Chapter Foundation Concepts of Motivation Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior 2e Andrew J DuBrin PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook Learning Objectives Describe several needs theories of motivation, including the needs hierarchy, the two-factor theory, and the achievement-power-affiliation triad Summarize the key propositions of goal theory and reinforcement theory Explain the expectancy theory of motivation Explain how equity and social comparison contribute to motivation Use social learning theory to motivate yourself Recognize the importance of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–2 Need Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs  Lower order needs must be satisfied before higher level needs are activated Deficiency (lower order) needs  Physiological Needs: water, air, food, sleep  Safety Needs: security, freedom from environmental threat Growth (higher order) needs  Social and love needs: group affiliation, physical love  Esteem needs: self-respect and respect from others  Self-actualization needs: self-fulfillment and personal A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational development leading to one’s full potential Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Higher Order (Growth Needs) SelfActualization Esteem Lower Order (Deficiency Needs) Social and Love Safety Physiological A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational EXHIBIT 5-1 Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by Behavior, South-Western 5–4 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Motivators (satisfiers)  Motivate and satisfy workers in the job context (intrinsic)  Are associated with higher order needs  Achievement, recognition, advancement, responsibility, work itself, and personal growth possibilities Hygiene factors (dissatisfiers)  Can only prevent dissatisfaction with job content (extrinsic)  Are associated with lower order needs  Pay, job status, job security,working conditions, and quality of leadership A.J.Create DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational dissatisfaction if absent in the workplace Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (cont’d) Evaluation (Positives)  Contributed to understanding that money is not always the primary motivator  Spurred interest in designing intrinsically satisfying jobs Evaluation (Negatives)  De-emphasis of individual differences  Overlooks the importance of hygiene factors (e.g., benefits) in attracting and retaining workers  Does not account for workers who are uninterested in motivators as an opportunity for growth and advancement A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–6 Examples of Motivator and Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors (Sources of Job Satisfact ion and Motiva tion) Hygiene Factors (Sources of Job Dissatisfact ion; Neutra l to Mot ivation) Challenge of the work itself Responsibility Phy sical working conditions Company policies Recognition Quality of supervision Achievement Coworker relationships Job advancement and professional gro wth Salary Status Job security A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational EXHIBIT 5-2 Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by Behavior, South-Western 5–7 McClelland’s Achievement-PowerAffiliation Triad A theory of motivation based on the premise that people acquire or learn certain needs from their culture  Cultural influences Family Peer groups Popular media (e.g., television shows) When the need becomes strong enough, a person A.will J DuBrin, Fundamentals work to satisfy it of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–8 McClelland’s Achievement-Power-Affiliation Triad Acquired Need Individual C haracteristics AchievementThe desire to accomplish something for its own sake (e.g., building a business from scratch) T hinks ab out h ow to d o the j ob better Uses monetary rewards as feedback for how well they are doing Seeks responsibility Sets realistic yet moderately difficult goals Takes calculated risks PowerThe desire to control and influence other people  Likes to control resources (e.g., peop le, mon ey and real estate) Affiliatio nThe desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relationships with others  Cares ab out maintain ing friend ly and warm relationsh ips and soothing hurt feelings Prefers work that permits close companionships  T hinks ab out gaining au th ority and status A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–9 Goal-Setting Theory A theory of motivation that focuses on improving and sustaining job performance through the establishment of goals that regulate behavior Core findings on goal-setting  Task performance is better on specific hard goals than when goals are easy and non-specific, “do your best,” or where there are no goals  Goal attainment requires capable individuals who accept the goals and receive task-related feedback A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–10 Goal Setting and Task Performance Locke and Latham’s findings: Specific goals lead to higher performance than generalized goals Performance generally increases in direct proportion to goal difficulty For goals to improve performance, workers must accept them Goals are more effective when they are used to evaluate performance Goals should be linked to feedback and rewards Group goal setting is as important as individual goal setting learningFundamentals goal orientation performance more than A.7 J.ADuBrin, of improves Organizational a performance goal orientation Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–12 Reinforcement Theory Behavior is determined by its consequences (rewards and punishments for specific behaviors) Operant conditioning  Is learning that takes place as a consequence of behavior  Behavior that has positive consequences is repeated; behavior that has negative consequences is avoided  Managers can create contingencies that employ rewards to encourage desirable behaviors and use punishments to discourage undesirable behaviors A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–13 Operant Conditioning Strategies Positive reinforcement  Providing a pleasurable or valued consequence (reward) for the desired response Negative reinforcement (avoidance motivation)  Encouraging a behavior by removing an uncomfortable consequence when the