MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY M.A THESIS A CONTRASTIVE STUDY ON CONTRACTS FOR CONSULTING SERVICES IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE (NGHIÊN CỨU ĐỐI CHIẾU CÁC HỢP ĐỒNG DỊCH VỤ TƯ VẤN TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT) PHẠM THỊ THANH NHÀN Hanoi, 2016 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY M.A THESIS A CONTRASTIVE STUDY ON CONTRACTS FOR CONSULTING SERVICES IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE (NGHIÊN CỨU ĐỐI CHIẾU CÁC HỢP ĐỒNG DỊCH VỤ TƯ VẤN TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT) PHẠM THỊ THANH NHÀN Field: English Language Code: 60220201 Supervisor: Assoc Prof Dr Hồ Ngọc Trung Hanoi, 2016 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report entitled “A contrastive study on contracts for consulting services in English and Vietnamese” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master in English Language Except where the reference is indicated, no other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the text of the thesis Hanoi, 2016 Pham Thi Thanh Nhan Approved by Assoc Prof Dr Hồ Ngọc Trung Date: …………………………………… i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis could not have been completed without the help and support from a number of people First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Assoc Prof Dr Ho Ngoc Trung, my supervisor, who has patiently and constantly supported me through the stages of the study, and whose stimulating ideas, expertise, and suggestions have inspired me greatly through my growth as an academic researcher Without his guidance and help, this work would not have been accomplished A special word of thanks also goes to Mr Nguyen Van Huy, project’s director and technical staff under Project Management Unit of Medium Cities Development Project for their sincere assistance and permission for the collection and reproduction of English sample contracts for consulting services I am also deeply indebted to all other friends and colleague for their enthusiasm about finding Vietnamese contracts for consulting services Many thanks are also given to Mr John Cooney and Ms Toko Kato, the World Bank’s independent consultants for their instruction and provision of useful reference on laws and legal documents while the work was in progress Last but not least, I am greatly indebted to my family members, especially my mother, who always beside encourages and supports me in all the time, for their inspiration and unconditional love I would like to dedicate this work to them i ABSTRACT This study is aimed to explore the standards frequently used by foreigners and Vietnamese people in the course of making contracts for consulting services by an analysis of contracts of various sorts in English and Vietnamese The major theoretical basis that the study bases itself on is Rhetorical Structure Theory written by Mann and Thompton and Cohesion theory by Halliday and Hasan The research starts by analyzing consulting contracts in terms of structure and cohesion, in order to provide a deeper insight into the important role of the structure and cohesive devices in contracts for consulting services When the analysis is done it compares the structure of contracts for consulting services of different kinds in terms of structure and cohesion to identify the similarities and differences between contracts of the two languages The result of this study may help contractmakers, students draw up and understand more contracts for consulting services For this purpose, implications are put forward for both the business community and business contract learning and translating ii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS JICA: Japan International Cooperation Agency WB: World Bank ADB: Asian Development Bank PMU: Project Management Unit MCDP: Medium Cities Development Project TPP: Trans-Pacific Partnership FTA: Free Trade Agreements AEC: ASEAN Economic Community RST: Rhetorical Structure Theory iii LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table Table 3.1: List of sample texts and their origin 29 Table 4.1 Kind of sentences (in the body of English contracts) 39 Table 4.2 The average frequency of cohesive devices found in English 49 contracts for consulting services Table 4.3 Relevant factors of the beginning of contracts for consulting 53 services in English and Vietnamese Table 4.4 Kinds of sentences (in the body of Vietnamese contracts) 55 Table 4.5 The obligatory factors of the ending of contracts for 58 consulting services Table 4.6 The average frequency of cohesive devices found in 63 Vietnamese contracts for consulting services Table 4.7 The differences of