BLUK139-Evans February 6, 2008 16:7 Frozen Food Science and Technology Frozen Food Science and Technology Edited by Judith A Evans © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, ISBN: 978-1-4051-5478-9 i BLUK139-Evans February 6, 2008 16:7 Frozen Food Science and Technology Edited by Judith A Evans Food Refrigeration and Process Engineering Research Centre (FRPERC) University of Bristol, UK iii BLUK139-Evans C February 6, 2008 16:7 2008 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd Blackwell Publishing editorial offices: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK Tel: +44 (0)1865 776868 Blackwell Publishing Professional, 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA Tel: +1 515 292 0140 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd, 550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia Tel: +61 (0)3 8359 1011 The right of the Authors to be identified as the Authors of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The Publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered It is sold on the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought First published 2008 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd ISBN: 978-1-4051-5478-9 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Frozen food science and technology / edited by Judith A Evans p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-1-4051-5478-9 (hardback : acid-free paper) ISBN-10: 1-4051-5478-0 (hardback : acid-free paper) Frozen foods I Evans, Judith A (Judith Anne), 1962TP372.3.F768 2008 664 02853–dc22 2007033156 A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library Set in 10/12 pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India Printed and bound in Singapore by C.O.S Printers Pte Ltd The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards For further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website: www.blackwellpublishing.com iv BLUK139-Evans February 6, 2008 16:7 Contents Contributors Preface vii ix Thermal Properties and Ice Crystal Development in Frozen Foods Paul Nesvadba Effects of Freezing on Nutritional and Microbiological Properties of Foods Mark Berry, John Fletcher, Peter McClure, Joy Wilkinson 26 Modelling of Freezing Processes Q Tuan Pham 51 Specifying and Selecting Refrigeration and Freezer Plant Andy Pearson 81 Emerging and Novel Freezing Processes Kostadin Fikiin 101 Freezing of Meat Steve James 124 Freezing of Fish Ola M Magnussen, Anne K T Hemmingsen, Vidar Hardarsson, Tom S Nordtvedt, Trygve M Eikevik 151 Freezing of Fruits and Vegetables Cristina L.M Silva, Elsa M Gon¸calves, Teresa R S Brand˜ao 165 Freezing of Bakery and Dessert Products Alain LeBail, H Douglas Goff 184 10 11 Developing Frozen Products for the Market and the Freezing of Ready-Prepared Meals Ronan Gormley Frozen Storage Noemi E Zaritzky 205 224 BLUK139-Evans February 6, 2008 16:7 vi Contents 12 Freeze Drying Andy Stapley 248 13 Frozen Food Transport Girolamo Panozzo 276 14 Frozen Retail Display Giovanni Cortella 303 15 Consumer Handling of Frozen Foods Onrawee Laguerre 325 Index 347 BLUK139-Evans February 6, 2008 16:7 Contributors Mark Berry Unilever Plc, Sharnbrook Bedfordshire, United Kingdom Teresa R.S Brand˜ao Escola Superior de Biotecnologia Universidade Cat´olica Portuguesa Porto, Portugal Giovanni Cortella Department of Energy Technologies University of Udine Udine, Italy Trygve M Eikevik Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway Kostadin Fikiin Refrigeration Science and Technology Technical University of Sofia Bulgaria John Fletcher Unilever Plc, Sharnbrook Bedfordshire, United Kingdom H Douglas Goff Department of Food Science University of Guelph Guelph, Ontario, Canada Elsa M Gon¸calves Departamento de Tecnologia das Ind´ustrias Alimentares Instituto Nacional de Engenharia, Tecnologia e Inova¸ca˜ o Lisboa, Portugal Ronan Gormley Ashtown Food Research Centre (Teagasc) Ashtown, Dublin Ireland Vidar Hardarsson SINTEF Energy Research Trondheim, Norway Anne K.T Hemmingsen SINTEF Energy Research Trondheim, Norway Steve James Food Refrigeration and Process Engineering Research Centre (FRPERC), Langford North Somerset, United Kingdom Onrawee Laguerre Refrigerating Process Research Unit Cemagref, Antony, France Alain LeBail ´ ENITIAA (Ecole Nationale D’Ing´enieurs des Techniques des Industries Agricoles et Alimentaires), UMR GEPEA, Nantes, France Ola M Magnussen SINTEF Energy Research Trondheim, Norway Peter McClure Unilever Plc, Sharnbrook Bedfordshire, United Kingdom BLUK139-Evans viii February 6, 2008 16:7 Contributors Paul Nesvadba Rubislaw Consulting Ltd Angusfield Avenue Aberdeen, United Kingdom Cristina L.M Silva Escola Superior