behavior is no longer exhibited Extinction  Weakening or reducing the frequency of a behavior by removing the reward for a behavior Punishment A DuBrin,anFundamentals of Organizational  J Applying undesirable consequence to a specific behavior Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–14 Examples of Operant Conditioning Strategies Positive reinforcement  Providing a bonus for meeting a sales quota to a salesman Negative reinforcement (avoidance motivation)  Returning a poorly performing employee to the merit and promotion list after a period of improved performance Extinction  Refusing to listen to an employee’s off-color jokes Punishment  J Suspending an employee for improper internet usage A DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–15 A Basic Version of Expectancy Theory Motivational Force = Expectancy Instrumentality Valence (how well the (how well the (the value that person believes he or she can X person believes that performance perform the will lead to task) certain outcomes) X A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational EXHIBIT 5-4 Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by Behavior, South-Western the person attaches to the outcome) 5–16 Expectancy Theory Motivation results from deliberate choices to engage in activities in order to achieve worthwhile outcomes  People will be motivated if they believe effort will lead to good performance and that good performance leads, in turn, to preferred outcomes A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–17 Key Components of Expectancy Theory  Effort-to-Performance (E P) Expectancy  Is a person’s subjective estimate of the probability that an increased effort will lead to the desired performance  Self-efficacy affects motivation to put forth effort Instrumentality (P O)  Is an individual’s estimate of the probability that an increased performance will lead to desired outcomes Valence  Is the value a person places on a particular outcome  Desirable outcomes have positive valences; less desirable A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational outcomes have negative valences Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–18 Key Component Examples Effort-to-Performance (E P) Expectancy  “Am I capable of the effort required to reach that level of performance?” Instrumentality (P O)  “Is a particular level of performance truly tied to a specific reward?” Valence  “How much I want any of the rewards that the organization is offering?” A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–19 The Calculation of Motivation Motivational force is high when its components (expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences) are high Example (from textbook): Valence = 100 (scale: -100 to +100) E P = x 85 (scale: to 1.00) P O = x 90 (scale: to 1.00) Motivation = 76.50 (scale: -100 to +100) A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–20 Enhancing Motivation Managers can:  Provide training to raise skill levels that increase the performance capabilities of employees (E P)  Provide assurance to employees that good performance will lead to a reward system (P O)  Provide rewards that are meaningful and valued by the employees; that rewards have positive valences for the employees  Being aware that rewards not run counter to cross-cultural factors where singling out individual performers for rewards is culturally insensitive A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–21 Equity Theory and Social Comparison Equity Theory  Employee satisfaction and motivation depend on how fairly employees believe they are treated in comparison to peers  Employees compare their outcomes (rewards) from the organization and the level of their efforts (inputs) to those of others (reference sources) in the organization  Employees feel equity when they believe that their outcome/input ratio is equal to that of others Outcomes of Individual compared to Outcomes of Others Inputs of Individual Inputs of Others A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–22 Employee Responses to Inequity Alter the outcome (ask for more money) Alter the inputs (decrease efforts) Distort the perception (engage in selfjustification and seek to discredit others) Change the reference source (find another person with a similar outcome/input ratio) Leave the situation (quit to pursue a more equitable position) A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–23 Social Learning Theory The process of observing the behavior of others, recognizing its consequences, and altering behavior as a result Effective social learning requires:  High expectancies that observed behavior can be learned and that it will result in valued rewards  Rewards that can be self-administered (drawing intrinsic satisfaction from the behavior itself)  The behavior to be learned is tangible and observable  Possession of the physical and mental ability to imitate the A J.behavior DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–24 Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation  Is the belief that an activity (work) can satisfy needs for competence and self-determination  Is affected (increased or reduced) by personal values and perceptions the characteristics of the task the reason for doing the task rewards that become externalized A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–25 Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation Disadvantages of Extrinsic Rewards  Limited value of the reward can lower employee performance  Cause employees to focus narrowly and only on a task that is rewarded  Rush through a job to get a reward  Cause employees to regard a task as drudgery that must be suffered through to receive a reward  Cause employees to feel less free less self-determining A J.and DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–26 ... others Outcomes of Individual compared to Outcomes of Others Inputs of Individual Inputs of Others A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western... position) A J DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–23 Social Learning Theory The process of observing the behavior of others, recognizing... the behavior itself)  The behavior to be learned is tangible and observable  Possession of the physical and mental ability to imitate the A J .behavior DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior,