gender-sensitive therapy, 445 General adaptation syndrome (GAS), 338–339 General slowing, 283–284 Generalization, 148, 154 Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), 399 Generativity versus stagnation, 263, 264 Genes/genetics, 65–67 of alcoholism, 351 behavioral genetics, 67–68 dominant-recessive pattern, 66 genetic code, 66 genotype, 66 of handedness, 54 of personality, 376–377 phenotype, 66 polygenetic inheritance, 66 of schizophrenia, 409 Genetic counseling, 67 Genital herpes, 352 Genital warts, 352 Genotype, 66 Genuineness, 428 Germinal stage, 265 Gestalt principles of perceptual organization, 100–101 closure, 100, 101 continuity, 100 figure-ground, 100 proximity, 100 similarity, 100 Gestalt psychology, 11 Gestalt therapy, 428, 446 Gestational age, 266 Glial cells, 42 Glucagon, 65 Glucocorticoids, 338, 339 Glucose, 304 Glutamate, 46, 92 Goal orientation theory, 301, 303 Goal setting, 300, 303 Goals, of psychology, Gonads, 65 Gonorrhea, 351 Good boy-nice girl orientation, 259 Gray matter, 53, 63, 283 Grieving process, 286, 287 Grossly disorganized behavior, 408 Group, 446 Group influence, 465–468 group decision making, 467–468 social facilitation, 465–466 social loafing, 466 social roles, 468–469 Group intelligence tests, 234 Group polarization, 467 Group therapy, 10, 429 Groupthink, 467–468 Guided imagery, 204 Gustation, 92 H Hair cells, 87 Hallucinations, 407–408 Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD), 136 Hallucinogens, 135–136 designer drugs, 136 LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), 136, 137 marijuana, 135–136, 137 MDMA (Ecstasy), 137 Halo effect, 382, 458 Hammer, 86–87 Handedness, 39, 53–54, 66 Happiness, 319, 321, 406 Hardiness, 341–342 Hassles, 331–332 Hassles Scale, 332 Healing circles, 444 Health biopsychosocial model, 335–337 hardiness and, 342 socioeconomic status and, 334 stress and, 330–331 Health and illness, 344–348 cancer, 346 coronary heart disease, 344–345 ethnic group differences, 347–348 gender and, 346–347 Health and lifestyle, 348–357 alcohol abuse, 350–351 alternative medicine, 356–357 benefits of lifestyle changes, 357 diet, 355–356 exercise, 355–356 sexually transmitted diseases, 351–355 smoking, 348–350 Health information, on Internet, 349 Health psychology, 336–337 Health-stress connection, 335–344 biopsychosocial model, 335–337 immune system, 337–338 physiology of, 337–340 theories of stress response, 338–340 Hearing, 85–90 affect of aging on, 283 audition, 86 bone conduction, 88–89 colored hearing, 107 ear and, 86–89 frequency theory of, 89 hearing loss, 87–88 infants, 267 place theory of, 89 sound, 85–86 Heart disease, 344–345 Heinz dilemma, 259 Helicobacter pylori, 347 Hepatitis, 347 Hereditary cancers, 67 Heredity aggression and, 475 mechanisms of, 65–66 mood disorders and, 404 personality and, 376–377 Heritability, 236–237, 376 Heroin, 131, 135, 266 Herpes, genital, 352 Hertz (Hz), 85 HERV-W viruses, 409 Heuristic value, 16 Heuristics, 216–217 analogy heuristic, 219 availability heuristic, 216, 217, 219 means-ends analysis, 219–220 recognition heuristic, 216–217 representativeness heuristic, 216, 219 working backward, 219 Hierarchy of needs, Maslow’s, 10, 302, 303 High school students, sexual activity among, 277 Higher-order conditioning, 146–147 High-pitched tones, 88 Hindbrain, 49–50 brainstem, 49 cerebellum, 49–50 medulla, 49 pons, 49 reticular formation, 49 Hippocampal region, 198 Hippocampus, 51–52, 59, 198, 199 Hispanic Americans, 347, 348 Historical racism, 334 Histrionic personality disorder, 414 Hoarding disorder, 401–402 Hobbies, dangerous, 299 Homeostasis, 297 Homophobia, 314 Homosexuality causes, 313 Freud’s theory of, 367 prevalence, 312–313 social attitudes toward, 314 Hop-disappointment cycle, 321 Hopelessness, 341 Horizontal cells, 81 Hormone replacement therapy, 200 Hormones, 63–64 hunger and, 304 memory and, 199–200 sexual response cycle and, 312 Hospice care, 287 Hostility, 345 Hot flashes, 279 Hue, 83 Human contact, 333 Human development See Development Human Genome Project, 65 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 352–355 Human nature, 10 Human nervous system See Nervous system Human papillomavirus (HPV), 352 Humanistic perspective, 13, 14 Humanistic psychology, 10, 370 Subject Index Humanistic theories of personality, 370–372, 381 conditions of worth, 371 esteem needs, 370–371 self-actualization, 371 Humanistic therapies, 427–428 Hunger, 303–309 eating disorders, 307–309 external cues, 303–304 internal cues, 303–304 obesity, 305–307 variations in body weight, 305 weight loss, 305–307 Hygiene, sleep, 123, 124 Hyperopia, 80 Hypertension, 283, 347 Hypnosis, 129–130, 204 myths about, 129 neodissociation theory of hypnosis, 130 sociocognitive theory of, 129, 130 theories of, 129–130 theory of dissociated control, 130 Hypochondriasis, 384 Hypomania, 384 Hypothalamus, 51 Hypothesis, applying results of, 5–6 causal, 23 formulating, 4–5 Hypothetico-deductive thinking, 255 Hysteria, 384 I Id, 364–365 Identical twins, 68 Identity versus role confusion, 263, 264 Illness biomedical model, 335–336 biopsychosocial model, 335–337 cancer, 346–347 coronary heart disease, 344–345 health and, 344–348 Illusions, 105–106 Imagery, 213 Imaginary audience, 255 Imaging techniques, 40–41, 117 CT scan (computerized axial tomography), 40 diffusion tensor imaging, 41 functional MRI, 40, 41 MEG (magnetoencephalography), 40 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 40 PET scan (positron-emission tomography), 40 SQUID (superconduction quantum interference device), 40 Immune system, stress and the, 337–338 Implicit memory, 185 Impression formation, 454–455 Impression management, 383, 455–456 In vivo flooding, 431–432 Inappropriate effect, 408 Inattentional blindness, 95–96 Incentive, 296 Inclusion, 235 Independent thinking, 17 Independent variable, 23–24 Individual differences, 12 Individual psychology, 369 Individualism/collectivism dimension, 377 Industrial/organizational (I/O) pychologists, 15, 300 Industry versus inferiority, 263, 264 Infancy, 263 attachment, 268–271 low-birth-weight babies, 266 motor development, 269 perceptual and motor development, 267–268 preterm infants, 266 reflexes, 267 sleep patterns in, 122 temperament, 268 Infantile amnesia, 204 Infatuated love, 460 Inferiority complex, 369 Inflammation, 