de Biotecnologia Universidade Cat´olica Portuguesa Porto, Portugal Tom S Nordtvedt SINTEF Energy Research Trondheim, Norway Andy Stapley Department of Chemical Engineering Loughborough University United Kingdom Girolamo Panozzo Construction Technologies Institute – Italian National Research Council (ITC-CNR) Padova, Italy Andy Pearson Star Refrigeration, Glasgow United Kingdom Q Tuan Pham School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering University of New South Wales Sydney, Australia Joy Wilkinson Unilever Plc, Sharnbrook Bedfordshire, United Kingdom Noemi E Zaritzky CIDCA (Centro de Investigaci´on y Desarrollo en Criotecnolog´ıa de Alimentos), Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina BLUK139-Evans February 6, 2008 16:7 Preface Freezing is one of the oldest and most commonly used means of food preservation It has been known to be an extremely effective means of preserving food for extended periods since Paleolithic and Neolithic times, when man used ice and snow to cool food The cooling effect of salt and ice was first publicly discussed in 1662 by the chemist Robert Boyle, but this technology was certainly known in Spain, Italy and India in the sixteenth century The manufacture of ice in shallow lakes using radiant ‘night cooling’ and the preservation of ice and snow in ice houses was a common practice in large country houses in the Victorian times Ice was a product only for the privileged, and iced desserts were extremely fashionable and a sign of great wealth In more temperate climates the preservation of ice and snow was obviously difficult, and it was only with artificial cooling that frozen food became available more widely In 1755 William Cullen first made ice without any natural form of cooling by vapourising water at low pressure This was followed by Jacob Perkins in 1834 who made the first ice-making machine operating on ethyl ether In the following 30 years refrigeration technology developed rapidly, spearheaded by the likes of Joule and Kelvin, and the first patents related to freezing of food were filed In 1865 the first cold storage warehouse in New York was built which used brine for cooling In 1868 a ship’s cold air machine was used on board the Anchor line’s Circassian and Strathlevan ships that transported meat from New York to Glasgow This was rapidly followed in the 1880s by the transport of meat from Australia and New Zealand to London In the late nineteenth century, refrigeration and the freezing of food underwent rapid developments in terms of the freezing processes and the refrigerants used In 1880 ammonia was first used as a refrigerant and in 1882 the first plate freezer was developed Although freezing was an extremely important technology, and a vital means of exporting meat for the troops in World War I, it was only after the war that refrigeration machinery underwent massive developments to improve reliability and efficiency In 1928 refrigeration was changed forever when Thomas Midgley invented CFCs (Freons) These were hailed as wonder chemicals and were claimed at the time to be efficient and environmentally harmless Around the same time (1929) Clarence Birdseye began developing frozen meals His original intention (that another inventor, a Frenchman called Charles Tellier, had in 1869) was to use freezing to dry foods that would have long-term stability and could be reconstituted by the housewife When this method was found to produce poor quality results, Birdseye reverted to the fast freezing of food Uniquely, he understood the beneficial impact of fast freezing on the quality of foods that had until that time often been frozen at slow rates Developments in freezing and frozen foods technology developed rapidly in the later half of the twentieth century With changes in consumers’ lifestyles the need for convenience food increased and, coupled with the development of low-cost refrigeration technologies, all households could have access to a freezer to store food At the end of the twentieth century the market for frozen food was increasing at about 10% per year with approximately 25% of refrigerated food being frozen This growth has since slowed slightly but sales of BLUK139-Evans x February 6, 2008 16:7 Preface certain frozen foods such as fish and seafood are growing Growth of frozen fish in Russia is reported to be 17% per year (Cold Chain Experts Newsletter, January, 2006) and the British Frozen Food federation has recently reported that sales by value increased by 3% in 2005/6 (Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, November, 2006) Successful freezing can now preserve food almost in its original form This makes it possible to preserve and transport food worldwide As freezing prevents growth of microbes, frozen food can be stored for long periods; there is no need to use preservatives or additives to extend shelf life Freezing allows flexibility in manufacture and supply and means that food can be preserved at near its optimum quality for distribution and transportation This book describes the current technologies to preserve food and the best practices to ensure production of safe, high-quality frozen food It also points to some new technologies that are already making waves and are likely to cast an even greater impact on the frozen food industry in the future One of the largest upheavals in the refrigeration industry in the last 30 years was caused by the realisation that the chemicals invented by Thomas Midgley are harmful to the environment The phasing out of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) and introducing their replacements – HCFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) – as part of the Montreal and Kyoto protocols, have brought about a paradigm shift in the chemicals used as refrigerants Many older refrigerants with low ODP (ozone depletion potential) and GWP (global warming potential) have been, or are being, re-evaluated so as to raise their refrigeration potential making use of the modern machinery For example, the refrigeration technology used on board the first ships, that brought meat to the UK from America and Australasia, was based on the use of air as the refrigerant This technology, although effective, was based on large and inefficient machinery that could not compete once newer equipment came into the market With modern compact, efficient turbo-machinery these disadvantages were overcome and air could once again be used as a competitive refrigerant As well as addressing these refrigeration issues, the book examines many interesting new freezing technologies such as pressure shift freezing Although not yet a commercial reality for large-scale production, the possibility of a rapidly frozen product with minimal cell disruption is an exciting prospect for the future I hope that you will find that this book provides a comprehensive source of information on freezing and frozen storage of food Our aim is to provide readers with in-depth knowledge of current and emerging refrigeration technologies and how these technologies can be used to optimise the quality of frozen food An impressive group of authors, each an expert in their particular field, have contributed to this book I would like to thank each of them for their help in developing a practical and comprehensive guide to freezing and frozen foods Judith Evans BLUK139-Evans January 23, 2008 17:47 Consumer Handling of Frozen Foods 341 because this may result in increased drip loss and evaporation, especially if the product is not fully sealed However, the temperature should be sufficiently low to prevent microbial growth Power failures can occur, and in this case the temperature of products and potential for microbial growth in domestic freezers rises In order to acquire information on whether or not the frozen products can still be consumed after a power failure over certain period, Bedinghaus and Ockerman (1991) carried out a study on frozen meat products stored in home freezers They investigated this concern by using an upright home freezer Fourteen trials were conducted with packages of either beef or pork with varying trial load weights (43–128 kg) Meat samples were frozen, the power was turned off and the door remained closed The door was then opened (daily for days) only when packages within each lot were removed for analysis of temperature, microbial count and pH These authors concluded that, after about 36 hours without electricity, bacterial populations reached log and the meat product’s wholesomeness for consumption or possible refreeze became questionable 15.8 HOME THAWING During thawing, the exudation from all food is a result of physical phenomena which take place during freezing and thawing The quantity of exudation is influenced by several factors (Durosset, 1997): r r r r r r r freezing process (slow freezing rate, more exudation); temperature fluctuations during storage period (more fluctuations, more exudation); freezing storage period (longer storage period, more exudation); thawing process (quick thawing rate, more exudation); dimensions of the product (smaller size, more exudation); nature of the product (more water content, more exudation); storage period used for the thawed product (longer period, more exudation) As mentioned previously, the microbial risk is negligible during frozen storage since microbial growth is inhibited