discourse structure in the beginning of 68 contracts Table 4.8 The differences of discourse structure in the body of 70 contracts Table 4.9 The differences of discourse structure in the ending of 72 contracts Table 4.10 The average frequency of cohesive devices found in English 73 and Vietnamese contracts for consulting services Figure Figure 4.1 Percentage of cohesive devices in English contracts 50 Figure 4.2 Percentage of cohesive devices in Vietnamese contracts 63 Figure 4.3 The average frequency of cohesive devices in English and 73 Vietnamese contracts for consulting services iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Certificate of originality i Acknowledgements ii Abstract iii List of tables and figures iv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale for the research 1.2 Aims of the research 1.3 Objectives of the research 1.4 Scope of the research 1.5 Significance of the research 1.6 Structural organization of the thesis CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Review of previous studies 2.1.1 Previous studies overseas 2.1.2 Previous studies in Vietnam 2.2 Review of theoretical background 2.2.1 Theoretical framework 2.2.2 Theoretical background 2.2.2.1 The concepts of Discourse and Discourse analysis 2.2.2.2 Text and discourse 10 2.2.2.3 Spoken and Written discourse 10 2.2.2.4 Discourse structure 12 2.2.2.5 The concepts of cohesion 13 2.2.2.6.Two aspects of cohesion 14 2.2.2.7 Cohesive devices and classification 16 2.2.2.8 Definition of contract and its properties 22 2.3 Summary 26 v CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 27 3.1 Research-governing orientations 27 3.1.1 Research questions 27 3.1.2 Research setting 27 3.1.3 Research approaches 28 3.1.4 Principles for data collection and data analysis 29 3.2 Research methods 30 3.2.1 Major methods vs supporting methods 30 3.2.2 Data collection techniques 31 3.2.3 Data analysis techniques 32 3.3 Summary 32 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 34 4.1 The features of English contracts for consulting services 34 4.1.1 Discourse structure 34 4.1.1.1 Name of contract and the beginning 34 4.1.1.2 The body of contracts 36 4.1.1.3 The ending of contracts 41 4.1.2 Cohesion 43 4.1.2.1 The realization of the two aspects of cohesion 43 4.1.2.2 Cohesive devices 45 4.2 The features of Vietnamese contracts for consulting services 4.2.1 Discourse structure 50 50 4.2.1.1 Name of contract and the beginning 51 4.2.1.2 The body of contracts 54 4.2.1.3 The ending of contracts 56 4.2.2 Cohesion 58 4.2.2.1 The realization of the two aspects of cohesion 58 4.2.2.2 Cohesive devices 60 vi 4.3 The similarities and differences between contracts for consulting 64 services in English and Vietnamese 4.3.1 The similarities of discourse structure 64 4.3.1.1 Name of contract and the beginning 64 4.3.1.2 The body of contracts 65 4.3.1.3 The ending of contracts 66 4.3.2 The similarities of cohesion 66 4.3.2.1 Two aspects of cohesion 66 4.3.2.2 Cohesive devices 66 4.3.3 The differences of discourse structure 67 4.3.3.1 Name of contract and the beginning 67 4.3.3.2 The body of contracts 69 4.3.3.3 The ending of contracts 71 4.3.4 The differences of cohesion 73 4.3.4.1 Cohesive devices 4.4 Implications 73 75 4.4.1 Implications on business community 75 4.4.2 Implications on business contract translating and learning 76 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 79 5.1 Recapitulation and concluding remarks 79 5.2 Limitations of the study 80 5.3 Suggestions for further studies 80 SOURCES OF DATA i REFERENCES iii APPENDICES viii vii the lexical repetition device used in English is a little bit more than that in Vietnamese (46.9% and 46.2%) That repetition plays an important role in expressing organization of the text is the reason for this The writers repeat important words aiming at giving the readers a comprehensive understanding of the main information, increasing the precision and closeness of the articles of law The survey results point out the difference in using conjunctions in English and Vietnamese While conjunctions take up for only 16.6% in English contracts, a rather large number of occurrences of conjunctions accounting for the second highest proportion among all grammatical and lexical cohesive devices (35%) in Vietnamese contracts This is also a difference in using substitution in English and Vietnamese contracts Substitution rank the third with17.8% in English contract texts, and the lowest frequencies of occurrence are respectively antonymy (9.1%), ellipsis (9%) and synonymy (0%) whereas that device together with synonymy account for the lowest proportion (0%) in Vietnamese contracts and respectively are a higher frequency of occurrence of ellipsis (10%) In general, besides the differences in the styles of contracts in English and Vietnamese in the data collected, they are much similar to each other A discourse analysis of contract for consulting service in English and Vietnamese is therefore necessary for students and contract-makers wishing to improve their skills in contract writing 4.4 Implications 4.4.1 Implications on business community Making and signing contracts for consulting services not only present an extremely essential operation of any 73 enterprises but they are also seen as legal practices made by following highly strict legal principles It is expected that results of this investigation can benefit business people, the translators as well as the students majoring in English To the best of my knowledge, there exist scarcities of publications that discuss how to make contracts for consulting services As a result, this may prove pitfalls for those wanting to prepare a contract in a format acceptable Some books on contracts available in Vietnam just aim to guide enterprises, teachers and students or individuals to translate, make or conclude business contracts in general Through the investigation of 10 respective contracts for consulting services in two languages, it is not noteworthy that due to its long-standing history, English contracts for consulting services can be described as standardized, highly stable and has become a standard form for contract makers Vietnamese contracts for consulting services are more or less assimilated imports After imported, they began to thrive on the new soil, acquiring new features and thus gradually obtaining standard structure There is no question that they develop certain characteristics That is the reason why business people and those who would be involved in business sphere should focus on:  The relevant factors of the beginning, the body and the closing in English and Vietnamese contracts for consulting services and making a clear distinction between them to avoid confusion  The characteristic features in the language and structure of English and Vietnamese contracts for consulting services, on which the drawing up of contracts in an airtight circle is based and operates 74  The use of words that are incorporated in English and Vietnamese contracts and their order of occurrence  The different relevant factors which occur the respective English and Vietnamese contracts 4.4.2 Implication on contracts learning and translating This study is very much hoped to be useful to translators and students in the course of translating and learning Translation skill Translation in general is a difficult task for many people, but translating English textsfor consulting services is even more difficult for Vietnamese people because of the difference not only in language but also in understanding of current business matters Therefore, translating and learning Translation has become a challenging job for both translators and students Contract for consulting service is a specific type of discourse and translators/ contract-makers, students at universities often find it hard to translate a Vietnamese contract for consulting service into a foreign language or vice versa in a standard manner It may be due to the fact that they are not aware of the structure and language of contracts for consulting service In order to successfully translate and/or produce a contract, the following suggestions are prompted by my translating experience for considerations:  The translator and students should firstly focus attention on the generic structure of the contract in Vietnamese and English via relevant factors that occur in the beginning, the body and the closing in the contracts Then the articles from the laws that are commonly applied to English and Vietnamese contracts and their orders should also be given attention 75  Secondly, studying cohesion especially the cohesive devices in English business texts is also an essential work as they are regarded as an important textual component not only to create organized texts but also to render the content comprehensible to the readers  Although it was advised that simple sentences should be chosen, the practice shows the predominance of compound, complex and compound-complex sentences As a matter of fact, the correct grammar and skill of using sentence is more important than thinking of what types of them to be used  Technical words are very important in business correspondence, particularly in a contract To ensure the right understanding of technical terms, the writer should collect and try to master as many technical words as possible to enlarge their vocabulary stock