337 Influence, as goal of psychology, Influenza virus, 409 Information-processing theory, 11, 179–180 Informed consent, 29, 443 In-groups, 478 Inheritance mechanisms of heredity, 65–66 multifactorial, 66 polygenetic, 66 sex-linked, 66 Inherited diseases of childhood, 67 Inhibitory effect, 167 Initiative versus guilt, 263, 264 Inner ear, 87 Insanity, 394 Insight, 165, 167 Insight therapies, 426–428, 446 Insomnia, 125 Institutional approval, 29 Instrumentality, 300 Insulin, 65, 304 Integration orientation, 335 Intellectual disabilities, 232, 235 Intellectual functions, changes in, during adulthood, 280 Intelligence, 228–245 artificial intelligence, 221 bodily-kinesthetic, 229 componential, 229, 230 contextual, 229, 230 creativity and, 243–245 crystallized, 280 emotional, 243 existential, 228 experiential, 229, 230 explaining differences in, 236–242 fluid, 280 frames of mind, 228, 230 g factor, 228, 230 gender differences in, 240–242 interpersonal, 229 intrapersonal, 229 linguistic, 229 logical-mathematical, 229 measuring, 230–232 mental age, 232–233 musical, 229 naturalistic, 229 nature-nurture debate, 236–238 adoption, 237–238 early intervention, 237–238 heritability, 236–237 Ramey’s infant intervention, 237–238 twin studies on, 237 primary mental abilities, 228, 230 race and IQ, 238–240 range of, 234–235 s factors, 228 spatial, 229 testing, 232–234 theory of multiple intelligences, 228–229 triarchic theory of intelligence, 229–230 Intelligence quotient (IQ), 233 Intelligence tests, 231–234 Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale, 232–233 SI-7 culture-fair intelligence test, 232 group, 234 mental age, 232–233 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, 233 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), 233 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), 233–234 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI), 233 Intensity, 296 Interactionist approach, to language development, 273 Interchangeability, 223 Interference, 195–196, 197 proactive, 195 retroactive, 195–196 Intergroup contact, 480 Internal locus of control, 379 Internet, 171 health information on, 349 surveys, 19 Interneurons, 41, 49 Interpersonal intelligence, 229 Interpersonal therapy (IPT), 427 Interposition, 102, 103 Interviews, 381–382 job interviews, 383 structured interviews, 382 Intimacy, 460 Intimacy versus isolation, 263, 264 Intimate relationships, 459–461 Intracranial electroencephalogram (iEEG), 40 Intrapersonal intelligence, 229 Intrinsic motivation, 296–297 Introspection, 7–8 Intuition, 218, 219, 317–318 Inventory, 382–385 Investigative personality type, 282 Ions, 43 IQ score, 228, 234, 238–240 IQ tests, 230, 232 Iris, 80, 82 Irrational fears, 395 J James-Lange theory, 315, 316 Jealousy, 295 Jet lag, 119 Jigsaw technique, 480 Job description, 332 Job interviews, 383 Job responsibilities, 332 Job satisfaction, 281 Job status, 332 Just noticeable difference (JND), 77 Justice, 262 K Kinesthetic sense, 89 Knowledge formal academic, 229 tacit, 229–230 L Labeling, 436 Labor, 266 Laboratory observation, 18, 27 Language, 222–227 animal, 223–225 learning a second language, 226–227 linguistic relativity hypothesis, 225–226 morphemes, 222 phonemes, 222 pragmatics, 223 psycholinguistics, 222 SI-8 Subject Index semantics, 222–223 structure of, 222–223 syntax, 222 thinking and, 225–226 Language acquisition device (LAD), 272 Language development, 271–273 environmental factors influencing, 272–273 literacy, 273 motherese, 273 phases of, 271–272 babbling, 271 overextension, 271–272 overregulatization, 272 telegraphic speech, 272 underextension, 272 phonological awareness, 273 theories of, 272–273 ineractionist approach, 273 learning perspective, 272 nativist perspective, 272 Language processing, 61 Late adulthood, 263, 283–287 death and dying, 285–287 general slowing, 283–284 physical and cognitive changes, 283–284 social adjustment, 284–285 successful aging, 285 Late-maturing girls, 276 Latent content, 127 Latent learning, 165–166, 167 Lateral hypothesis (LH), 304 Lateralization, 54 Law of effect, 153 Lazarus theory, 316 Lead exposure, 235 Learned helplessness, 161 Learning, 144–177 avoidance, 161 classical conditioning, 145–153 cognitive, 164–173 coping strategies and, 341 defined, 145 escape, 161 by insight, 165 latent, 165–166, 167 from media, 167–171 multitasking environment and, 168–169 observational, 166–167 operant conditioning, 153–164 scaffolding, 258–259 theories, 252 Learning perspective, 272 Left hemisphere, 54–55 Legal settings, memory in, 202–205 Legality, 28–29 Lens, 80, 82 Leptin, 305 Lesbians, social attitudes toward, 314 Levels-of-processing model, 183 Librium, 135, 439 Licensed chemical dependency counselor, 442 Licensed marriage and family therapist, 442 Licensed professional counselor, 442 Life events approach, 329–331 Life expectancy, 283 Life partner, choosing, 459–460 Life satisfaction, 321 Lifestyle and health, 348–357 alcohol abuse, 350–351 alternative medicine, 356–357 benefits of lifestyle changes, 357 diet, 355–356 exercise, 355–356 sexually transmitted diseases, 351–355 smoking, 348–350 Light adaptation, 81 Light mask, 119 Light waves, 79 Liking, 460 Limbic system, 51–52 amygdala, 51, 317 hippocampus, 51–52 hypothalamus, 51 thalamus, 51 Linear perspective, 102, 103 Linguistic intelligence, 229 Linguistic relativity hypothesis, 225–226 Literacy, 273 Lithium, 439, 440 Little Albert, 149–150 Living arrangements, 280–281, 285 Lobes See Cerebral lobes Lobotomy, 441 Locus of control, 379–380, 381 Logical-mathematical intelligence, 229 Long-term memory (LTM), 183–185 declarative memory, 184–185 nondeclarative memory, 185 Long-term potentiation (LTP), 199 Lottery, chance of winning, 217 Love companionate, 460, 461 consummate, 460, 461 empty, 460 fatuous, 460, 461 infatuated, 460 romantic, 460, 461 triangular theory of, 460–461 Love needs, 302 Low arousal level, 475 Low-ball technique, 465 Low-birth-weight babies, 266 LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), 136, 137 Lucid dreams, 126, 127 Lymphocytes, 337 M Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 40 Magnification, 436 Mainstreaming, 235 Maintenance rehearsal, 183 Major depressive disorder, 403 Maladaptive behavior, 393–394 Manic episodes, 403 Manifest content, 127 Marijuana, 135–136, 137 Marriage, 281 Married households, 280 Masculinity/femininity, 384 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 10, 302 Mass practice, 184 Mastery, 193 Mastery/approach orientation, 301 Mastery/avoidance orientation, 301 Matching hypothesis, 459 Mate preferences, 311 Maternal health, 265 Math achievement, gender differences in, 241–242 Mating strategies, 295 Maturation, 268 Mean-ends analysis, 219–220 Media Internet, 171 learning from, 167–171 television, 169–170, 477 video games, 170–171 violence, 169–171, 477 Meditation, 128–129 Mediums, 472 Medulla, 49 MEG (magnetoencephalography), 40 Melatonin, 64, 118, 119 Memory, 178–211 aids, 184 automaticity, 183 biology and, 197–202 hippocampal region, 198 hippocampus, 198, 199 long-term potentiation, 199 neuronal changes, 198–199 declarative, 184–185 encoding, 179 episodic, 184–185 false memory, 190, 204, 205 flashbulb memories, 199 forgetting, 193–197 hormones and, 199–200 information-processing theory of, 179–180 in legal and therapeutic settings, 202–205 eyewitness testimony, 202–203 repressed memory controversy, 204–205 long-term memory, 183–185 memory loss, 200–201 amnesia, 200–201 dementia, 201 memory strategies, 182–183 elaborative rehearsal, 183 maintenance rehearsal, 183 mnemonics, 184 nodeclarative, 185 photographic, 180 reconstructive, 188–193 autobiographical memories, 191 flashbulb memories, 190–191 influences on, 191–193 process of, 188–189 schemas, 188–189 source memory, 189–190 retrieval, 179, 186–188 semantic, 185 sensory, 180 short-term memory, 180–183 storage, 179 structure of human memory, 179–185 super-memories, 183 working, 182–183 Men emotion and, 318 orgasm in, 311–312 sexual attitudes and behavior, 309–311 Menarche, 276 Menopause, 279 Mental age, 232–233 Mental challenge, 333 Mental filter, 436 Mental health professionals, 442 Mental hospital patient populations, 437 Mental retardation, 235 Mental set, 220–221 Mercy killing, 286–287 Mere-exposure effect, 458 Metabolic rate, 305 Methamphetamine, 133 Method of loci, 184 Methylene-dioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA), 136, 137 Methylphenidate, 417–418 Metronome, Microelectrode, 39–40 Midbrain, 50–51 Middle adulthood, 263, 271–276 Middle age, 282–283 Middle childhood, 263 Middle ear, 86–87 Subject Index Midlife crisis, 283 Mind reading, 436 Minimization, 436 Minnesota Center for Twin and Adoption Research, 237 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 382–384 Minor tranquilizers, 135, 137 Mirror neuron system (MNS), 99 Mirror tracing, 62 Misinformation effect, 202–203 MMPI-2, 382–384 MMPI-A, 384 Mnemonics, 184 Modafinil, 119 Model, 166 Modeling effect, 167 Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, 439, 440 Monocular depth cues, 102–103 Monosodium glutamate (MSG), 92 Mood disorders, 403–407 Moon illusion, 105 Moral development, Kohlberg’s theory of, 259–262 challenges to, 262 cognitive development and, 260–261 conventional level, 259, 261 culture and, 261 gender bias, 262 Heinz dilemma, 259 moral reasoning, measuring, 259 postconventional level, 260, 261 preconventional level, 259, 261 stages, 259–261 Moral injury, 331 Moral reasoning, 259 Morphemes, 222 Morphine, 131, 135 Mosquito ringtone hearing test, 88 Mother-child attachment, 268–270 Motherese, 273 Motion, perception of, 103 Motion parallax, 102–103 Motivated forgetting, 196, 197 Motivation, 295–303 achievement motivation, 296, 300–301, 466 activation phase, 295 arousal theory, 298, 299, 303 behavioral approach to, 299–303 biological approaches to, 297–298 components of, 295–296 drive-reduction theory, 297–298, 299, 303 expectancy theory, 300, 303 extrinsic, 296–297 foundations of, 295–297 goal orientation theory, 301, 303 goal setting, 300, 303 incentive, 296 intensity, 296 intrinsic, 296–297 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 302, 303 n Ach, 300–301, 303 persistence, 295–296 primary drives, 296 sexual motivation, 309–314 social motives, 296 social-cognitive approach to, 299–303 stimulus motives, 298 work motivation, 296, 300 Yerkes-Dodson law, 298 Motives, 296 Motor cortex, 57–59 Motor development, infancy, 267–268, 269 Motor neurons, 41, 49 Motor skills, 185, 268 Movement, 89–90 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 40 Müller-Lyer illusion, 105–106 Multifactorial disorders, 67 Multifactorial inheritance, 66 Multigenerational households, 285 Multitasking environment, 168–169 Muses, 117 Musical intelligence, 229 “Must” statements, 436 Mutual help groups, 429 Myelin sheath, 42, 44, 283 Myelination, 61 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 384–385 Myopia, 80 N Naive idealism, 255 Naive subject, 462 Narcissistic personality disorder, 413, 414 Narcolepsy, 124, 125 Narcotics, 135, 137 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 241 Native American Church, 117 Native Americans, 347, 444 Nativist perspective, 272 Natural concepts, 214 Natural selection, 11 Naturalistic intelligence, 229 Naturalistic observation, 18, 27 Nature-nurture debate, 236–238, 252, 376–377 Nearsightedness (myopia), 80 Need for achievement (n Ach), 300–301, 303 Needs, Maslow’s hierarchy of, 10, 302, 303 Negative correlations, 20–21 Negative punishment, 158–159 Negative reinforcement, 155–156 Negative symptoms, of schizophrenia, 408 Neodissociation theory of hypnosis, 130 Neo-Freudians, 10, 368–370, 381 Neonate, 266 Neo-Piagetians, 257–258 Nerve endings, 93 Nervous system, 47–52 central nervous system (CNS), 47, 49–52 EEG, 39–40 imaging techniques, 40–41 microelectrode, 39–40 mysteries of, discovering, 39–41 neurons, 41–46 neurotransmitters, 44–46 peripheral nervous system (PNS), 47–49 autonomic nervous system, 47–48 somatic nervous system, 47 Neural maps, 52 Neurodevelopmental disorders, 417 Neuroleptics, 437, 440 Neuronal changes, memory and, 198–199 Neurons, 41–46 action potential, 43, 44 afferent (sensory), 41, 49 axon terminal, 42 axons, 42 cell body, 41, 42, 45 communication between, 42–44 dendrites, 41, 42 efferent (motor), 41, 49 glial cells, 42 interneurons, 41, 49 myelin sheath, 42, 44 nodes of Ranvier, 42 olfactory, 91 refractory period, 43 resting potential, 43 SI-9 structure of, 41–42 synapse, 43 synaptic cleft, 42–43, 45 synaptic transmission, 45 Neuropeptide Y (NPY), 337 Neuroscience, 12 affective neuroscience, 317–318 Neurotic personality, 369 Neuroticism, 374, 