when the temperature is lower than −10◦ C However, this risk is considerable during thawing Two factors are favourable for microbial growth in thawed products: r r cellular membrane damage, particularly where a slow freezing rate is applied This damage allows the penetration of micro-organisms inside the tissue Then, microbial growth accelerates with higher temperatures; exudates of some products are rich in nutritive substances promoting bacterial multiplication To limit microbial growth during thawing, particularly growth of psychrotrophic bacteria, thawing should be performed under the following conditions: r r short time period; product temperature (surface and centre) less than 2◦ C BLUK139-Evans 342 January 23, 2008 17:47 Frozen Food Science and Technology Exudation causes not only product weight loss and microbial risk; it also leads to sensorial and nutritional deterioration One implication of EU legislation is that the surface temperature of meat should not rise above 7◦ C and offal above 3◦ C during thawing As some consumers may use inappropriate thawing methods, store the thawed foods too long at a temperature that is too high, and have no access to fast freezing, a message specifying ‘do not refreeze foods after defrosting’ on the package must be clear (EU Directive 89/108) The Canadian Food Inspection Agency advises consumers to discard any thawed food that has remained at room temperature for more than hours Refrigerators typically operate at 0–5◦ C; however, thawing in a refrigerator can be undesirably slow In addition, these foods occupy refrigerator space and may cross-contaminate foods stored in the refrigerator When thawing is recommended, it is preferable to thaw products in the refrigerating compartment to avoid a product temperature that is too high, particularly at the surface If thawing at ambient temperatures must be done, the duration should not exceed 3–4 hours (Sorensen, 2002) This may be good advice for consumers, as it ensures that the temperature of the food does not become so high as to result in excessive microbial growth, especially of pathogenic bacteria After thawing, the product should be cooked or consumed directly 15.9 CONSUMER RECOMMENDATIONS Poor temperature control of foods in the home is a major cause of food poisoning A consumer guide for food handling was proposed by Brady (1995) Some recommendations for shopping, storage temperature, preparation, thawing, cooking, serving, reheating were presented by the author After purchase of a frozen product from a supermarket, the recommended product temperature must be maintained by the consumer until storage in the domestic freezer It is necessary to protect the food during the carry-home period by keeping this period short (i.e by buying frozen foods at the end of a shopping trip) It is also necessary to protect the product by using insulated cool bags or boxes during transport to the home Frozen foods should be transferred into a suitable cold storage appliance immediately on arriving home If no precautions are taken when the consumer transports the product to the home, product temperatures may rise rapidly For example, the temperature of spinach (a 500-g package) can increase from −18◦ C to −15◦ C within 10 minutes (Gac, 1994) There are a few surveys on home freezer management in relation to the quality of food coming from the freezer An analysis of numerous surveys and comments from a considerable number of consumers indicate that there are consumer practices that lead to poorer quality food from the freezer The causes are listed in Table 15.4 Table 15.4 Causes of poor quality food from the home freezer (Source: Cook, 1978) (1) Purchase of lower quality frozen foods: • low-quality raw material; • poor cold chain, e.g retail display at temperatures that are too high (2) Home freezing of poor quality raw materials: • over-mature garden produce; • poor-quality meat (3) Freezing at temperatures that are too high (4) Keeping food too long in the freezer (5) Freezing too much food too often BLUK139-Evans January 23, 2008 17:47 Consumer Handling of Frozen Foods 343 As for industrial products, food to be frozen should be in perfect hygienic condition and of prime quality The temperature of many home freezers can be regulated According to the weight of product to be frozen, the freezer should be set at its lowest temperature up to day before adding a new batch of food for freezing and returned to the usual setting, about −18◦ C, the following day Joints of meat and thick fish fillets, or whole fish cook more satisfactorily in the thawed state It is especially important to thaw all poultry completely; otherwise cooking is unlikely to be complete at the centre This may lead to a health hazard Small chops, steaks or fish may be cooked from frozen, or partially thawed, provided lower cooking temperatures and longer times are allowed The door or lid of the freezer must be kept closed It should only be opened when required to load or remove something and closed immediately afterwards The door should not be left open for longer than necessary During door openings temperature fluctuations in chest freezers are less significant than those of upright models due to the cold air contained within the well of the chest freezer whereas the cold air is not so well contained in upright freezers Also unfrozen food should not be placed adjacent to frozen food in the freezer as the frozen food will warm up and its quality will deteriorate Food for freezing should be placed in the fast freeze compartment until frozen In the case of breakdown or power failure, the freezer should not be opened A fully loaded unopened freezer will maintain an adequate temperature for many hours Consumers should defrost their freezer from time to time (unless it is a frost-free type) Defrosting should be done when more than mm of ice has accumulated on the walls The timing of this operation should be chosen to coincide with low stocks Any remaining stocks should be placed in the refrigerator or in insulated ‘cool bags’ while defrosting is carried out Ice should be scraped off the side walls with a wooden or plastic spatula before washing out with warm water or a solution of 30 g bicarbonate of soda for litres of water and then dry with a soft cloth A knife should not be used to scrape the frost as it may result in damage to the refrigeration system When buying a freezer, consumers should make sure it will work in the position desired, possibly in a hot kitchen, in a built-in unit, under a work surface or in an outbuilding that is cold in winter There are a range of optimal ambient temperatures for refrigerator/freezer operation This is indicated by the manufacturers using the following symbol: N (16–32◦ C), NS (10–32◦ C), ST (18–38◦ C) and R (18–43◦ C) The last one (R) is suitable for the hot and humid conditions (up to 80% relative humidity) The storage temperature of the frozen food is more important than the size, shape, convenience, ‘add-on gimmick’ or price of the freezer (Gigiel, 1998) The temperature in the freezer and the energy consumption of the appliance are greatly influenced by the environmental conditions The consumer must choose a dry, well-ventilated and temperate site, allowing at least cm space for free air circulation around the condenser This then allows a high rate of heat extraction from the appliance Increased consumer education will result in demand for refrigerators that maintain food at correct low temperatures It is technically possible for manufacturers to supply these types of domestic refrigerators, but they are more expensive For the purchase decision-making by the consumer, the degree of food temperature control is less important than the price It would be preferable to address this issue in the future Finally, consumer good practice in the operation of freezers can contribute to reducing microbiological risk and quality loss from foods stored in the home BLUK139-Evans 344 January 23, 2008 17:47 Frozen Food Science and Technology 15.10 ENERGY LABELLING Energy consumption of domestic refrigerators and freezers has attracted considerable attention worldwide due to environmental awareness Consumers are encouraged to use more energy-efficient appliances which also ensure overall product quality The manufacturers perform energy-consumption tests on a random sample of their appliances, which they report on the energy-consumption labels attached to every unit on sale This is a common practice in many countries nowadays It is difficult to compare the energy efficiency of different models of refrigerators/freezers precisely because each of them varies in its features and utility The ‘star rating’ is an indicator derived from an algorithm that relates the energy consumption with the internal volume This indication is used to complement information on the energy consumption per year (kW h per year) Some studies (Meier and Heinemeier, 1988; Meier and Jansky, 1993) showed that the energy consumption in field use correspond to that measured in the laboratory (for some models, the energy consumption is lower in field use) The test procedure to prepare the energy-consumption labels depends on the test standard relevant to the country where the refrigerators/freezers are being used There are a number of energy-consumption test standards around the world This leads to different energy consumption determined from one standard to the other when the same cabinet is used This is due to different factors included in the test conditions such as compartment internal temperatures, number and locations of thermocouples and door openings It is therefore interesting to establish correlation between the energy consumption obtained from various standards REFERENCES AFF (Association Fran¸caise du Froid) (2001) Conseil National du Froid Livre blanc sur les fluides frigorig`enes Paris, p 51 Anderson, B.A et al (2004) Thawing and freezing of selected meat products in household refrigerators International Journal of Refrigeration 27(1), 63–72 Azevedo, I Regalo, M., Mena, C., Almeida, G., Carneiro, L., Teixeira, P., Hogg, T and Gibbs, P.A (2005) Incidence of Listeria spp in domestic refrigerators in Portugal Food Control 16, 121–124 Bak, L.S., Anderson, A.B., Anderson, E.M and Bertelsen G (1999) Effect of modified atmosphere packaging on oxidative changes in frozen stored cold water shrimp (Pandalus borealis) Food Chemistry 64, 169–175 Bedinghaus, A.J and Ockerman, H.W (1991) Temperature, pH and bacterial populations of meat as influenced by home freezer failure Journal of Food Science 56(6), 1508–1510 Billiard, F (2005) Refrigerating equipment, energy efficiency and refrigerants Bulletin International Institute of Refrigeration 85(1), 12–25 Brady, P.L (1995) A quick consumer guide to safe food handing, USDA Home and Garden Bulletin, No 248, October Bustabad, O.M (1999) Weight loss during freezing and storage of frozen meat Journal of Food Engineering 41, 1–11 Brousseau, A.D and Volatier, J.L (1999) Le consommateur fran¸cais en 1998- une typologie de pr´ef´erence Cahier de recherche CREDOC, No 130, June Cook, D.J (1978) The effect of domestic storage on the nutritional value, palatability and acceptability of food Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics 2, 287–296 Derens, E Guilpart, J., Proson, E and Palagos, B (2003) La chaine du froid, du fabricant au consommateur: les r´esultats de l’audit ANIA-Cemagref Final Report Durosset, P (1997) La d´econg´elation, Journ´ee technique du 15 October – Nantes Flynn, O.M., Blair, I and McDowell, D (1992) The efficiency and consumer operation of domestic refrigerators International Journal of Refrigeration 15(5), 307–312 Gac, A (1994) Emballage des produits congel´es ou surgel´es Revue G´en´erale du Froid Juin, 20–22 BLUK139-Evans January 23, 2008 17:47 Consumer Handling of Frozen Foods 345 Geiges, O and Schuler, U (1988) Behaviour of microorganisms during long-term storage of food products at subzero temperatures Microbiologie, Aliments, Nutrition 6, 249–257 Gigiel, A (1998) A practical guide to the cold chain from factory to consumer, chapter Guidance for the home freezer In: R.L Fuller, ed Concerted Action CT96 p 1180 Gormley, R., Walshe, T., Hussey, K and Butler, F (2002) The effect of fluctuating and constant frozen storage temperature regimes on some quality parameters of selected food products Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie 35, 190–200 Anonymous (1989) The consumer and their appliances Grand Froid 5(41), 57–59, in French Hall, L.P and Alcock, S.J (1987) The effect of microbial enzymes on the quality of frozen foods Food Microbiology 4, 209 IIR (International Institute of Refrigeration) (2002) Report on Refrigeration Sector Achievements and Challenges p 77 IIR (International Institute of Refrigeration) (2006) Markets: frozen foods Newsletter of the IIR (International Institute of Refrigeration) No 25, January, 2006 IIR, International Institute of Refrigeration (1986) Recommendations for the Processing and Handling of Frozen Foods, 3rd ed JARN (Japan Air Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration) (2005), no 157, p 41 Jackson, V., Blair, I.S., McDowell, D.A., Kennedy, J and Bolton, D.J (2007) The incidence of significant food borne pathogens in domestic refrigerators Food Control 18(4), 346–351 James, S.J and Evans, J (1992) Consumer handling of chilled foods: temperature performances International Journal of Refrigeration 15, 299–306 Kandeepan, G and Biswas, S (2005) Effect of low temperature preservation on microbial and sensory quality of buffalo meat, Livestock Research for Rural Development 17(11), Laguerre, O., Derens, E and Palagos, B (2002) Study of domestic refrigerator temperature and analysis of factors affecting temperature: a French survey International Journal 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and Jansky, R (1993) Field performance of residential refrigerator: a comparison with the laboratory test ASHRAE Trans 99(1) Paper no CH-93-20-1 O’Brien, G.D (1997) Domestic refrigerator