RH HANDBOOK OF AIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERATION TX Shan K Wang Second Edition McGraw-Hill New York San Francisco Washington, D.C Auckland Bogotá Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto SH ST LG 39445 Wang (MCGHP) FM FIRST PASS pg iv LMM 6/29/2K Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wang, Shan K (Shan Kuo) Handbook of air conditioning and refrigeration / Shan K Wang — 2nd ed p cm Includes index ISBN 0-07-068167-8 Air conditioning Refrigeration and refrigerating machinery I Title TH7687.W27 697.9Ј3 — dc21 2000 00-060576 McGraw-Hi l l Copyright © 2001, 1993 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher DOC/DOC ISBN 0-07-068167-8 The sponsoring editor for this book was Linda Ludewig, the editing supervisor was David E Fogarty, and the production supervisor was Pamela A Pelton It was set in Times Roman by Progressive Information Technologies, Inc Printed and bound by R R Donnelley & Sons Company This book was printed on acid-free paper McGraw-Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs For more information, please write to the Director of Special Sales, Professional Publishing, McGraw-Hill, Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121-2298 Or contact your local bookstore Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc (“McGraw-Hill”) from sources believed to be reliable However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought 39445 Wang (MCGHP) FM REV PAGES rg 08/15/00 pg v This book is dedicated to my dear wife Joyce for her encouragement, understanding, and contributions, and to my daughter Helen and my sons Roger and David 39445 Wang (MCGHP) index REV PGS rg 08/15/00 pg I.29 RH TX ABOUT THE AUTHOR Shan K Wang received his B.S in mechanical engineering from Southwest Associated University in China in 1946 Two years later, he completed his M.S degree in mechanical engineering at Harvard Graduate School of Engineering In 1949, he obtained his M.S in textile technology from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology From 1950 to 1974, Wang worked in the field of air conditioning and refrigeration in China He was the first Technical Deputy Director of the Research Institute of Air Conditioning in Beijing from 1963 to 1966 and from 1973 to 1974 He helped to design space diffusion for the air conditioning system in the Capital and Worker’s Indoor Stadium He also designed many HVAC&R systems for industrial and commercial buildings Wang published two air conditioning books and many papers in the 1950s and 1960s He is one of the pioneers of air conditioning in China Wang joined Hong Kong Polytechnic as senior lecturer in 1975 He established the air conditioning and refrigeration laboratories and established courses in air conditioning and refrigeration at Hong Kong Polytechnic Since 1975, he has been a consultant to Associated Consultant Engineers and led the design of the HVAC&R systems for Queen Elizabeth Indoor Stadium, Aberdeen Market Complex, Koshan Road Recreation Center, and South Sea Textile Mills in Hong Kong From 1983 to 1987, Wang Published Principles of Refrigeration Engineering and Air Conditioning as the teaching and learning package, and presented several papers at ASHRAE meetings The First Edition of the Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration was published in 1993 Wang has been a member of ASHRAE since 1976 He has been a governor of the ASHRAE Hong Kong Chapter-At-Large since the Chapter was established in 1984 Wang retired from Hong Kong Polytechnic in June 1987 and immigrated to the United States in October 1987 Since then, he has joined the ASHRAE Southern California Chapter and devoted most of his time to writing SH ST LG I.29 DF 39445 Wang (MCGHP) FM REV PAGES rg 08/15/00 pg xi RH TX PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION Air conditioning, or HVAC&R, is an active, rapidly developing technology It is closely related to the living standard of the people and to the outdoor environment, such as through ozone depletion and global warming Currently, air conditioning consumes about one-sixth of the annual national energy use in the United States At the beginning of a new millennium, in addition to the publication of ASHRAE Standard 90.1-1999 and ASHRAE Standard 62-1999, often called the Energy standard and Indoor Air Quality standard, the second edition of Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration is intended to summarize the following advances, developments, and valuable experience in HVAC&R technology as they pertain to the design and effective, energy-efficient operation of HVAC&R systems: First, to solve the primary problems that exist in HVAC&R, improve indoor air quality through minimum ventilation control by means of CO2-based demand-controlled or mixed plenum controlled ventilation, toxic gas adsorption and chemisorption, medium- and high-efficiency filtration, and damp surface prevention along conditioned air passages ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 52.2-1999 uses 16 minimum efficiency reporting values (MERVs) to select air filters based on particle-size composite efficiency Energy conservation is a key factor in mitigating the global warming effect Electric deregulation and the use of real-time pricing instead of the time-of-use rate structure in the United States have a significant impact on the energy cost ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 90.1-1999 has accumulated valuable HVAC&R energy-efficient experiences since the publication of Standard 90.1-1989 and during the discussions of the two public reviews For buildings of one or two stories when the outdoor wind speed is normal or less than normal, the space or building pressurization depends mainly on the air balance of the HVAC&R system and on the leakiness of the building A proper space pressurization helps to provide a desirable indoor environment Second, there is a need for a well-designed and -maintained microprocessor-based energy management and control system for medium-size or large projects with generic controls in graphical display, monitoring, trending, totalization, scheduling, alarming, and numerous specific functional controls to perform HVAC&R operations in air, water, heating, and refrigeration systems HVAC&R operations must be controlled because the load and outside weather vary The sequence of operations comprises basic HVAC&R operations and controls In the second edition, the sequence of operations of zone