375–376, 400–401, 404 Neurotransmitters, 41–46, 404, 411 action potential, 43, 44 influence of drugs on, 46 major, 46 receptors, 44–45 reuptake, 45 synaptic vesicles, 44 Newborns, 266 See also Infancy Nicotine, 133, 137, 266 Night vision, 283 Nightmares, 123 Nodes of Ranvier, 42 Nondeclarative memory, 185 Nondirective therapy, 428 Nontasters, 92 Norepinephrine (NE), 46, 64, 65, 199, 404 Normal curve, 234 Norm-referenced achievement tests, 231 Norms, 231, 461 Nose, 90–91 NREM (non-REM) sleep, 120 NREM dreams, 126 Nucleus accumbens, 131 Nursery rhymes, 273 Nutrition, 355 O Obedience, 462–464 Obesity, 305–307, 355 Object relations, 426–427 Observational and case studies, 18–19 Observational learning, 166–167 attention, 166 disinhibitory effect, 167 facilitation effect, 167 inhibitory effect, 167 modeling effect, 167 reinforcement, 167 reproduction, 166–167 retention, 166 Observer bias, 18 Observers, 456 Obsessions, 401–402 Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 401–402 Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, 413, 414 Occipital lobe, 58–60 Odor receptors, 91 Odors, as retrieval cues, 187 Oedipus complex, 366 “Old Woman/Young Woman,” 104 Older adults See also Late adulthood sleep patterns in, 122 suicide by, 406 Olfaction, 90–91 Olfactory bulbs, 91 Olfactory epithelium, 91 Olfactory system, 90–91 On-the-job stress, 332–333 Openness, 374 Operant, 153 Operant conditioning, 9–10, 153–164 applications of, 162–164 behavior modification techniques based on, 430–431 characteristics of, 164 SI-10 Subject Index discrimination, 154–155 discriminative stimulus, 155 extinction, 154 generalization, 154 law of effect, 153 operant, 153 process of, 154–155 punisher, 153 punishment, 158–161 puzzle box, 153 reinforcement, 155–158 reinforcer, 153 shaping, 154 Skinner box, 154 spontaneous recovery, 154 successive approximations, 154 Opiates, 131 Opium, 135 Opponent-process theory, 83 Opsin, 81 Optic nerve, 80, 81, 82 Optimism, 320, 341 Orbitofrontal cortex, 91 Orgasm, 311–312 Ossicles, 86–87 Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test, 234 Outer ear, 86, 87 Out-groups, 478 Oval window, 87 Ovaries, 65 Overextension, 271–272 Overgeneralization, 436 Overlearning, 4, 184 Overregularization, 272 Overweight, 305–307 Oxytocin, 135, 266 P Pain, 93–94 aggression and, 476 chronic, 94, 337 endorphins, 94 gate-control theory of, 93–94 management of, 94 Pancreas, 65 Panic attacks, 398 Panic disorder, 399 Papillae, 92 Parallel processing, 11 Parallelisms, 55 Paranoia, 384 Paranoid personality disorder, 414 Paraphilic disorders, 413 Parasomnias, 123 Parasympathetic nervous system, 47, 48–49 Parathyroid glands, 65 Parathyroid hormone (PTH), 65 Parental investment, 310 Parenthood, 281 Parenting styles, 273–274 authoritarian parents, 273 authoritative parents, 273–274 permissive parents, 274 Parents, relationship between adolescents and, 277–278 Parietal lobe, 58, 59 Parkinson’s disease, 51 Partial reinforcement effect, 157 Participant bias, 24–25 Participant modeling, 433 Participant-related bias, 28 Passion, 460 Passive euthanasia, 287 Passive smoking, 349 Pathogens, 336 Patient, 371 Pavlovian conditioning See Classical conditioning Pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD), 415 Peer relationships, 274, 277–278 Peer review, Pelvic inflammatory disease, 351 PEN model, 373–374 Penis envy, 366–367 Perceived control, 343 Perceived support, 343 Perception, 76 cocktail party phenomenon, 96–97 cross-modal, 97, 99 depth, 101–103 Gestalt principles of perceptual organization, 100–101 closure, 100, 101 continuity, 100 figure-ground, 100 proximity, 100 similarity, 100 inattentional blindness, 95–96 influences on, 95–100 attention, 95–97 prior knowledge, 97–99 of motion, 103–104 perceptual constancy, 101 brightness constancy, 101 shape constancy, 101 size constancy, 101 perceptual organization, 100–101 perceptual set, 98–99 principles of, 100–104 social, 99–100 unusual perceptual experiences, 104–107 extrasensory perception, 106 puzzling perceptions, 104–106 subliminal perception, 106 synesthesia, 107 Perceptual constancy, 101 Perceptual development, infancy, 267–268 Perceptual reasoning index, 233 Perceptual set, 98–99 Performance, arousal and, 298 Performance anxiety, 399 Performance/approach orientation, 301 Performance/avoidance orientation, 301 Period of the embryo, 265 Period of the fetus, 265 Period of the zygote, 265 Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 47–49 autonomic nervous system, 47–48 somatic nervous system, 47 Permissive parents, 274 Permissive-indulgent parents, 274 Permissive-neglectful parents, 274 Persistence, 295–296 Personal fable, 255 Personal space, 476 Personal unconscious, 369 Personality assessment, 381–386 interviews, 381–382 inventories, 382–385 observation, 381–382 projective tests, 385–386 rating scales, 381–382 culture and, 377 descriptors, 364 extraversion, 374 gender differences in, 376 heart disease and, 345 Holland’s personality types, 282 nature-nurture debate on, 376–377 neuroticism, 374 prefrontal cortex and, 57 theory and assessment, 363–391 Adler’s conception of, 369 conscious mind, 364 defense mechanisms, 365–366 ego, 365 Freud’s theory, 364–368, 381 Horney’s conception of, 369–370 humanistic theories, 370–372, 381 id, 364–365 inferiority complex, 369 Jung’s conception of, 368–369 Maslow’s theory of, 370–371 neo-Freudians, 368–370, 381 psychoanalytic theories, 364–370 Roger’s theory of, 371 self-esteem, 371–372 social-cognitive theories, 378–381 superego, 365 trait approach, 364 trait theories, 372–378, 381 Personality disorders, 413–414 prevalence of, 414 treatment of, 414 types of, 414 Personality inventories, 382–385 Personalization, 436 Person-centered therapy, 371, 428, 446 Persuasion, 471–472 Pessimism, 341 PET scan (positron-emission tomography), 40 Peyote/peyotism, 117 Phenobarbital, 134–135 Phenotype, 66 Pheromones, 311 Phi phenomenon, 11, 104 Phobias, 400, 401 Phonemes, 222, 271 Phonological awareness, 273 Photographic memory, 180 Photoreceptors, 118 Physical attractiveness, 458–459 Physical challenge, 333 Physical changes, in late adulthood, 283–284 Physical drug dependence, 132 Physical exercise, 284, 355–356 Physiological (biological) psychology, 12 Physiological needs, 302 Physiological psychologists, 15 Pineal gland, 64, 118 Pinna, 86, 87 