and ensure producing a contract with clear, precise and unambiguous rights and obligations  The students should finally find some of the sample contracts in the internet in which the vocabulary and grammatical challenges occur at first However, on having identified the vocabulary items and grammatical resources in the contracts, they would afterward be able to draft short provisions and then the longer ones Writing a contract for consulting service is an art requiring specific techniques together with practice Studying contracts for consulting services is a way to contribute into the improving and developing the trade links between Vietnam and the other countries Therefore, it is very necessary for Vietnamese translators to study deeply in this field To sum up, this chapter has just provided some suggestions drawn from our experiences and results of the study These suggestions are hopefully useful 76 for contract-makers and students when translating in this area 77 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 5.1 Recapitulation and concluding remarks The study is based on thorough review and analysis of appropriate literature As the main purpose of the study is analyzing the structure and cohesive devices in texts about business matters, the importance of structure and cohesive devices have been stated and the comprehensive description of cohesive ties given by Haliday and Hasan (1976) has been briefly introduced And in order to reach the aim of the study, the author has used quantitative and qualitative methods in combination with statistical tools and observation By collecting ten sample texts from MCDP project, the author analyzed the data in these texts Then, the results of the survey are also collected and analyzed After analyzing the texts about business matters and conducting a survey, the researcher has achieved satisfactory results Firstly, although this study does not claim to focus on the theory of the discourse analysis, it however, highlights the fact that discourse analysis is a powerful weapon in the hand of linguistics and contract-makers’ wishing into contracts for consulting services Apart from that, discourse analysis is really a new attempt to investigate how language works, and how texts are structured beyond the sentence level It is useful to study a discourse in terms of structure as well as cohesion The survey conducted throughout this thesis helps to reaffirm the systematic feature of language, even right at the level of discourse It can be said that not only does the sentence have its own structure but discourse also does, too This thesis has revealed certain differences between English and Vietnamese 78 contracts in the area of structure, tendency to employ certain cohesive devices to create coherence, as well as the variety of relevant factors which are present therein It can be said that the structure of contracts for consulting services in English is relatively stable and standardized There are relevant items which occur in Vietnamese, but miss from a corresponding English counterpart It is believed that this study can be of some help to not only contract-drafter to master structure of contracts for consulting services so that they can avoid mistakes arising at the time of making and concluding contracts for consulting services but it also gives an awareness of students’ difficulties majoring in English in learning and translating cohesive devices in English texts It, thus benefits both translator and those at Medium Cities Development Project in particular 5.2 Limitations of the study Given the time constraint, the scope and the nature of the study, it was not free from limitations like any study of the type First, the sampling population of business texts for the research was not really large to allow many generalizations about the use of structure and cohesive devices Second, the study could focus more on structure and cohesion in texts In addition, within the limited scope of this thesis, we have just studied the structure and cohesive devices in texts about consulting services, not all types of business texts The comparison between the devices used in English and Vietnamese business texts was not covered at all 5.3 Suggestions for further studies This study is attempted to bring out the structure and cohesion of a discourse in a particular business context and detailed analysis of cohesive devices in 79 English business texts Some common mistakes in translating contracts for consulting services are also found out Hence, further studies conducted could focus on the followings:  An analysis on contracts for construction works in English and Vietnamese  An analysis on Minutes of