temperature control of a single-zone VAV system, a VAV reheat system, a dual-duct VAV system, a fan-powered VAV system, and a four-pipe fan-coil system is analyzed Also the sequence of operations of a plant-building loop water system control, the discharge air temperature control, and duct static pressure control in an air-handling unit are discussed Third, new and updated advanced technology improvements include • Artificial intelligence, such as fuzzy logic, artificial neural networks, and expert systems, is widely used in microprocessor-based controllers • BACnet is an open protocol in control that enables system components from different vendors to be connected to a single control system to maximize efficiency at lowest cost • Computational fluid dynamics is becoming an important simulation technology in airflow, space diffusion, clean rooms, and heat-transfer developments xi DF 39445 RH TX xii Wang (MCGHP) FM FIRST PASS pg xii LMM 6/29/2K PREFACE • Scroll compressors are gradually replacing reciprocating compressors in packaged units and chillers because of their higher efficiency and simple construction • Ice storage systems with cold air distribution shift the electric power demand from on-peak hours to off-peak hours and thus significantly reduce the energy cost • Desiccant-based air conditioning systems replace part of the refrigeration by using evaporative cooling or other systems in supermarkets, medical operation suites, and ice rinks • Fault detection and diagnostics determine the reason for defects and failures and recommend a means to solve the problem It is a key device in HVAC&R operation and maintenance Fourth, air conditioning is designed and operated as a system In the second edition, HVAC&R systems are classified in three levels At the air conditioning system level, systems are classified as individual, evaporative, space, packaged, desiccant-based, thermal storage, clean-room, and central systems At the subsystem level, systems are classified as air, water, heating, refrigeration, and control systems At the main component level, components such as fans, coils, compressors, boilers, evaporators, and condensers are further divided and studied Each air conditioning system has its own system characteristics However, each air conditioning system, subsystem, and main component can be clearly distinguished from the others, so one can thus easily, properly, and more precisely select a require system Fifth, computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) links the engineering design through calculations and the graphics to drafting CADD provides the ability to develop and compare the alternative design schemes quickly and the capability to redesign or to match the changes during construction promptly A savings of 40 percent of design time has been claimed Current CADD for HVAC&R can be divided into two categories: engineering design, including calculations, and graphical model drafting Engineering design includes load calculations, energy use estimates, equipment selection, equipment schedules, and specifications Computer-aided drafting includes software to develop duct and pipework layouts and to produce details of refrigeration plant, heating plant, and fan room with accessories ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to McGraw-Hill editors Linda R Ludewig and David Fogarty, Professor Emeritus W F Stoecker, Steve Chen, and Professor Yongquan Zhang for their valuable guidance and kind assistance Thanks also to ASHRAE, EIA, and many others for the use of their published materials The author also wishes to thank Philip Yu and Dr Sam C M Hui for their help in preparing the manuscript, especially to Philip for his assistance in calculating the cooling load of Example 6.2 by using load calculation software TRACE 600 Shan K Wang SH ST LG DF 39445 Wang (MCGHP) FM REV PAGES rg 08/15/00 pg xiii RH PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION TX Air conditioning, or more specifically, heating, ventilating, air ventilating, air conditioning, and refrigeration (HVAC&R), was first systematically developed by Dr Willis H Carrier in the early 1900s Because it is closely connected with the comfort and health of the people, air conditioning became one of the most significant factors in national energy consumption Most commercial buildings in the United States were air conditioned after World War II In 1973, the energy crisis stimulated the development of variable-air-volume systems, energy management, and other HVAC&R technology In the 1980s, the introduction of microprocessorbased direct-digital control systems raised the technology of air conditioning and refrigeration to a higher level Today, the standards of a successful and cost-effective new or retrofit HVAC&R projects include maintaining a healthy and comfortable indoor environment with adequate outdoor ventilation air and acceptable indoor air quality with an energy index lower than that required by the federal and local codes, often using off-air conditioning schemes to reduce energy costs The purpose of this book is to provide a useful, practical, and updated technical reference for the design, selection, and operation of air conditioning and refrigeration systems It is intended to summarize the valuable experience, calculations, and design guidelines from current technical papers, engineering manuals, standards, ASHRAE handbooks, and other publications in air conditioning and refrigeration It is also intended to emphasize a systemwide approach, especially system operating characteristics at design load and part load It provides a technical background for the proper selection and operation of optimum systems, subsystems, and equipment This handbook is a logical combination of practice and theory, system and control, and experience and updated new technologies Of the 32 chapters in this handbook, the first 30 were written by the author, and the last two were written by Walter P Bishop, P E., president of Walter P Bishop, Consulting Engineer, P C., who has been an HVAC&R consulting engineer since 1948 Walter also provided many insightful comments for the other 30 chapters Another contributor, Herbert P Becker, P E., reviewed Chaps through ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wishes to express his sincere thanks to McGraw-Hill Senior Editor Robert Hauserman, G M Eisensberg, Robert O Parmley, and Robert A Parsons for their valuable guidance and kind assistance Thanks also to ASHRAE, EIA, SMACNA, The Trane