Pitch, 85–86 Pituitary gland, 64 Place theory, 89 Placebo, 24–25 Placebo effect, 24–25 Plasticity, 61–62 Plateau phase, of sexual response cycle, 311 Pleasure principle, 365 Polygenetic inheritance, 66 Polysomnograms, 120 Pons, 49 Ponzo illusion, 105 Pop quizzes, 341 Population, 19 Positive bias, 191 Positive correlations, 20 Positive outlook, 321 Positive psychology, 10, 320 Positive punishment, 158 Positive regard, unconditional, 371, 428 Positive reinforcement, 155 Subject Index Positive symptoms, of schizophrenia, 407–408 Postconventional level, of moral development, 260, 261 Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 331 Pragmatics, 223 Precognition, 106 Preconscious, 364, 365 Preconventional level, of moral development, 259, 261 Predictable rewards, 145 Prediction, as goal of psychology, Prefrontal cortex, 57 Pregnancy drug and alcohol use in, 266 endorphin levels during, 94 negative influences during, 265–266 prenatal development during, 264–267 smoking during, 266, 349 teenage, 277 trimesters, 264 Prejudice, 477–481 decrease in, 479–480 roots of, 477–479 unlearning, 480 Prenatal development, 263, 264–267 critical periods, 265 negative influences during drug and alcohol use, 266 smoking, 266 teratogens, 265 negative influences on, 265–266 stages embryo, 265 fetus, 265 zygote, 265 stages of, 265 Prenatal sex hormones, 274–275 Prenatal testing, 67 Preoperational stage, 253–254, 257 Presbyopia, 279 Pretend play, 254 Preterm infants, 266 Prevarication, 223 Primacy effect, 187, 455 Primary appraisal, 339 Primary auditory cortex, 58, 60 Primary drives, 296 Primary mental abilities, 228, 230 Primary Mental Abilities Tests, 228 Primary reinforcer, 156 Primary visual cortex, 58, 59–60, 82 Primates, use of language by, 224–225 Principles of Psychology (James), Prior knowledge, 97–99, 191–193 Private speech, 258 Proactive coping, 340–341 Proactive interference, 195 Problem solving, 219–221 algorithm, 220 analogy heuristic, 219 means-ends analysis, 219–220 obstacles to, 220–221 confirmation bias, 221 functional fixedness, 220 mental set, 220–221 working backward, 219 Problem-focused coping, 340, 341 Processed foods, 355 Processing speed index, 233 Procrastination, 161, 162 Productivity, 223 Progesterone, 64, 65, 200, 312 Projection, 366 Projective tests, 385–386 Propofol, 131, 134–135 Prosocial behavior, 472–474 altruism, 473 bystander effect, 473–474 empathy, 473 reasons for helping, 473 Prospective forgetting, 196, 197 Prostate gland, 280 Prototypes, 214, 215 Proximity, 100, 458 Pruning, 61 Psychasthenia, 384 Psychedelics, 135–136 Psychiatrists, 442 Psychoactive drugs, 130–137, 437–440 See also Drug therapy affect on brain of, 131 depressants, 134–135, 137 hallucinogens, 135–136, 137 stimulants, 133–134, 137 substance abuse and addiction, 131–133 Psychoanalysis, 10, 365, 426–427, 446 Psychoanalytic perspective, 13, 14 Psychoanalytic theories, 364–370 Freud’s theory of personality, 364–368, 381 conscious, 364 defense mechanisms, 365–366 ego, 365 evaluating, 368 id, 364–365 preconscious, 364, 365 psychosexual stages of development, 366–367 superego, 365 unconscious, 364, 365 neo-Freudians, 368–370, 381 Psychodynamic perspective, 396, 397 Psychodynamic therapies, 426–427 Psycholinguistics, 222 Psychological disorders, 392–424 abnormal behavior, 393–394 anxiety disorders, 397–402 bipolar disorders, 403–407 childhood disorders, 415–418 classifying, 395–396 defining, 393–397 depressive disorders, 403–407 dissociative disorders, 412–413 explanations for, 396–397 biological perspective, 396, 397 biopsychosocial perspective, 396, 397 cognitive perspective, 396–397 psychodynamic perspective, 396, 397 lifetime prevalence of, 395–396 neurodevelopmental disorders, 417 paraphilic disorders, 413 personality disorders, 413–414 schizophrenia, 407–411 sexual dysfunctions, 413 somatic disorders, 411–412 tracking, 395–396 Psychological drug dependence, 132–133 Psychological perspectives, 13–14, 15 Psychological tests achievement test, 231 aptitude test, 231 intelligence test, 231, 232 norms, 231 reliability of, 231 standardization, 231 validity of, 231 Psychologists, 442 goals of, Psychology defined, SI-11 development of field, 7–15 goals of, as science, 3–6 specialties in, 14–15 SQ3R method for studying, 2–3 Psychoneuroimmunology, 337–338 Psychopathic deviate, 384 Psychopathy, 380 Psychosexual stages of development, 366–367 Elektra complex, 366–367 fixation, 366 Freud’s theory, 366–367 Oedipus complex, 366 Psychosis, 407 Psychosocial development, Erikson’s theory of, 262–264 Psychosocial stages, 262–264 Psychosurgery, 441 Psychotherapy, 426 See also Therapies culturally sensitive therapy, 444–445 gender-sensitive therapy, 445 practical issues in, 442–447 therapist, choosing, 442–444 Psychoticism, 374 Psychotics, 374 Puberty, 276–277 Public speaking, fear of, 400 Publication, 29 Punisher, 153 Punishment, 158–161 alternatives to, 159–160 culture and, 160–161 disadvantages of, 159 effects of, 159 making more effective, 160 negative, 158–159 positive, 158 Pupil, 80, 82 Puzzle box, 153 Puzzling perceptions, 104–106 Q Quasi-experiments, 25 Questionnaires, 19 R Race IQ and, 238–240 stereotype threat, 239–240 Racial patterning, 348 Racism, 334 Random assignment, 24, 25 Random sample, 19 Rapid transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), 441 Rare events, overestimation of likelihood of, 217 Rating scales, 381–382 Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), 434–435 Rationalization, 366 Reaction formation, 366 Realistic conflict theory, 477–478 Realistic personality type, 282 Recall, 186 Received support, 343 Recency effect, 187 Receptors, 44–45 Reciprocal determinism, 379, 381 Reciprocal liking, 458 Reciprocity, 458 Recitation, 184 Recognition, 186 Recognition heuristic, 216–217 SI-12 Subject Index Reconstruction/reconstructive memory, 188–193 autobiographical memories, 191 flashbulb memories, 190–191 influences on, 191–193 positive bias, 191 process of, 188–189 schemas, 188–189 source memory, 189–190 source monitoring, 190 Red-green color blindness, 66 Reference point, 103–104 Reflexes, 267 Reflexiveness, 223 Refractory period, 43 Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), 245 Regression, 366 Rehearsal, 181–182 Reinforcement, 155–158 effects of, 159 negative, 155–156 partial reinforcement effect, 