Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education 2-1 Chapter Leader Development “Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other.” ~John F Kennedy 2-2 Action-Observation-Reflection Model • Making the most of experience is key to developing one’s leadership ability • The action-observation-reflection (A-O-R) model shows that leadership development is enhanced when the experience involves three different processes: – Action – Observation – Reflection • Spiral of experience: Colin Powell’s example 2-3 The Spiral of Experience 2-4 Key Role of Perception in the Spiral of Experience • Experience is not just a matter of what events happen to you; it depends on how you perceive those events • Perception affects all three phases of the action-observation-reflection model • People actively shape and construct their experiences 2-5 Perception and Observation • Observation and perception both deal with attending to events around us – We are selective in what we attend to and what we, in turn, perceive • Perceptual sets can influence any of our senses: – They are the tendency or bias to perceive one thing and not another – Feelings, needs, prior experiences, and expectations can all trigger a perceptual set • Stereotypes represent powerful impediments to learning – Awareness of biases occurs upon reflection 2-6 Perception and Reflection • Reflection deals with how we interpret our observations • Perception is inherently an interpretive, or a meaning-making, activity • Attributions are the explanations we develop for the behaviors or actions we attend to • Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate the dispositional causes of behavior and underestimate the environmental causes when others fail 2-7 Perception and Reflection (continued) • A self-serving bias is the tendency to make external attributions for one’s own failures, yet make internal attributions for one’s successes • The actor/observer difference refers to the fact that people who are observing an action are much more likely than the actor to make the fundamental attribution error • Reflection involves higher functions like evaluation and judgment, not just perception and attribution 2-8 Perception and Action • Research shows that perceptions and biases affect supervisors’ actions towards poorly performing subordinates • The self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when our expectations/predictions play a causal role in bringing about the events we predict • Studies show that having expectations about others can subtly influence our actions, and these actions can, in turn, affect the way others behave 2-9 Role of Expectations in Social Interaction 2-10 Leader Development in Organizational Settings (continued) • Mid-level manager programs use individualized feedback, case studies, presentations, role playing, simulations, and in-basket exercises to improve the following: – Interpersonal skills – Oral and written communication skills – Time management skills – Planning – Goal setting 2-17 Leader Development in Organizational Settings (continued) • Conger states that a multi-tiered approach is effective and should focus on personal growth, skill building, feedback, and conceptual awareness • Leadership development in the 21st century must occur in more lifelike situations and contexts • Leadership programs for senior executives and CEOs focus on strategic planning, public relations, and interpersonal skills 2-18 Action Learning • Traditional training programs involve personnel taking leadership classes during work hours • Such training addresses common leadership issues, but its artificial nature makes it difficult to transfer concepts to actual work situations • In contrast, action learning involves the use of actual work issues and challenges as the developmental activity itself • The philosophy of action learning is that the best learning involves learning by doing 2-19 Development Planning • Development planning is a process that helps leaders to accelerate the development of their own leadership skills • To make enduring behavioral changes, leaders must provide positive answers to five questions: – Do leaders know which of their behaviors need to change? – Is the leader motivated to change these behaviors? – Do leaders have plans in place for changing targeted behaviors? – Do leaders have opportunities to practice new skills? – Are leaders held accountable for changing targeted behaviors? 2-20 Development Planning (continued) • Development planning is more than a plan—it is really a process • Good development plans are constantly being revised as new skills are learned or new opportunities to develop skills become available • Development planning provides a methodology for leaders to improve their behavior even as they go about their daily work activities 2-21 Coaching • Coaching is a key leadership skill that can help leaders improve the bench strength of the group and retain high-quality followers • Coaching is the “process of equipping people with the tools, knowledge, and opportunities they need to develop and become more successful.” • There are two types of coaching: informal and formal 2-22 Coaching (continued) • Informal coaching takes place whenever a leader helps followers to change their behaviors • According to Peterson and Hicks, the best informal coaching generally consists of five steps: – – – – – Forging a partnership Inspiring commitment Growing skills Promoting persistence Shaping the environment 2-23 Coaching (continued) • The 5-step informal coaching process can be used to diagnose why behavioral change is not occurring and what can be done about it • Informal coaching can and does occur anywhere in the organization • Informal coaching is effective for both highperforming and low-performing followers • Coaching increases in difficulty when it occurs either remotely or across cultures 2-24 Coaching (continued) • Formal coaching programs are designed for the specific needs and goals of individual executives and managers in leadership positions • Such programs share common features: – The one-on-one relationship between manager and coach lasts from six months to more than a year – The process begins with an assessment of the manager to clarify development needs – The coach and manager meet monthly to build skills – Role plays and videotape are used extensively, and coaches provide immediate feedback 2-25 Coaching (continued) • Formal coaching programs can cost more than $100,000 • Coaching may be more effective at changing behavior than more traditional learning and training approaches • Behavioral changes from coaching tend to be in place one year after the termination of a coaching program, indicating permanent behavioral change • Coaching candidates tend to have multi-million dollar budgets and thousands of subordinates 2-26 Mentoring • In an organization, you can gain valuable perspectives and insights through close association with a mentor—an experienced person willing to take you under his/her wing • Mentoring is a personal relationship in which a more experienced mentor (usually someone 2-4 levels higher in an organization) acts as a guide, role model, and sponsor of a less experienced protégé 2-27 Mentoring (continued) • Mentors provide protégés with knowledge, advice, challenge, counsel, and support about career opportunities, organizational strategy and policy, and office politics • Mentoring is not the same as coaching because it may not target specific development needs and the mentor may not even be part of the organization • There are formal and informal mentoring programs 2-28 Mentoring (continued) • Informal mentoring occurs when a protégé and mentor build a long-term relationship based on friendship, similar interests, and mutual respect • Formal mentoring involves the organization assigning a relatively inexperienced but highpotential leader to a top executive in the firm • Formal mentoring is often used to accelerate the development of female or minority protégés • Informal mentoring may be more effective than formal mentoring due to longer-term relationships and stronger emotional bonds 2-29 Building Your Own Leadership Self-Image • Not everyone wants to be a leader or believes he/she can be • Many people are selling themselves short • Keep an open mind about the importance of leadership • Avoid self-defeating generalizations • Experiment and take a few risks with different leadership roles 2-30 Summary • One way to add value to your leadership courses and experiences is by applying the actionobservation-reflection model • Be aware of the role perception plays in leadership development • Education and experience can contribute to your development as a leader • To become a better leader, one must seek challenges and try to make the best of any leadership opportunity 2-31 ... Reflection • Spiral of experience: Colin Powell’s example 2-3 The Spiral of Experience 2-4 Key Role of Perception in the Spiral of Experience • Experience is not just a matter of what events happen... others to the same – Mastering double-loop learning can be thought of as learning how to learn – Learning is enhanced with after event reviews (AERs) 2-12 Making the Most of Your Leadership Experiences:... let go of the fear of failure • To be successful, learning must continue throughout life and beyond the completion of one’s formal education 2-13 Leader Development in College • The number of college-level