Company, Carrier Corporation, Honeywell, Johnson Controls, and many others for the use of their published materials The author also wishes to thank Leslie Kwok, Colin Chan, and Susanna Chang, who assisted in the preparation of the manuscript Shan K Wang SH ST LG xiii DF 39445 Wang (MCGHP) index REV PGS rg 08/15/00 pg I.1 RH TX INDEX Abbreviations, A.9 – A.10 Absolute zero, 2.5 Absorption chiller-heaters, 14.20 – 14.22 actual performance, 14.22 heating cycle, 14.20 – 14.22 Absorption chillers, double-effect, direct-fired, 14.6 – 14.18 absorber and solution pumps, 14.6 – 14.7 air purge unit, 14.8 – 14.9 capacity control and part-load operation, 14.16 – 14.17 coefficient of performance, 14.14 condenser, 14.7 – 14.8 condensing temperature, 14.19 – 14.20 controls, 14.16 – 14.18 cooling water entering temperature, 14.19 cooling water temperature control, 14.17 – 14.18 corrosion control, 14.20 crystallization and controls, 14.17 difference between absorption and centrifugal chillers, 14.18 – 14.19 evaporating temperature, 14.19 evaporator and refrigerant pump, 14.6 flow of solution and refrigerant, 14.9 – 14.11 generators, 14.7 – 14.8 heat exchangers, 14.6 – 14.7 heat removed from absorber and condenser, 14.19 mass flow rate of refrigerant and solution, 14.11 – 14.12 monitoring and diagnostics, 14.18 operating characteristics and design considerations, 4.18 – 4.20 performance of, 14.11 – 14.16 rated conditions, 14.20 safety and interlocking controls, 14.18 series flow, parallel flow, and reverse parallel flow, 14.8 – 14.9 Standard 90.1 – 1999 minimum efficiency requirements, 14.20 system description, 14.6 – 14.8 thermal analysis, 14.12 – 14.14 throttling devices, 14.8 Absorption heat pumps, 14.22 – 14.24 case study: series connected, 14.22 – 14.24 functions of, 14.22 Absorption heat transformer, 14.24 – 14.26 coefficient of performance, 14.26 operating characteristics, 14.24 – 14.25 system description, 14.24 – 14.25 Accuracy, 2.6 Adiabatic process, 2.11 Adiabatic saturation process, ideal, 2.11 Air: atmospheric, 2.1 dry air, 2.1 – 2.2 mass, 3.25 moist air, 2.1 primary, 20.4 process, 1.4 – 1.5 recirculating, 20.4 regenerative, 1.4 – 1.5 secondary, 20.4 transfer, 20.4 ventilation, 4.29 Air cleaner, electronic, 15.69 – 15.70 Air conditioning, 1.1 – 1.2, industry, 1.15 project development, 1.16 – 1.17 Air conditioning processes, 20.41 – 20.53 adiabatic mixing, 20.50 – 20.52 air washer, 20.46 bypass mixing, 20.52 – 20.53 cooling and dehumidifying, 20.47 – 20.50 heating element humidifier, 20.46 humidifying, 20.45 – 20.47 oversaturation, 20.46 – 20.47 reheating, recooling and mixing, 20.74 – 20.75 relative humidity of air leaving coil, 20.49 – 20.50 sensible heat ratio, 20.41 – 20.43 sensible heating and cooling, 20.44 – 20.45 space conditioning, 20.43 – 20.44 steam injection humidifier, 20.45 – 20.46 SH ST LG I.1 DF 39445 RH TX SH ST LG DF I.2 Wang (MCGHP) index REV PGS rg 08/15/00 pg I.2 INDEX Air conditioning systems, 1.2 air, cooling and heating systems designation, 26.2 – 26.3 central, 1.6 central hydronic, 1.6 classification, basic approach, 26.1 – 26.2 classification of, 1.3 – 1.10, 26.2 – 26.3 clean room, 1.5 comfort, 1.2 – 1.3 desiccant-based, 1.4 evaporative-cooling, 1.4 individual room, 1.4 packaged, 1.6 space, 1.5 space conditioning, 1.5 thermal storage, 1.5 unitary packaged, 1.6 Air conditioning systems, individual, 26.8 – 26.9 advantages and disadvantages, 26.9 basics, 26.8 – 26.9 Air conditioning systems, packaged terminal, 26.13 – 26.15 equipment used, 26.13 – 26.14 heating and cooling mode operation, 26.13 – 26.14 minimum efficiency requirements, ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1 – 1999, 26.14 – 26.15 system characteristics, 26.13, 26.15 Air conditioning systems, room, 26.9 – 26.13 configuration, 26.10 – 26.11 controls, 26.12 cooling mode operation, 26.11 energy performance and energy use intensities, 26.11 – 26.12 equipment used in, 26.9 – 26.10 features, 26.12 system characteristics, 26.12 – 26.13 Air conditioning systems, selection: applications and building occupancies, 26.4 – 26.5 energy efficiency, 26.7 fire safety and smoke control, 26.7 – 26.8 indoor air quality, 26.5 – 26.6 initial cost, 26.8 maintenance, 26.8 requirements fulfilled, 26.4 selection levels, 26.3 – 26.4 sound problems, 26.6 – 26.7 space limitations, 26.8 system capacity, 26.5 zone thermal control, 26.6 Air conditioning systems, space conditioning, 28.1 – 28.3 advantages and disadvantages, 28.2 – 28.3 applications, 28.1 – 28.2 induction systems, 28.3 Air contaminants, indoor, 4.27 – 4.28, 15.61 Air duct design, principles and considerations, 17.43 – 17.51 air leakage, 17.48 – 17.50 critical path, 17.48 design procedure, 17.51 – 17.52 design velocity, 17.45 – 17.46 duct layout, 17.52 – 17.53 duct system characteristics, 17.52 ductwork installation, 17.50 fire protection, 17.50 – 17.51 optimal air duct design, 17.43 – 17.45 sealing requirements of ASHRAE Standard 90.1 – 1999, 17.49 – 17.50 shapes and material of air ducts, 17.50 system balancing, 17.46 – 17.47 Air expansion refrigeration cycle, 9.45 – 9.49 flow processes, 9.47 – 9.48 thermodynamic principle, 9.45 – 9.47 Air filters, 15.64 – 15.68 classification of, 15.65 coarse, 15.65 filter installation, 24.7 – 24.8 filtration mechanism, 15.64 – 15.65 high-efficiency, 15.66 – 15.67 low-efficiency, 15.65 – 15.66 medium-efficiency, 15.66 – 15.67 service life, 24.7 ultrahigh-efficiency, HEPA and ULPA filters, 15.68 Air filters, rating and assessments, 15.61 – 15.62 dust-holding capacity, 15.62 efficiency, 15.61 pressure drop, 15.61 – 15.62 service life, 15.62 Air filters, test methods, 15.62 – 15.64 composite efficiency curves, 15.63 – 15.64 di-octylphthalate (DOP), 15.62 – 15.63 dust spot, 15.62 minimum efficiency reporting values (MERVs), 15.64 – 15.65 penetration, 15.63 removal efficiency by particle size, 15.63 selection, 15.71 – 15.72 test unit, 15.64 weight arrestance, 15.62 Air filters to remove contaminants, 24.6 – 24.8 filter selection for IAQ, 24.6 – 24.7 remove indoor air contaminants, 24.6 39445 Wang (MCGHP) index REV PGS rg 08/15/00 pg I.3 INDEX Air filtration and industrial air cleaning, 15.60 – 15.61 Air flow, basics, 17.2 – 17.8 Bernoulli equation, 17.2 equation of continuity, 17.7 – 17.8 laminar flow and turbulent flow, 17.6 – 17.7 pressure, 17.3 stack effect, 17.5 – 17.6 static pressure, 17.3 – 17.4 steady flow energy equation, 17.2 – 17.3 total pressure, 17.5 velocity distribution, 17.3 velocity pressure, 17.4 – 17.5 Air flow, characteristics, 17.8 – 17.10 air duct, types, 17.8 pressure characteristics, 17.8 – 17.10 static regain, 17.9 system pressure loss,17.10 Air-handling units, 1.8, 16.1 – 16.12 casing, 16.4 classification of, 16.2 – 16.4 coil face velocity, 16.8 – 16.9 coils, 16.5 component layout, 16.6 – 16.8 controls, 16.6 draw-through or blow-through unit, 16.2 exhaust section, 16.6 factory fabricated or field-built AHU, 16.3 fans, 16.4 – 16.5 filters, 16.5 functions of, 16.1 – 16.2 horizontal or vertical unit, 16.2 humidifiers, 16.5 – 16.6 mixing, 16.6 – 16.7 outdoor air intake, 16.6 outdoor air (makeup air) or mixing AHU, 16.2 selection, 16.9 – 16.12 single zone or multizone, 16.2 – 16.3 rooftop or indoor AHU, 16.4 Air jets, 18.5 – 18.11 Archimedes number, 18.11 centerline velocities, 18.8 – 18.9 characteristic length, 18.8 confined, 18.8 – 18.10 confined, airflow pattern, 18.9 – 18.10 core zone, 18.5 entrainment ratio, 18.7 envelope, 18.5 free isothermal, 18.5 – 18.7 free nonisothermal, 18.10 – 18.11 main zone, 18.6 surface effect, 18.8 terminal zone, 18.6 Air jets (Cont.) throw, 18.7 transition zone, 18.6, velocity profile, 18.6 Air movements, 4.20 – 4.23 Air systems, 1.6 – 1.8, 20.2 – 20.4 air conditioning rules, 20.63 air distribution system, 20.3 air economizer mode, 22.5 air-handling system, 20.2 classification, 20.39 constant volume systems, 20.40 – 20.41 cooling and heating mode, 22.4 mechanical ventilation system, 20.3 minimum outdoor air recirculating mode, 22.5 mixing-exhaust section, 22.8 occupied and unoccupied mode, 22.5 operating modes, 22.4 – 22.5 part-load operation, 22.4 – 22.5 purge-mode, 22.5 regenerative systems, 20.3 – 20.4 reheating, recooling, and mixing, 20.74 – 20.75 smoke control systems, 20.4 terminals, 20.4 ventilation systems, 20.3 warmup, colddown, and nighttime setback mode, 22.5 Air temperature: comfort air conditioning systems, 4.20 – 4.21 indoor, 4.20 – 4.23 processing air conditioning systems, 4.23 Air washer, 1.11 Amplifiers, 2.7 Annual energy use, HVAC&R systems, 1.14 Artificial intelligence, 5.45 – 5.53 Artificial neural networks (ANN), 5.50 – 5.53 learning method, 5.52 – 5.53 neuron, 5.51 neuron activation transfer 5.51 – 5.52 net topology, 5.51 ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1 – 1999, building envelope trade-off option, 3.50 compliance for building envelope, 3.48 – 3.50 controls, 5.66 – 5.67 off-hour controls, 5.66 – 5.67 Atmospheric dust, 15.61 Atmospheric extinction coefficient, 3.26 Automated computer-aided drafting (AutoCAD), 1.26 I.3 RH TX SH ST LG DF NOMENCLATURE AND ABBREVIATIONS IDN im Ia Irad Iref It Itur Isc IC IL J j K k K’ Kcc Ki Kp Kp KV L Laf Le Lw Lp LpA Lpr Lw Lt Lw,b Lwr Le solar radiation on a surface normal to sun rays, Btu/h иft2 moisture permeability of clothing extraterrestrial solar intensity, Btu /h иft2 effective radiant field, W/ft2 reflection of solar radiation, Btu /h иft2 total intensity of solar radiation, Btu /h иft2 intensity of turbulence solar constant, 434.6 Btu/h иft2 initial cost, dollars insertion loss, dB Joule’s equivalent, 778 ftиlbf /Btu cost escalation factor constant, factor, coefficient, derivative gain thermal conductivity, Btu иin./h иft2 и°F, Btu/h иftи°F wet-bulb temperature constant cloudy reduction factor integral gain power constant proportional gain, pressure constant volume constant distance, thickness, ft; sound level, dB; latitude angle, deg airflow noise, dB equivalent length, ft sound power level, dB re pW sound pressure level, dB re 20 ␮Pa sound pressure level in dBA room sound pressure level, dB vertical distance between state points, ft horizontal distance between state points, ft branch power division, dB room sound power level, dB Lewis number LHG LR M m mЈЈ m˙ m˙par m˙r ms N n nЈ Nr NTU Nu OC P p Pair pat Pcfm Pcom pcon pdis ⌬pdy pev Pf ⌬pf pfill ⌬pfix ⌬pf,s A.3 latent heat gain, Btu/h Lewis relation molecular weight; metabolic rate, Btu/hиft2 mass, lb slope of air enthalpy saturation curve mass flow rate, lb/min, lb/h rate of air contaminants generated, mg/s mass flow rate of refrigerant, lb/h, lb/min surface density, lb/ft2 number number of moles, mol; number of air changes, ach; circulation number; amortization period, year depreciation period, year number of rows number of transfer units Nusselt number operating cost, dollars power, hp, kW; perimeter, ft; penetration pressure, psi, psia, psig air power, hp atmospheric pressure, psia power per unit volume flow, W/cfm compressor power, hp condensing pressure, psig discharge pressure of compressor, psig dynamic loss, in WC evaporating pressure, psig fan power, input, hp pressure drop due to frictional and dynamic losses, in WC fill pressure, abs psia fixed part of system pressure loss, in WC frictional loss per floor inside the pressurized stairwell, in WC A.4 APPENDIX A ⌬pf,u PH Pin ⌬pod Pp ⌬pp-od ⌬pres ps ⌬ps,i ⌬ps,o ⌬ps,r pst psuc ⌬psy ⌬pt ⌬pt,ex PV pv ⌬pvar pvo pvw pw PMV Pr Q q Qc Qcc Qc,c Qc,r qc,wet Qev, Qref, Qrl qlg Qch duct frictional per unit length, in WC horizontal projection, ft power input, hp total pressure loss of damper when fully open, in WC pump power, hp total pressure loss of airflow path excluding damper, in WC residual pressure, in WC static pressure, in WG, psig inlet system effect pressure loss in WC outlet system effect pressure loss, in WC static regain, in WC pressure due to stack effect, lbf /ft2 suction pressure of compressor, psig system pressure loss, in WC total pressure, in WC external total pressure, in WC vertical projection, ft velocity pressure, in WC variable part of system pressure loss, in WC velocity pressure at outlet, in WC wind velocity pressure, in WC water vapor pressure, psia predicted mean vote Prandtl number rate of heat transfer, Btu/h rate of heat tansfer, Btu/h coil’s load, Btu/h cooling coil’s load, Btu/h corrected cooling capacity, Btu/h catalog-listed cooling capacity, Btu/h heat and mass transfer, Btu/h refrigeration load at evaporator, Btu /h heat input to the first-stage generator, Btu /hиton heating coil load, Btu/h qint Qrc Qrej, THR Qrh qRCi Qrs Qrsp qrs,t qsen qtran qwi R R R* Rc Rcl Rcom Ren Rf Rfa Rg Rload, LR Ro RT,l Re ROR S s Sf SH SW internal heat gain, Btu/h space cooling load, Btu/h total heat rejection, Btu/h space heating load, Btu/h inward heat flow from inner surface of sunlit window, Btu/h space sensible cooling load, Btu/h space sensible cooling load at part load, Btu/h sensible cooling load at time t, Btu/h rate of sensible heat transfer, Btu/h tramission loss, Btu/h heat gain admitted into