157 positive, 155 primary reinforcer, 156 schedules, 156–158 fixed-interval, 157, 158 fixed-ratio, 156, 158 variable-interval, 157, 158 variable-ratio, 156–157, 158 secondary reinforcer, 156 Reinforcer, 153 Relationship therapies, 429–430, 446 Relative size, 102, 103 Relaxation response, 128 Relearning method, 186 Reliability, 231 Religious involvement, 342 REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, 121–122 REM dreams, 126 REM rebound, 121 Remembering, act of, 179 See also memory Remote Associates Test (RAT), 245 Repeated testing, 184 Replication, Representative sample, 19 Representativeness heuristic, 216, 219 Repression, 204–205, 365, 366 Research See also Descriptive research methods applied, basic, case study, 18–19, 27 context effect, 187 correlational method, 20–21, 27 cross-cultural, 25 evaluating, 16–17 critical thinking, 16–17 independent thinking, 17 suspension of judgment, 17 willingness to modify or abandon prior judgments, 17 experimental method, 23–26, 27 human participants’ and animals’ rights, protecting, 28–30 APA code of ethics, 28–29 clients, patients, students, and subordinates, 29 debriefing, 29 deception, 29 informed consent, 29 institutional approval, 29 legality, 28–29 minimization of discomfort, 29 payment for participation, 29 publication, 29 supervision by experienced personnel, 29 laboratory observation, 27 naturalistic observation, 18, 27 participants, 27–30 ageism, 28 characteristics influencing, 28 gender bias, 28 participant-related bias, 24–25, 28 protecting, 28–30 representativeness of, 28 survey, 19–20, 27 Resilience, 340–344 Resistance, 426 Resistance stage, 338 Resistant attachment, 270 Resolution phase, of sexual response cycle, 312 Respondent conditioning See Classical conditioning Response prevention, 432–433 Resting potential, 43 Restorative theory of sleep, 120 Reticular activating system (RAS), 49 Reticular formation, 49 Retina, 80, 81, 82 Retinal, 81 Retinal disparity, 102 Retirement, 284 Retrieval, 179, 186–188 failure, 196–197 influences on, 186–188 measuring, 186 primacy effect, 187 recall, 186 recency effect, 187 recognition, 186 relearning method, 186 retrieval cue, 186 serial position effect, 187 state-dependent memory effect, 188 Retroactive interference, 195–196 Retrograde amnesia, 200–201 Reuptake, 45 Reversibility, 254–255 Rewards, 145 Rhodopsin, 81 Right hemisphere, 55 Risk, 340–344 Risk/resilience model, 340 Rods, 80–81, 82 Romantic attraction, 459–460 Romantic love, 460, 461 Rorschach Inkblot Method, 385 Rose-colored glasses, 321 S s factors, 228 Sadness, 319 Safety needs, 302 Same-sex couples, 280–281 Sample, 19 biased, 19 random, 19 representative, 19 SAT, 231 Saturation, 83 Savant syndrome, 228–229 Savings score, 186 Scaffolding, 258–259 Scapegoating, 476 Schachter-Singer theory, 315–316 Schedules of reinforcement, 156–158 Schemas, 188–189, 192 Schemes, 253 Schizoid personality disorder, 414 Schizophrenia, 384, 407–411 constitutional vulnerability, 408–409 delusions, 408 derailment, 408 explanations for, 408–411 flat affect, 408 genetic basis for, 409 grossly disorganized behavior, 408 hallucinations, 407–408 inappropriate effect, 408 neuromaturational processes, 410–411 psychosis, 407 smoking rates of individuals with, 438 stress and, 409–410 symptoms of, 407–408 Schizotypal personality disorder, 414 School psychologists, 14, 442 Schools of thought in psychology, 9–13 behaviorism, 9–10 biological (physiological) psychology, 12 cognitive psychology, 10–11 evolutionary psychology, 11–12 Gestalt psychology, 11 humanistic psychology, 10 positive psychology, 10 psychoanalysis, 10 sociocultural approach, 12–13 Science, psychology as, question of, 3–6 Scientific method, 3–6 applied research, basic research, data collection, hypothesis, applying results of, 5–6 hypothesis, formulating, 4–5 observation, psychologists using, 3–6 study, designing, theorizing, Seattle Longitudinal Study, 280 Second language, learning a, 226–227 Secondary appraisal, 339–340 Secondary reinforcer, 156 Secondary sex characteristics, 65, 276 Second-hand smoke, 349 Secure attachment, 270 Sedentary lifestyle, 344–345 Selection bias, 24 Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), 439, 440 Self-actualization, 10, 302, 371, 428 Self-efficacy, 379, 381 Self-esteem, 371–372 Self-fulfilling prophecy, 25 Self-help groups, 429 Self-injurious behavior, 430–431 Self-medication, 437 Self-medication hypothesis, 438 Self-serving bias, 456 Semantic memory, 185 Semantics, 222–223 Semicircular canals, 87, 90 Sensation, 76–79 absolute and difference thresholds, 76–77 adaptation, 78–79 just noticeable difference, 77 transduction, 78 Weber’s law, 77 Sensation seeking, 299 Senses hearing, 85–90 smell, 90–91 taste, 92–93 touch, 93–94 vision, 79–85 Sensorimotor stage, 253, 257 Sensory adaptation, 78–79 Sensory memory, 180 Subject Index Sensory neurons, 41, 49 Sensory receptors, 78 Separation anxiety, 270 Serial position effect, 187 Serotonin, 46, 126 Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), 439, 440 Set point, 305 Set point theory, 305 Sex chromosomes, 66 Sex discrimination, 333 Sex drive, in middle age, 280 Sex hormones, 65 Sex-linked inheritance, 66 Sexual abuse, repressed memories and, 204–205 Sexual activity, 309 Sexual behavior, adolescence, 276–277 Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, 309 Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, 309 Sexual dysfunctions, 413 Sexual fantasies, 312 Sexual harassment, 333 Sexual infidelity, 295, 310 Sexual motivation, 309–314 arousal, 311–312 attitudes, 309–311 behavior, 309–311 desire, 311–312 Sexual orientation, 274, 312–313 Sexual response cycle, 311–312 excitement phase, 311 hormones and, 312 orgasm, 311–312 plateau phase, 311 resolution phase, 312 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), 351–355 bacterial STDs, 351 chlamydia, 351 gonorrhea, 351 syphilis, 351 pelvic inflammatory disease, 351 viral STDs, 352–355 genital herpes, 352 genital warts, 352 HIV/AIDS, 352–355 Shading, 102, 103 Shadow, 102, 103 Shape constancy, 101 Shaping, 154 Shift workers, 119 Shiritori, 273 Short-term memory capacity, 181 chunking, 181 cramming and, 182 displacement, 181 duration, 181–182 rehearsal, 181–182 working memory and, 182–183 Short-term memory (STM), 180–183 “Should” statements, 436 Similarity, 100 