Negotiation in English and Vietnamese  An analysis on Minutes of Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) in English and Vietnamese  Other discourse features of economic texts such as metaphor, logical cohesive devices, etc  Contrastive analysis of cohesive devices in English and Vietnamese business texts Due to the limited time, the framework of a M.A thesis as well as the limited knowledge of the author, mistakes are inevitable Constructive comments from those who are concerned, therefore, would be highly appreciated 80 SOURCES OF DATA Contracts for consulting services in English Contract for consulting service -package PL4-02: Preparation of Detail Design, Cost Estimate and Bidding Documents between Medium Cities Development Project in Vietnam, Phu Ly citysubproject and Joint Venture of Kunhwa Consulting & Engineering Co., Ltd (South Korea), Dongho Co., Ltd (South Korea) and Jinwoo Engineering Co., Ltd (South Korea) Contract for consulting service -package PL4-06B: Construction supervision, contract management between Medium Cities Development Project in Vietnam, Phu Ly city subproject and Joint Venture of GETINSA (Spain) - GRONTMIJ (Denmark) Contract for consulting service -package PL4-08A: Independent audit between Medium Cities Development Project in Vietnam, Phu Ly city subproject and Deloitte Vietnam Company Limited Contract for consulting service -package PL4-01: Technical Assistance assignment for PMU between Medium Cities Development Project in Vietnam, Phu Ly city subproject and CONSIA consultant (Denmark) Contract for consulting service -package LC4-05: Independent monitoring on environmental and social safeguard between Medium Cities Development Project in Vietnam and The Development Research and Consulting Center (DRCC) i Contracts for consulting services in Vietnamese Hợp đồng dịch vụ tư vấn thiÕt kÕ chi tiÕt góithầuVH-04: n©ng cÊp, cải tạo Kênh Bắc đoạn - Dự án phát triển đô thị loại vừa - Tiểu dự án Vinh) Hợp đồng dịch vụ tư vấn giám sát thi cơng xây dựng cơng trìnhgói thầu 02,03:Tư vấn giám sát thực thuộc dự án xây dựng HTKT khu TĐC phục vụ GPMB dự án đường 68m, đường150m (đường Lê Công Thanh giai đoạn II) - tỉnh Hà Nam Hợp đồng dịch vụ tư vấn kiểm tốn góithầuPL-15: thuộc Dự án phát triển đô thị loại vừa – Tiểu dự án thành phố Phủ Lý, tỉnh Hà Nam) Hợp đồng dịch vụ tư vấn trợ giúp kỹ thut gúi thuVH1.4: cho Tiểu dự án Hỗ trợ kỹ thuật chuẩn bị dự án Phát triển đô thị loại võa - thµnh Vinh Hợp đồng dịch vụ tư vấn giám sát môi trường, đánh giá tác động mơi trường góithầuPL4-16: cho hạng mục Dự án Phát triển đô thị loại vừa Việt Nam, Tiểu dự án thành phố Phủ Lý Công ty CP nước môi trường Việt Nam (viết tắt là: VIWASE) ii REFERENCES A Books English Austin, J.L (1962) How to Do Things with Words London: Oxford University Press Brown, G and Yule, G (1983), Discourse Analysis, Cambridge University Chalker, S (1992), Current English Grammar, Macmillan Education,London, England Cook, G (1989), Discourse, Oxford University Press, England Crystal, D (1992) Introduction to Linguistics London, Penguin De Beaugrande, R & W U Dressler (1981) Introduction to Text Linguistics London, Longman De Beaugrande, R & W U Dressler (1981) Introduction to Text Linguistics London, Longman De Beaugrande, R (1980) Text, Discourse and Process London, Longman Evelyn Hatch (1992) Discourse and Language education Cambridge University Press 10 Gee, James Paul (1999) An Introduction to Discourse Analysis London, Routledge 11 Halliday, M A K & Hasan R (1976), Cohesion in English, Longman, London 12 Halliday, M A K (1989), Spoken and Written language, Oxford University Press, Oxford 13 Halliday, M.A.K and Hasan, R (1976) Cohesion in English Longman iii 14 Halliday, M.A.K (1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar Oxford University Press Inc 15 Hatim, B and Mason, I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London, Longman 16 Ian MacKenzie (2002) English for Business Studies Cambridge University Press, UK 17 Jain, M P (1974) Error Analysis: Source, Cause and Significance Longman 18 Kench, A.B (1972), The Language of English Business Letters, Macmillan Education Limited, London, England 19 Krizan, A.C et al (1999), Business Communication, South-Western College Publishing, U.S.A 20.Man, W.C & Thomtom S.A (1987), Rhetorical Structure Theory: A Theory of Text Organization, University of Southern California, USA 21 Mc Comas, Donna C and Satterwhite, M (1993), Modern Business Correspondence, McGraw-Hill International Editions, U.S 22.Nunan, David (1993), Introducing Discourse Analysis, Penguin English Press, Cambridge 23.Raphael Salkie (1995) Text and Discourse Analysis London, New York Boutledge 24.Widdowson, H G (1979) Explorations in Applied Linguistics Oxford, Oxford University Press 25 Widdowson, H G (1984) Explorations in Applied Linguistics Oxford, Oxford University Press 26 Yule, G (1996) The Study of Language Oxford, Oxford University Press iv Vietnamese 27 Chau M T N, An Investigation into the Lexical and Syntactic Features of Business Correspondence in English and Vietnamese, M.A thesis, Da Nang University 28 Dan N.T (1992), The language of Business Correspondence in English, Nhà xuất Đại học quốc gia Hà Nội 29 Dan N.T (2003), International Trade Contracts, Nhà xuất thống kê Hà Nội 30 Đo Huu Chau (2003) Đại cương Ngôn Ngữ học Tập 2- Ngữ dụng học Nhà xuất Giáo dục, Hà Nội 31 Ho Ngoc Trung (2012) Phép tiếng Anh (trong liên hệ với tiếng Việt) Nhà xuất Khoa học xã hội, Hà nội 32 Hoa Ng (2000), An introduction to Discourse Analysis, Vietnam National University Publishing House 33 Hoa Ng (2001) An introduction to semantics Vietnam National University Publishing House 34 Huyen T D (2000), An Analysis on Business contract Discourse in English and Vietnamese, M.A thesis, Vietnam National University-Ha Noi college of foreign language 35 Nguyễn Hòa, (2003) Phân tích diễn ngơn-Một số vấn đề lý luận phương pháp Nhà Xuất ĐHQGHN, Hà Nội 36 Nguyen Thien Giap, (2000) Dụng học Việt ngữ Nhà XB ĐHQGHN, Hà Nội 37 Thu N T (2000), A Contrastive Analysis of Salescnotracts in English and Vietnamese Discourse, M.A thesis, Vietnam National UniversityHa Noi college of foreing language 38 Thu V T (2001), an analysis on international convention in English, Vietnam National University Publishing House v 39 Tran Ngoc Them (1985) Hệ thống liên kết văn tiếng Việt, NXB Khoa học xã hội, Hà Nội 40 Trung H N (2013), Lectures on Discourse Analysis, Educational Publishing Press, Hanoi 41 Trung H.N, Anh V.T (2011) Nâng cao kỹ dịch văn tiếng Anh cho sinh viên khoa Ngoại Ngữ, Viện Đại học Mở Hà Nội nhìn từ góc độ liên kết ngữ pháp Báo cáo tổng kết đề tài khoa học công nghệ cấp viện Mã số: V2011- 28 42 Trung H.N (2012) Phép tiếng Anh (trong liên hệ với tiếng Việt) Nhà xuất Khoa học xã hội, Hà nội B Legal documents The World Bank Washington, D.C, Selection and Employment of Consultants by World Bank Borrowers, dated May 2004, revised October 2006 The World Bank Washington, D.C, the Guidelines of Selection and Employment of Consultants by World Bank Borrowers, dated May 2004, revised October 2006 and May 2010 The World Bank Washington, D.C, Contract for consulting services (Lump-Sum) dated May 2004, revised October 2006 and May 2010 The World Bank Washington, D.C, Contract for consulting services (Time-based) dated May 2004, revised October 2006 and May 2010 The World Bank Washington, D.C, Contract for consulting services (Small assignment-Lump-Sum) dated May 2004, revised October 2006 and May 2010 The World Bank Washington, D.C, Contract for consulting services (Small assignment -Time-based) dated May 2004, revised October 2006 and May 2010 MCDP Project (2013), Consulting Contracts for detailed design services MCDP Project (2013), Consulting Contracts for construction vi supervision services MCDP Project (2013), Consulting Contracts for audit services 10 MCDP Project (2012), Consulting Contracts for technical assistance service 11 MCDP Project (2014), Consulting Contracts for monitoring on environmental and social safeguard C Sources from the internet John Benjamins, 2008: Discourse Analyses of Text Available online: http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/discanalysisterm.htm Englishpost.org (2013) What types of cohesive are there Retrieved from : https://englishpost.org/2013/06/21/what-type-of-cohesivedevices-are-there/ Sandlin (2014), How to Structure Your Consulting Contracts, Available online: https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/233302 SEQ legal, Consultancy terms and conditions, Available online: http://www.seqlegal.com/free-legal-documents/consultancy-termsand-conditions Consulting agreement, Available online: (https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/850261/000119312510067 006/dex106.htm vii ... Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), WB, Asian Development Bank (ADB) etc is ever-increasingly since the international standards for consulting contracts are a relatively new area in. .. they are: Consulting Contracts for detailed design service; Consulting Contracts for construction supervision service; Consulting Contracts for audit service; Consulting Contracts for technical assistance... Purpose, Condition and Otherwise, Interpretation and Evaluation, Restatement and Summary, and lastly Sequence and Contrast within English and Vietnamese contracts are also identified 2.2.2.5 The concepts