conditioned space, Btu/h gas constant, ftиlbf /lbm и°R; electric resistance, ⍀ R-value, h иft2 и°F/Btu thermal resistance, hи°F/Btu; flow resistance, in WC/(cfm)2; ratio radius of curvature, in or ft thermal resistance of clothing, hиft2 и °F/Btu compression ratio entrainment ratio fouling factor, hиft2 и°F/Btu ratio of free area to gross area gas-side thermal resistance, hиft2 и°F/Btu load ratio universal gas constant ftиlbf /lbm и°R ratio of temperature lift Reynolds number rate of return salvage value, dollars; heat storage, Btu/h иft2 specific entropy, Btu/lb и°R; dimensionless distance fin spacing, fins/in shaded height, ft shaded width, ft NOMENCLATURE AND ABBREVIATIONS SC Sc SHG SHGF SHR SHRc SHRs SHRsp SP St T TЈ T* Tϱ tan Tco Tdew, TЈЈ Tdis ⌬Tf Ten Tm ⌬Tm To TЈos To, ws Tp TR Tr Tra, Trad Trm Trp Trp Tru shadding coefficient Schmidt number sensible gain, Btu/h solar heat gain factor, Btu/hиft2 sensible heat ratio sensible heat ratio of cooling and dehumidification process sensible heat ratio of space conditioning line sensible heat ratio of space conditioning line at part load simple payback, years Strouhal number temperature, °F wet-bulb temperature, °F thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature, °F bulky air temperature unaffected by surface, °F annual operating hours, h changeover temperature, °F dew point temperature, °F discharge temperature, °F fan temperature rise, °F mass temperature of building envelope, °F temperature of mixture, °F log-mean temperature difference, °F operative temperature, °F; outdoor temperature, °F summer mean coincident wetbulb temp, °F statistically determined winter design outdoor temperature, °F plenum air temperature, °F absolute temperature, °R space temperature, °F mean radiant temperature, °F average space temperature, °F space temperature at part load, °F space temperature in perimeter zone, °F temperature of recirculating air, °F Ts ⌬Tsa ⌬Tt,r Tws TD TL TLin TLout U u Ui Uu UAC V V˙ v vc vcon V˙ conv V˙ ef vfc V˙ gal V˙lk,V˙L V˙o V˙o,dm V˙oif V˙osn A.5 supply temperature, °F temperature difference between the surface and air, °F throttling range, °F chilled water supply temperature, °F temperature differential, °F transmission loss, dB break-in transmission loss, dB breakout transmission loss, dB overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/h иft2 и°F internal energy, Btu/lb; peripheral velocity, fpm overall heat-transfer coefficient based on inner surface area, Btu/h иft2 и°F overall heat-transfer coefficient based on outer surface area, Btu/h иft2 и°F uniform annual cost, dollars volume, ft3 volume flow rate, cfm velocity, fpm of ft/sv specific volume or moist volume, ft3/lb centerline velocity, fpm air velocity in constricted part of damper or duct fittings, fpm volume flow rate of upward convective flow, cfm volume flow rate of exfiltrated air, cfm face velocity, fpm volume flow rate of chilled water, gpm volume flow rate of air leakage, cfm volume flow rate of outdoor air, cfm minimum outdoor air supply volume flow at design conditions, cfm volume flow rate of outdoor and infiltrated air, cfm zone outdoor air supply volume flow rate, cfm A.6 APPENDIX A V˙p V˙s V˙sp W w Win Wisen Wrsw w*s X x xrl y Z z zstat piston displacement, cfm supply volume flow rate, cfm supply volume flow rate at part load, cfm work, Btu/lb; mechanical work performed, Btu/hиft2; sound power, dB; width, ft relative velocity, fpm; humidity ratio, lb/lb work input, Btu/lb isentropic work, Btu/lb wetted portion of human body due to sweating saturated humidity ratio at thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature, lb/lb moisture content, dimensionless or percent; mass fraction mole fraction; quality or dryness fraction; coordinate dimension quality or refrigerant leaving overfeed cooler vertical drop of air jet, ft compressibility factor elevation, ft stationary level, ft Subscripts a ab ae, aen alv am at av b bg by c ca air, ambient, absorber absorber, air at dry-wet boundary entering air leaving air ambient atmospheric average body bleed, branch, building material building bypass coil, cooling, cold, convective, condenser, compressor, common end, corrected cooling air, cooled air cc c,d ce hc cl cn co com corr cr cs d dam deh des dif dis dl dy e ee ef eff el en en,c ev ev,c ex, exh exf, ef f fc fix fl fu g 1g cooling coil closed door entering condenser heating coil clothing, cooling load, cooling coil, leaving condenser common changeover compressor condensing, condenser correction body core sensible cooling coil duct, design damper dehumidifier desiccant diffuser discharge process air leaving desiccant dehumidifier dynamic entering entering evaporator exfiltrated effective elevation, leaving evaporator, equivalent entering cooling water entering condenser evaporating, evaporator evaporative cooling exhaust exfiltration fan fan coil fixed part floor furnace moisture gain, gas, globe, ground, generator first-stage generator NOMENCLATURE AND ABBREVIATIONS 2g go h hg h,t hu i in inf int k l lc le liq lk lr lv m mat max mo, mot n o o,d oi os o,s o,sys out p par pd pl second-stage generator saturated water vapor at 0°F higher, heat exchanger, heating, hot heat gain heat transformer humidifier inlet, input, indoor, interior, intermediate, inner surface input, indirect, interior infiltration intermediate conduction latent, liquid, lower, lights, leaving liquid at condenser water entering evaporator liquid leakage liquid refrigerant leaving mixture, mean, maximum, motor material maximum minimum motor number outdoor, output, outlet, outer surface, oversaturation open door inward flow from outer surface outer surface summer outdoor system outdoor air outdoor air constant pressure, people, partload, pump, process air, primary air particulates in air dry air at constant pressure process air after sensible heat exchanger ps pt r rc rd rec ref refиf rel res ret, rt rf rg rh rl ro rp rs rиs ru s s sa sиa sat sb sc sиc sd sen sf sg sh A.7 water vapor at constant pressure, primary air supply plant space, room, return, refrigerant, radiative, regeneration air space cooling, refrigeration capacity return duct recirculating refrigeration free refrigeration release residual, respiration return return fan, relief fan, refrigeration effect regeneration air entering desiccant dehumidifier space heating space latent regeneration air leaving desiccant dehumidifier return plenum space sensible return system recirculating air entering the AHU or PU supply, steam, saturated