Situational attribution, 456 Situation-trait debate, 378–379, 381 Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), 373 60/60 rule, 88 Size constancy, 101 Skin, nerve endings in, 93 Skinner box, 154 Sleep, 120–125 alpha waves, 120–121 average hours of, 122 beta waves, 121 brain wave patterns, 120–121 circadian theory of, 120 disorders, 123–125 dyssomnias, 124–125 insomnia, 125 narcolepsy, 124, 125 nightmares, 123 parasomnias, 123 sleep apnea, 124–125 sleep terrors, 123 sleepwalking, 123 somniloquy, 123 dreams, 126–128 medications, 123 NREM (non-REM), 120 reasons for, 120 REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, 121–122 REM rebound, 121 restorative theory of, 120 sleep hygiene, 123, 124 slow-wave sleep, 121 stage 4, 121 variations in, 122 Sleep deprivation, 123 Sleep spindles, 121 Sleep terrors, 123 Sleep/wakefulness cycle, 118, 120–122 regulation of, 51 Sleepwalking, 123 Slow-wave sleep, 121 Smell, 90–91 Smoking cigarettes attempts to quit, 349–350 cognitive dissonance and, 471 health and, 348–350 learning phase, 168 maintenance phase, 168 passive smoking, 349 during pregnancy, 266 quitting phase, 168 schizophrenia and, 438 Social adjustment, in late adulthood, 284–285 Social anxiety disorder, 399–400 Social cognition, 454–457, 478–479 attribution, 454, 456–457 impression formation, 454–455 impression management, 455–456 primacy effect, 455 Social desirability, 384 Social desirability response, 20 Social development, 280–283 Social facilitation, 465–466 Social identity, 468 Social introversion, 384 Social involvement, 342 Social learning theorists, 275 Social learning theory of aggression, 476–477 Social loafing, 466 Social motives, 296 Social norms, 461 Social perception, 99–100 Social personality type, 282 Social psychologists, 15 Social psychology, 453–487 aggression, 474–477 attitudes and attitude change, 469–472 attraction, 458–461 compliance, 464–465 conformity, 461–462 group influence, 465–468 obedience, 462–464 prejudice and discrimination, 477–481 prosocial behavior, 472–474 social cognition, 454–457 Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), 330–331 Social relationships, adolescent, 277–278 SI-13 Social responsibility norms, 473 Social roles, 468–469 Social sources of stress, 333–335 acculturative stress, 335 racism, 334 socioeconomic status, 334 unemployment, 335 Social support, 342–343 Social-cognitive learning, 166–167 Social-cognitive theories, 378–381 locus of control, 379–380, 381 on prejudice and discrimination, 478–479 reciprocal determinism, 379, 381 self-efficacy, 379, 381 situation-trait debate, 378–379, 381 Socialization, 273–274 Sociocognitive theory of hypnosis, 129, 130 Sociocultural approach, 12–13, 258–259 Sociocultural perspective, 13, 14 Socioeconomic status, 334, 347 Soma, 41 Somatic disorders, 411–412 Somatic nervous system, 47 Somatosensory cortex, 58, 59, 93 Somnambulism, 123 Somniloquy, 123 Sound, 85–86 amplitude, 86 bone conduction, 88–89 decibels, 86 determining source of, 89 frequency, 85–86 hertz (Hz), 85 high-pitched tones, 88 pitch, 85–86 timbre, 86 Source memory, 189–190 Source monitoring, 190 Source traits, 373 Spaced practice, 184 Spatial intelligence, 229 Specialties in psychology, 14–15 clinical psychologists, 14 counseling psychologists, 15 developmental psychologists, 15 educational psychologists, 15 experimental psychologists, 15 forensic psychologists, 14 industrial/organizational psychologists, 15 physiological psychologists, 15 school psychologists, 14 social psychologists, 15 Specialization, 223 Specific phobia, 400 Sperm, 65 Spinal cord, 42, 47, 49 Spinal reflex, 49 Split-brain operation, 55–57 Spontaneous recovery, 148, 154 Spouse, loss of, 284–285 SQ3R method, 2–3 SQUID (superconduction quantum interference device), 40 Stage sleep, 121 Stage theories, 252 Standardization, 231 Stanford Prison Experiment, 468–469 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, 233 State-dependent memory effect, 188 Stereograms, 102 Stereotype threat, 239–240 Stereotypes, 479 Stimulants, 131, 133–134 amphetamines, 133–134, 137 caffeine, 133, 137 SI-14 Subject Index cocaine, 134, 137 nicotine, 133, 137 Stimulus, 145 Stimulus motives, 298 Stirrup, 86–87 Storage, 179 Stranger anxiety, 270 Stream of consciousness, Stress depression and, 405 health problems and, 330–331 health-stress connection, 335–344 biopsychosocial model, 335–337 physiology of, 337–340 management of, 337 risk and resilience, 340–344 coping strategies, 340–341 factors promoting resilience, 344 hardiness, 341–342 optimism, 341 perceived control, 343 religious involvement, 342 social involvement, 342 social support, 342–343 schizophrenia and, 409–410 Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), 330–331 social sources of, 333–335 acculturative stress, 335 racism, 334 socioeconomic status, 334 unemployment, 335 sources of, 329–335 approach-approach conflict, 332 approach-avoidance conflict, 332 avoidance-avoidance conflict, 332 catastrophic events, 331 everyday stressors, 331–332 hassles, 331–332 life events approach, 329–331 theories of stress response, 338–340 general adaptation syndrome, 338–339 Lazarus’s cognitive theory of stress, 339–340 in the workplace, 332–333 accountability, 333 burnout, 333 clarity of job description and evaluation criteria, 332 discrimination, 333 human contact, 333 job status, 332 mental challenge, 333 physical challenge, 333 physical variables, 332 sexual harassment, 333 task variety, 333 workload, 332 Stressor, 329 Stressor overload, 283 Stroboscopic motion, 104 Stroke, 62 Stroop test, 195 Structuralism, Structured interview, 382 Study design, Study strategies, 2–3, 4, 182, 184 cramming, 182, 184 organization, 184 overlearning, 184 recitation, 184 repeated testing, 184 spaced practice, 184 Subjective night, 119 Sublimation, 366 Subliminal perception, 106 Subliminal persuasion, 106 Substance abuse and addiction, 131–133, 350 classical conditioning and, 152 drug tolerance, 132 factors leading to, 132 physical drug dependence, 132 psychological drug dependence, 132–133 withdrawal symptoms, 132 Substantia nigra, 51 Successful aging, 285 Successive approximations, 154 Suicide, 406–407 Superego, 365, 380 Supertasters, 92–93 Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), 118 Surface traits, 373 Surprise, 319 Survey/survey research, 19–20, 27 biased sample, 19 Internet, 19 population, 19 questionnaires, 19 random sample, 19 representative sample, 19 sample, 19 social desirability response, 20 Survivor guilt, 331 Suspension of judgment, 17 Symbolic function, 253–254 Sympathetic nervous system, 47, 48–49 Synapse, 43 Synaptic cleft, 42–43, 45 Synaptic vesicles, 44 Synaptogenesis, 61 Synesthesia, 107 Syntax, 222, 272 Syphilis, 351 Systematic desensitization, 431 Systems perspective, 13 T T cells, 337 Tacit knowledge, 229–230 Tactile, 93 Tantrums, 415 Tardive dyskinesia, 437 Task variety, 333 Taste, 92–93 Taste aversion, 151–152 Taste buds, 92 Teenage pregnancy, 277 Teenagers See Adolescence Telegraphic speech, 272 Telepathy, 106 “Telephone technique,” 428 Television, 169–170 Television violence, 477 Temperament, 268 Temporal lobe, 58, 60 Teratogens, 265 Terminal illness, 285–286 Testes, 65 Testosterone, 280, 312, 475 Texting, while driving, 96 Texture gradient, 102, 103 Thalamus, 51, 91 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 300, 386 Theories, evaluating, 16 heuristic value of, 16 Theory of dissociated control, 130 Theory of multiple intelligences, 228–229 Therapeutic alliance, 444 Therapeutic relationship, 443–444 Therapeutic settings, memory in, 202–205 Therapies, 425–452 behavior therapies, 430–433, 446 aversion therapy, 433 based on operant conditioning, 430–431 exposure and response prevention, 432–433 flooding, 431–432 participant modeling, 433 systematic desensitization, 431 biomedical therapies, 436–441, 446 drug therapy, 437–440 electroconvulsive therapy, 440–441 psychosurgery, 441 rapid transcranial magnetic stimulation, 441 client-centered, 10 cognitive behavior therapies, 434–436, 446 Beck’s cognitive therapy, 435–436 rational emotive behavior therapy, 434–435 culturally sensitive therapy, 444–445 e-therapy, 443 evaluating, 445–447 gender-sensitive therapy, 445 group, 10 insight therapies, 426–428, 446 Gestalt therapy, 428 humanistic therapies, 427–428 psychodynamic therapies, 426–427 relationship therapies, 429–430, 446 couple therapy, 429 family therapy, 429 group therapy, 429 therapist, choosing, 442–444 virtual reality, 41 Third variable problem, 22 Threat appraisal, 339–340 Thymosin, 65 Thymus gland, 65 Thyroid gland, 65 Timbre, 86 Time, 118 Time outs, 163, 430, 431 Tip-of-the-fingers (TOF) phenomenon, 196–197 Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon, 196–197 Token economy, 163, 430 Tongue, 92 Top-down processing, 98, 99 Touch, 93–94 Toxoplasmosis, 409 Trait approach, 364 Trait theories, 372–378, 381 cardinal traits, 372–373 central traits, 373 early theories, 372–374 five-factor model, 374–376 nature-nuture debate on, 376–377 PEN model, 373–374 situation-trait debate, 378–379 source traits, 373 surface traits, 373 Traits, 372 Tranquilizers, 135, 137 Transduction, 78 Transference, 426 Treatment, 24 Triangular theory of love, 460–461 Triarchic theory of intelligence, 229–230 Trichromatic theory, 83, 84 Tricyclics, 438–439, 440 Trust versus mistrust, 263, 264 Tuning fork, 85 Tunnel vision, 436 Twin studies, 67–68, 237, 376, 474–475 Twins Early Development Study, 237 Subject Index Two-factor theory, 315–316 Two-point threshold, 93 Tympanic membrane, 86, 87 Type A behavior pattern, 345 Type B behavior pattern, 345 Type D behavior pattern, 345 U Umami, 92 Unconditional positive regard, 371, 428 Unconditioned response (UR), 146 Unconditioned stimulus (US), 146 Unconscious, 10, 364, 365 collective unconscious, 369 personal unconscious, 369 Unconsciousness, 116 Underextension, 272 Unemployment, 335 Unhappiness, 321 Unilateral ECT, 441 Universals, 12 University of Leipzig, Unpredictable rewards, 145 Unrealistic expectations, 426 Unusual Uses Test, 245 Uplifts, 332 Uplifts Scale, 332 V Vaccine, HPV, 352 Valence, 300 Validity, 231 Validity scales, 384 Valium, 135, 439 Variable-interval (VI) schedule, 157, 158 Variable-ratio (VR) schedule, 156–157, 158 Variables, 23 confounding, 24 dependent, 23–24 independent, 23–24 third variable problem, 22 Vasopressin, 64 Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), 304 Verbal comprehension index, 233 Vestibular sacs, 90 Vestibular sense, 89–90 Vicodin, 135 Video games, 170–171 Violence, media, 169–171, 477 Viral STDs, 352–355 Virtual reality therapy, 41, 431 Visible spectrum, 79 Vision, 79–85 accomodation, 80 affect of aging on, 283 brain and, 81–82 blind spot, 81 feature detectors, 82 optic nerve, 81 primary visual cortex, 82 color vision, 82–85 color blindness, 84–85 sensing color, 82–83 theories of, 83–84 dark adaptation, 81 eye, 79–81 blind spot, 80, 82 cones, 80–81, 82 cornea, 79–80, 82 fovea, 80, 81, 82 iris, 80, 82 lens, 80, 82 optic nerve, 80, 82 pupil, 80, 82 retina, 80, 81, 82 rhodopsin, 81 rods, 80–81, 82 farsightedness (hyperopia), 80 infants, 267 light adaptation, 81 nearsightedness (myopia), 80 presbyopia, 279 structures of visual system, 82 visible spectrum, 79 Visual cliff, 267 Visual cortex, 59–60 SI-15 Visual input, 76 Vocabulary, 239 W Water lily problem, 220 Wavelength, 79 Web-based surveys, 19 Weber’s law, 77 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), 233 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), 233–234 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI), 233 Weight loss, 305–307 Wernicke’s aphasia, 60 Wernicke’s area, 58, 60 White matter, 53, 63, 283 Withdrawal symptoms, 132 Women emotion and, 318 orgasm in, 312 sexual attitudes and behavior, 309–311 Word play, 273 Work motivation, 296, 300 Working backward, 219 Working memory, 182–183 Working memory index, 233 Workload, 332 Workplace stress, 332–333 X X chromosome, 66 Xanax, 135, 439 Y Y chromosome, 66 Yerkes-Dodson law, 298 Z Zone of proximal development, 258–259 Zygote, 65, 265 ... bring our plans for the fifth edition of Mastering the World of Psychology to fruition On the editorial side, Amber Chow monitored the progress of the text and ensured that the final product is... Among the improvements made to the fifth edition are the following: ▪ Enhanced Pedagogical System: SQ3R continues to be the pedagogical foundation of Mastering the World of Psychology In the fifth... of Features xix About the Authors xx APA Correlation APA-1 Introduction to Psychology THINK ABOUT IT An Introduction to Mastering the World of Psychology Studying Psychology: Some Tricks of the