state, surface, sunlit, straight-through end, summer saturated at thermodynamic wetbulb temperature solution at absorber saturated air film saturation surface at dry-wet boundary subcooled cold air supply supply duct sensible supply fan solution at generator shaded A.8 APPENDIX A sиh si sil sk sn sn,d sn,p sol sиs sиt suc sun sur sx T t un var ve w wb we wet wl w,o ws xl warm air supply supply air for interior zone silencer skin supply air for zone n zone supply air at design condition supply air for zone n at part load solar supply system supply temperature suction sunlit surroundings supply air for perimeter zone total, overall, temperature time unconditioned variable part saturated water vapor leaving evaporator water, condensate, winter water at dry-wet boundary, boiler hot water water entering wet air water leaving winter outdoor water vapor at saturated state regeneration air leaving the sensible heat exchanger, exit of heat exchanger Greek Letter Symbols ␣ ␤ mean temperature coefficient; angle between the air conditioning process and horizontal line on psychrometric chart, deg; thermal diffusivity, ft2/s; absorptance; spreading angle of air jet, deg; damper characteristic ratio solar altitude angle, deg; blade angle, deg ␥ ⌬ ␦ ⑀ ⑀ex ⑀sat ⑀wet ␩ ␩cb ␩com ␩cp ␩dr ␩f ␩fu ␩isen ␩mec ␩mo, ␩mot ␩ov ␩p ␩s ␩sat ␩sy,h ␩t ␩v ␩ww ␪ ␮ ␯ ␳ ␳suc ⌺ ␴ ␶ ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to constant volume, surface-solar azimuth angle, deg difference solar declination angle, deg emissivity; absolute roughness, in.; effectiveness; effectiveness factor air exchange efficiency saturation effectiveness wet coil effectiveness efficiency combustion efficiency compressor efficiency compression efficiency efficiency of driving mechanism fan total efficiency; fin efficiency furnace efficiency isentropic efficiency mechanical efficiency motor efficiency overall efficiency pump efficiency fan static efficiency, fin surface efficiency saturation effectiveness system efficiency for heating fan total efficiency volumetric efficiency wire-to-water efficiency angle of incidence, deg; effective draft temperature, °F absolute viscosity, lb/ft иs; degree of saturation; mechanical efficiency kinematic viscosity, ft2/s density, lb/ft3; reflectance density of suction vapor, lb/ft3 angle between tilting and horizontal surface, deg Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 0.1714 ϫ 10Ϫ Btu/h иft2 и°R4; standard deviation transmittance NOMENCLATURE AND ABBREVIATIONS ␸ ␸f ␺ ⍀ A.2 relative humidity, percent; solar azimuth angle, deg fin resistance number surface azimuth angle, deg profile angle, deg abs AC ACEC ACI ACP ADC ADPI AFUE AHU AI AMCA ANSI AO ARI ASHRAE ASME ASTM AVI BAS BHP, bhp BI BLAST BMS CABDS CADD ABBREVIATIONS ABMA BO BOCA American Boiler Manufacturers Association absolute air conditioning American Consulting Engineers Council adjustable current inverter alternate component package Air Diffusion Council air diffusion performance index, percent annual fuel utilization efficiency air-handling unit analog input Air Movement and Control Association American National Standards Institute analog output Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers American Society of Mechanical Engineers American Society of Testing and Materials adjustable voltage inverter building automation system brake horsepower binary or digital input, backward-inclined blade building loads analysis and systems thermodynamics building management system CFC CLF CLTD COP CTD DA dc DDC DECOS DOE DOP DSA DWDI DX ECB EEPROM EIA EMS EPA EPROM ETD FC FDA FOM GWHP GWP HEPA HR HSPF A.9 binary or pulsed output Building Officials and Code Administrators computer-aided building design system computer-aided design and drafting chlorofluorocarbon cooling load factor cooling load temperature difference coefficient of performance condenser temperature difference direct-acting direct current direct digital control design energy cost Department of Energy di-octyl phthalate double-strength sheet glass double-width double-inlet direct expansion, dry expansion energy cost budget electrically erasable, programmable, read-only memory Energy Information Administration of the Department of Energy energy management system Environmental Protection Agency erasable programmable readonly memory equivalent temperature difference fan coil, forward-curved blade Food and Drug Administration figure of merit groundwater heat pump global warming potential high-efficiency particulate air heart rate heating seasonal performance factor A.10 APPENDIX A HVAC&R IAQ ILD I/O I-P IPLV IRS LiBr LiCl LPG MAU MCPC MPS NBC NC NCDC NFPA NIOSH NO NPL NPSH NWWA ODP PC PI PID PU PTAC PURPA PVC PWM RA heating, ventilating, air conditioning, and refrigeration indoor air quality internal load density input/output inch-pound integrated part-load value Internal Revenue Service lithium bromide lithium chloride liquefied petroleum gas makeup air unit microcomputer constructed psychrometric chart manual position switch National Broadcasting Corporation noise criteria, normally closed National Climatic Data Center National Fire Protection Association National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health normally open neutral pressure level net positive suction head National Water Well Association ozone depletion potential personal computer proportional plus integral proportional-integral-derivative packaged unit packaged terminal air conditioner Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act polyvinyl chloride pulse-width modulated inverter reverse-acting RAM RAU RC RH ROM RTD RTS SBS SEER SEUF SMACNA SI SPF SSE SSU SWSI TA TARP TETD TFM TIMA TRAV UL ULPA VAV VDC VLSI VVVT WHO WSHP WWR random access memory recirculating air unit room criteria relative humidity read-only memory resistance temperature detector room temperature sensor sick building syndrome seasonal energy efficiency ratio seasonal energy utilization factor Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association International System of units seasonal performance factor steady-state efficiency Saybolt-seconds univeral viscosity single-width single-inlet time-averaging thermal analysis research program total equivalent temperature differential transfer function method Thermal Insulation Manufacturers Association terminal regulated air volume Underwriters’ Laboratories ultra low-penetration air filters variable air volume volts of direct current very large-scale integrated variable-volume variable-temperature World Health Organization water-source heat pump window-to-wall ratio APPENDIX B PSYCHROMETRIC CHART, TABLES OF PROPERTIES, AND I-P UNITS TO SI UNITS CONVERSION B.1 B.2 FIGURE B.1 Psychrometric chart Based on ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No Reprinted with permission from ASHRAE Inc Sensible heat ratio (SHR), humidity ratio scale in grains/lb, and two cooling and dehumidifying curves were added by author TABLE B.1 Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air (at Atmospheric Pressure 14.696 psia) and Water Volume, ft3/lb dry air Saturated water vapor Enthalpy, Btu/lb dry air Temp T, °F Humidity ratio ws, lbw/lbda va vas vs has hs psi in Hg 32 33 34 35 0.003790 0.003947 0.004109 0.004277 12.389 12.414 12.439 12.464 0.075 0.079 0.082 0.085 12.464 12.492 12.521 12.550 7.687 7.927 8.167 8.408 4.073 4.243 4.420 4.603 11.760 12.170 12.587 13.010 0.08865 0.09229 0.09607 0.09998 0.18049 0.18791 0.19559 0.20355 36 37 38 39 0.004452 0.004633 0.004820 0.005014 12.490 12.515 12.540 12.566 0.089 0.093 0.097 0.101 12.579 12.608 12.637 12.667 8.648 8.888 9.128 9.369 4.793 4.990 5.194 5.405 13.441 13.878 14.322 14.773 0.10403 0.10822 0.11257 0.11707 40 41 42 43 0.005216 0.005424 0.005640 0.005863 12.591 12.616 12.641 12.667 0.105 0.110 0.114 0.119 12.696 12.726 12.756 12.786 9.609 9.849 10.089 10.330 5.624 5.851 6.086 6.330 15.233 15.700 16.175 16.660 44 45 46 47 0.006094 0.006334 0.006581 0.006838 12.692 12.717 12.743 12.768 0.124 0.129 0.134 0.140 12.816 12.8946 12.877 12.908 10.570 10.810 11.050 11.291 6.582 6.843 7.114 7.394 48 49 50 51 0.007103 0.007378 0.007661 0.007955 12.793 12.818 12.844 12.869 0.146 0.152 0.158 0.164 12.939 12.970 13.001 13.033 11.531 11.771 12.012 12.252 52 53 54 55 0.008259 0.008573 0.008897 0.009233 12.894 12.920 12.945 12.970 0.171 0.178 0.185 0.192 13.065 13.097 13.129 13.162 56 57 58 59 0.009580 0.009938 0.010309 0.010692 12.995 13.021 13.046 13.071 0.200 0.207 0.216 0.224 60 61 62 63 0.011087 0.011496 0.011919 0.012355 13.096 13.122 13.147 13.172 0.233 0.242 0.251 0.261 Absolute pressure p Enthalpy, Btu/lb Sat water liq hf Evap hig/hfg Sat water vapor hg Ϫ 0.02 0.99 2.00 3.00 1075.15 1074.59 1074.02 1073.45 1075.14 1075.58 1076.01 1076.45 0.21180 0.22035 0.22919 0.23835 4.01 5.02 6.02 7.03 1072.88 1072.32 1071.75 1071.18 1076.89 1077.33 1077.77 1078.21 0.12172 0.12654 0.13153 0.13669 0.24783 0.25765 0.26780 0.27831 8.03 9.04 10.04 11.04 1070.62 1070.05 1069.48 1068.92 1078.65 1079.09 1079.52 1079.96 17.152 17.653 18.164 18.685 0.14203 0.14755 0.15326 0.15917 0.28918 0.30042 0.31205 0.32407 12.05 13.05 14.05 15.06 1068.35 1067.79 1067.22 1066.66 1080.40 1080.84 1081.28 1081.71 7.684 7.984 8.295 8.616 19.215 19.756 20.306 20.868 0.16527 0.17158 0.17811 0.18484 0.33650 0.34935 0.36263 0.37635 16.06 17.06 18.06 19.06 1066.09 1065.53 1064.96 1064.40 1082.15 1082.59 1083.03 1083.46 12.492 12.732 12.973 13.213 8.949 9.293 9.648 10.016 21.441 22.025 22.621 23.229 0.19181 0.19900 0.20643 0.21410 0.39054 0.40518 0.42031 0.43592 20.07 21.07 22.07 23.07 1063.83 1063.27 1062.71 1062.14 1083.90 1084.34 1084.77 1085.21 13.195 13.228 13.262 13.295 13.453 13.694 13.934 14.174 10.397 10.790 11.197 11.618 23.850 24.484 25.131 25.792 0.22202 0.23020 0.23864 0.24735 0.45204 0.46869 0.48588 0.50362 24.07 25.07 26.07 27.07 1061.58 1061.01 1060.45 1059.89 1085.65 1086.08 1086.52 1086.96 13.329 13.364 13.398 13.433 14.415 14.655 14.895 15.135 12.052 12.502 12.966 13.446 26.467 27.157 27.862 28.582 0.25635 0.26562 0.27519 0.28506 0.52192 0.54081 0.56029 0.58039 28.07 29.07 30.07 31.07 1059.32 1058.76 1058.19 1057.63 1087.39 1087.83 1088.27 1088.70 B.3 B.4 TABLE B.1 (Continued) Volume, ft3/lb dry air Saturated water vapor Enthalpy, Btu/lb dry air Temp T, °F Humidity ratio ws, lbw/lbda va vas vs 64 65 66 67 0.012805 0.013270 0.013750 0.014246 13.198 13.223 13.248 13.273 0.271 0.281 0.292 0.303 13.468 13.504 13.540 13.577 15.376 15.616 15.856 16.097 68 69 70 71 0.014758 0.015286 0.015832 0.016395 13.299 13.324 13.349 13.375 0.315 0.326 0.339 0.351 13.613 13.650 13.688 13.726 72 73 74 75 0.16976 0.017575 0.018194 0.018833 13.400 13.425 13.450 13.476 0.365 0.378 0.392 0.407 76 77 78 79 0.019491 0.020170 0.020871 0.021594 13.501 13.526 13.551 13.577 80 81 82 83 0.022340 0.023109 0.023902 0.024720 84 85 86 87 Absolute pressure p Enthalpy, Btu/lb hs psi in Hg Sat water liq hf 13.942 14.454 14.983 15.530 29.318 30.071 30.840 31.626 0.29524 0.30574 0.31656 0.32772 0.60112 0.62249 0.64452 0.66724 32.07 33.07 34.07 35.07 1057.07 1056.50 1055.94 1055.37 1089.14 1089.57 1090.01 1090.44 16.337 16.577 16.818 17.058 16.094 16.677 17.279 17.901 32.431 33.254 34.097 34.959 0.33921 0.35107 0.36328 0.37586 0.69065 0.71478 0.73964 0.76526 36.07 37.07 38.07 39.07 1054.81 1054.24 1053.68 1053.11 1090.88 1091.31 1091.75 1092.18 13.764 13.803 13.843 13.882 17.299 17.539 17.779 18.020 18.543 19.204 19.889 20.595 35.841 36.743 37.668 38.615 0.38882 0.40217 0.41592 0.43008 0.79164 0.81883 0.84682 0.87564 40.07 41.07 42.06 43.06 1052.55 1051.98 1051.42 1050.85 1092.61 1093.05 1093.48 1093.92 0.422 0.437 0.453 0.470 13.923 13.963 14.005 14.046 18.260 18.500 18.741 18.981 21.323 22.075 22.851 23.652 39.583 40.576 41.592 42.633 0.44465 0.45966 0.47510 0.49100 0.90532 0.93587 0.96732 0.99968 44.06 45.06 46.06 47.06 1050.29 1049.72 1049.16 1048.59 1094.35 1094.78 1095.22 1095.65 13.602 13.627 13.653 13.678 0.487 0.505 0.523 0.542 14.089 14.132 14.175 14.220 19.222 19.462 19.702 19.943 24.479 25.332 26.211 27.120 43.701 44.794 45.913 47.062 0.50736 0.52419 0.54150 0.55931 1.03298 1.06725 1.10250 1.13877 48.06 49.06 50.05 51.05 1048.03 1047.46 1046.89 1046.33 1096.08 1096.51 1096.95 1097.38 0.025563 0.026433 0.027329 0.028254 13.703 13.728 13.754 13.779 0.561 0.581 0.602 0.624 14.264 14.310 14.356 14.403 20.183 20.424 20.664 20.905 28.055 29.021 30.017 31.045 48.238 49.445 50.681 51.949 0.57763 0.59647 0.61584 0.63575 1.17606 1.21442 1.25385 1.29440 52.05 53.05 54.05 55.05 1045.76 1045.19 1044.63 1055.06 1097.81 1098.24 1098.67 1099.11 88 89 90 91 0.029208 0.030189 0.031203 0.032247 13.804 13.829 13.855 13.880 0.646 0.669 0.692 0.717 14.450 14.498 14.547 14.597 21.145 21.385 21.626 21.866 32.105 33.197 34.325 35.489 53.250 54.582 55.951 57.355 0.65622 0.67726 0.69889 0.72111 1.33608 1.37892 1.42295 1.46820 56.05 57.04 58.04 59.04 1043.49 1042.92 1042.36 1041.79 1099.54 1099.97 1100.40 1100.83 92 93 94 95 0.033323 0.034433 0.035577 0.036757 13.905 13.930 13.956 13.981 0.742 0.768 0.795 0.823 14.647 14.699 14.751 14.804 22.107 22.347 22.588 22.828 36.687 37.924 39.199 40.515 58.794 60.271 61.787 63.343 0.74394 0.76740 0.79150 0.81625 1.51468 1.56244 1.61151 1.66189 60.04 61.04 62.04 63.03 1041.22 1040.65 1040.08 1039.51 1101.26 1101.69 1102.12 1102.55 has Abridged from ASHRAE Handbook 1997, Fundamentals Reprinted with permission Evap hig/hfg Sat water vapor hg PSYCHROMETRIC CHART, TABLES OF PROPERTIES, AND UNITS CONVERSION B.5 TABLE B.2 Physical Properties of Air (at Atmospheric Pressure 14.696 psia) Temp T, °F ␳, lbm/ft3 cp, Btu /lbm и°F ␮ ϫ 105, lbm /ftиs ␯ ϫ 103, ft2/s k, Btu /h иftи°F ␣, ft2/h Pr ␤ ϫ 103, 1/°F g␤␳2/␮2, 1/°F3 иft3 30 60 80 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1500 0.0862 0.0810 0.0764 0.0735 0.0710 0.0651 0.0602 0.0559 0.0523 0.0462 0.0413 0.0374 0.0315 0.0272 0.0203 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.241 0.241 0.242 0.243 0.245 0.247 0.251 0.257 0.263 0.277 1.09 1.15 1.21 1.24 1.28 1.36 1.45 1.53 1.60 1.74 1.87 2.00 2.24 2.46 2.92 0.126 0.142 0.159 0.169 0.181 0.209 0.241 0.274 0.306 0.377 0.453 0.535 0.711 0.906 1.44 0.0132 0.0139 0.0146 0.0152 0.0156 0.0167 0.0179 0.0191 0.0203 0.0225 0.0246 0.0270 0.0303 0.0337 0.0408 0.639 0.714 0.798 0.855 0.919 1.06 1.24 1.42 1.60 2.00 2.41 2.88 3.75 4.72 7.27 0.721 0.716 0.711 0.708 0.703 0.698 0.694 0.690 0.686 0.681 0.680 0.680 0.684 0.689 0.705 2.18 2.04 1.92 1.85 1.79 1.64 1.52 1.41 1.32 1.16 1.04 0.944 0.794 0.685 0.510 4.39 ϫ 106 3.28 2.48 2.09 1.76 1.22 0.840 0.607 0.454 0.264 0.163 79.4 ϫ 103 50.6 27.0 7.96 Source: Fundamentals of Momentum Heat and Mass Transfer, Welty et al., 1976 John Wiley & Sons Reprinted with permission TABLE B.3 Physical Properties of Water (at Atmospheric Pressure 14.696 psia) T, °F ␳, lbm /ft3 cp, Btu /lbmи°F ␮ ϫ 103 lbm /ftиs 32 60 80 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 62.4 62.3 62.2 62.1 61.3 60.1 58.9 57.3 53.6 49.0 42.4 1.01 1.00 0.999 0.999 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.08 1.19 1.51 1.20 0.760 0.578 0.458 0.290 0.206 0.160 0.130 0.0930 0.0700 0.0579 ␯ ϫ 105 k, ft2 /s Btu /ft и°F 1.93 1.22 0.929 0.736 0.474 0.342 0.272 0.227 0.174 0.143 0.137 0.319 0.340 0.353 0.364 0.383 0.392 0.395 0.395 0.382 0.349 0.293 ␣, ft2 /h 5.06 5.45 5.67 5.87 6.26 6.46 6.60 6.70 6.58 5.98 4.58 Pr ␤ ϫ 103, 1/°F 13.7 Ϫ 0.350 8.07 0.800 5.89 1.30 4.51 1.80 2.72 2.80 1.91 3.70 1.49 4.70 1.22 5.60 0.950 7.80 0.859 11.0 1.07 17.5 g␤␳2 / ␮ 1/°Fиft3 17.2 48.3 107 403 1010 2045 3510 8350 17350 30300 Source: Fundamental of Momentum Heat and Mass Transfer, Welty et al., 1976 John Wiley & Sons Reprinted with permission TABLE B.4 Conversion of Inch-Pound (I-P) Units to International System of Units (SI) Unit atm Btu (British thermal unit) Btuиft/hиft2 и°F Btu/h Equivalents Unit ϭ 14.696 lbf /in ϭ 33.91 ft of water ϭ 29.92 in Hg ϭ 1.013 bars ϭ 101,325 Pa ϭ 778 ftиlbf ϭ 1055 J ϭ 252 cal ϭ 1.731 W/mи°C ϭ 0.293 W Btu/h иcfm Btu/h иft Btu/h иft2 Btu/h иft2 и°F Btuиin./h иft2 и°F Btu /lb Btu /lb и°F Btu /lb иft Btu/yrиft2 clo (clothing insulation) Equivalents ϭ 06209 Wиs/L ϭ 0.961 W/m ϭ 3.155 W/m2 ϭ 5.678 W/m2 и°C ϭ 0.1442 W/mи°C ϭ 2.326 kJ/kg ϭ 4.187 kJ/kg и°C ϭ 7.63 kJ/kg иm ϭ 0.000293 kWh /yrиft2 ϭ 0.155 m2 и°C/W B.6 APPENDIX B TABLE B.4 Conversion of Inch-Pound (I-P) Units to International System of Units (SI) Unit clo ft3 /lb cfm (cubic foot per minute) cfm/ft cfm/ft2 cfm/tonref $/ft2 °F fc fpm ft ft2 ft3 ftиlbf ftиlbf /min ft/s, fps ft2/s(kinematic viscosity) ft WC gal gpm (U.S) gpm/tonref hи°F/Btu hиft2 и°F/Btu hp hp (boiler) in (inch) in Hg (mercury) in WC (water column) in WC/(cfm)2 in WG (water gauge) J (joule) kBtu/ft2 иyr kg km kW kWh Equivalents ϭ 0.88 h иft и°F/Btu ϭ 0.0624 m3 /kg ϭ 7.481 gpm ϭ 0.4719 L/s ϭ 0.02832 m3/min ϭ 1.548 L/s иm ϭ 5.078 L/s иm2 ϭ 18.2 m3 /hиm2 ϭ 0.1342 L/s иk Wref ϭ 10.76 $/m2 ϭ (°F Ϫ 32)/(1.8)°C ϭ 10.76 lx ϭ 0.01136 mi/h ϭ 0.00508 m/s ϭ 0.3048 m ϭ 304.8 mm ϭ 144 in.2 ϭ 0.0929 m2 ϭ 0.748 gal ϭ 1.356 J ϭ 0.0226 W ϭ 0.3048 m/s ϭ 92,900 mm2/s ϭ 0.4334 lbf /in2 ϭ 2.99 kPa ϭ 0.1337 ft3 ϭ 8.35 lb of water ϭ 3.785 L ϭ 0.0631 L/s ϭ 0.0179 L/s иkW ϭ 1.911 °C /W ϭ 0.176 m2 и°C/W ϭ 33,000 ftиlbf /min ϭ 550 ft иlbf /s ϭ 0.746 kW ϭ 33,476 Btu /h ϭ 9808 W ϭ 25.4 mm ϭ 0.4912 lbf /in.2 ϭ 3.3 kPa ϭ 0.0361 lbf /in.2 ϭ 5.20 lbf /ft2 ϭ 248.6 Pa ϭ 5.27 ϫ 105Paиs/m6 ϭ 248.6 Pa ϩ atm ϭ 9.48 ϫ 10Ϫ Btu ϭ 3.153 kWh /m2иyr ϭ 2.2046 lb ϭ 3281 ft ϭ 0.6214 mi ϭ 3413 Btu /h ϭ 1.341 hp ϭ 3413 Btu Unit kW/ton L lbf lb/Btu lb и°F/Btu lbf /ft2 lb /ft3 lb/ft иh lbf /ftиs lb/h lb /h иft2 lb/lb lb (mass) lb of water L/s m met mg mil mi mi/h mm mm Hg mg mm oz Pa (pascal) pint ppm (mass) psia (absolute) psig (gauge) quad (quadrillion) qt (quart) rad (radian) (Continued) Equivalents ϭ [3.516/(kW/ton)] COPref ϭ 0.001 m3 ϭ 0.0353 ft3 ϭ 4.45 N ϭ 0.4786 kg /kJ ϭ 0.2659 kgи°C/kJ ϭ 0.0069 lbf /in2 ϭ 4.88 kg /m2 ϭ 16.0 kg /m3 ϭ 0.413 mPaиs ϭ 1490 mPaиs ϭ 0.126 g /s ϭ 4.88 kg /h иm2 ϭ 1.0 kg /kg ϭ 7000 gr ϭ 16 oz ϭ 0.4536 kg ϭ 0.01602 ft3 ϭ 0.12 gal ϭ 2.119 cfm ϭ 15.85 gpm ϭ 1.094 yard ϭ 3.281 ft ϭ 39.37 in ϭ 58.2 W/m2 ϭ 18.46 Btu /hиft2 ϭ 0.01543 gr ϭ 0.001 in ϭ 25.4 mm ϭ 5280 ft ϭ 1.61 km ϭ 88 fpm ϭ 0.44 m/s ϭ 0.03937 in ϭ 133.3 Pa ϭ ϫ 10Ϫ g ϭ ϫ 10Ϫ m ϭ 3.94 ϫ 10Ϫ 5in ϭ 0.0625 lb ϭ 28.35 g ϭ N/m2 ϭ 28.37 in.3 ϭ 0.4732 L ϭ mg/kg ϭ 2.307 ft water abs ϭ 703.1 kg /m2abs ϭ 6.895 kPa abs ϭ lbf /in.2 ϩ atm ϭ ϫ 1015 Btu ϭ 1.055 EJ ϭ 57.75 in.3 ϭ 0.9461 L ϭ 57.3° PSYCHROMETRIC CHART, TABLES OF PROPERTIES, AND UNITS CONVERSION TABLE B.4 Conversion of Inch-Pound (I-P) Units to International System of Units (SI) Unit rpm therm tonиh ton (long) Equivalents ϭ r/min ϭ 100,000 Btu ϭ 105.5 MJ ϭ 12,000 Btu ϭ 3.516 kWh ϭ 2240 lb ϭ 1016 kg Unit ton (metric) tonref (refrigeration) ton (short) torr W Most of the conversion equivalents are based on values in ASHRAE Handbook 1997, Fundamentals (Continued) Equivalents ϭ 1000 kg ϭ 12,000 Btu /h ϭ 3.516 kW ϭ 2000 lb ϭ mm Hg ϭ 3.413 Btu /h B.7 ... publication of ASHRAE Standard 90.1-1999 and ASHRAE Standard 62-1999, often called the Energy standard and Indoor Air Quality standard, the second edition of Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration. .. of Refrigeration Engineering and Air Conditioning as the teaching and learning package, and presented several papers at ASHRAE meetings The First Edition of the Handbook of Air Conditioning and. .. Polytechnic as senior lecturer in 1975 He established the air conditioning and refrigeration laboratories and established courses in air conditioning and refrigeration at Hong Kong Polytechnic Since 1975,