air temperatures and the public’s awareness of refrigerator use International Journal of Environmental Health Research 7, 141–148 Olsson, P and Bengstsson, N (1972) Time Temperature Conditions in the Freezer Chain Report No 309 SIK-The Swedish Food Institute, Gothenberg Poovarodom, N., Letang, G., Bouvier, J and Billiard, F (1990) Influence de l’emballage et des fluctuations de temp´erature de conservation sur la qualit´e des denr´ees alimentaires surgel´ees, IIF, Paris, Coll Science et technique du froid, In: Progr`es dans la science et la technique du froid en industrie alimentaire, 559–567 Rahman, M.S (1999) Food preservation by freezing In: M Shafiur Rahman, ed Handbook of Food Preservation New York: Marcel Dekker, pp 259–284 Redmond, E.C and Griffith, C (2003) Consumer food handling in the home: a review of food safety studies Journal of Food Protection, 66(1), 130–161 Saidur, R., Masjuki, H.H and Choudhry, I.A (2002) Role of ambient temperature, door opening, thermostat setting position and their combined effect on refrigerator-freezer energy consumption Energy Conversion and Management 43, 845–854 Schmidt-Lorenz, W (1963) Microbieller Verderb gefrorener Libensmittel w¨ahrend der Gefrielagerung K¨altetecnik 15, 39 Schmidt-Lorenz, W and Gutschmidt, J (1968) Microbieller und sensorische Ver¨anderungen gefrorener Lebensmittel bei Lagerung im Temperaturbereich von −2.5◦ C bis −10◦ C Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie 1, 26 BLUK139-Evans 346 January 23, 2008 17:47 Frozen Food Science and Technology Schmidt-Lorenz, W and Gutschmidt, J (1969) Microbieller und sensorische Ver¨anderungen gefrorener Brath¨ahnchen une Poularden bei Lagerung im Temperaturbereich von −2.5◦ C bis −10◦ C Fleischwirtschaft 49, 1033 Sergelidis, D., Abrahim, A., Sarimvei, A., Panoulis, C., Karaioannoglou, P and Genigeorgis, C (1997) Temperature distribution and prevalence of Listeria spp in domestic, retail and industrial refrigerators in Greece International Journal of Food Microbiology 34, 171–177 Sorensen, L.B (2002) Frozen food legislation Review article, Bulletin IIR 4, 4–17 Verbeke, R., Van Hoop, J and Lauwers, H (1984) Influence of different freezing and storage conditions on quality and characteristics of beef cuts Thermal Process Quality Foods, Elsevier GB 522–527 Volatier, J.L (2000) Enquˆete Individulle et National sur les Consommations Alimentaires INCA Survey, Jean-Luc Volatier, coordinateur Lavoisier, Paris BLUK139-Evans March 1, 2008 12:38 Index absorption refrigeration 84–86, 320 Acinetobacter-Moraxella 30 aerogels 298 ageing (vehicles) 279, 283–284, 286–288, 293, 297–299 air conditioning 116, 312–313, 317, 320 air curtain 304, 308–310, 313–316, 319 air cycle 115–119, 280 air entrainment 304, 307–310, 313 air temperature monitoring 99, 173, 236, 289, 316 air-blast freezing 105, 119, 127, 129, 133, 140, 154, 175, 216, 218, 255 Alcaligenes spp 39 algal toxins 32 amylase 186, 188 amylopectin 189, 233, 235 anaesthetization (fish) 151 analytical modelling solutions 51–53 anti-freeze proteins 7, 28 antioxidants 111, 143, 161, 231 Arrhenius equation/law 9, 240–241 ascorbic acid 9, 35, 171, 186, 188, 231, 233, 239, 243, 333 atmospheric freeze drying (freeze drying) 272 ATP (agreement on international carriage of perishable foodstuff)276, 278–279, 286, 288–289, 294, 296–297 Avrami’s model 69 Bacillus spp 30–31, 37, 41, 173 bacon slicing 137–141 bacteria sub-lethal damage 33 bacterial ice nucleation 179 bake off technology (bread) 184–194 bakery products 38, 41, 81, 91, 184–194 batch freeze dryer 256–262 batch freezing fish 154, 156 ice cream 197–199 meat 128–130, 147 Frozen Food Science and Technology Edited by Judith A Evans © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, ISBN: 978-1-4051-5478-9 beef 28, 31, 44, 66, 91–92, 124–127, 129–130–132, 135, 141–145, 151, 216, 213, 217–220, 236, 238, 241, 341 biot number 53–56, 60, 75 Birdseye, Clarence 102–103, 128, 130 black body 308 blanching 27, 35–37, 43, 167–168, 171, 173–177, 219, 229–231, 233, 269, 338 blast freezer 40, 87, 92, 94, 105, 119, 126–127, 129–130, 132–134, 140, 154, 156–157, 163, 175, 208, 211, 213, 216, 218, 244, 255 blowing agents (insulation) 298–299 BOT (bake off technology) 184–194 bound water 3, 6, 186 bread crust flaking 189–190 detachment 67, 189 fermentation prior to freezing 186, 191–194 formulation 191–192 freezing rate 186–187, 192–193 freezing temperature 186, 194 frozen part-baked 191 storage 186–189, 191–194 thawing rate 186 bread 1–2, 11, 65, 67, 184–194, 238, 245, 252 brine freezing (fish) 160 broccoli 166, 174, 217–220, 236, 238, 338–339 Brochothrix thermosphacta 30 Brucella spp 39 bulk storage rooms 146–147 Campylobacter spp 28, 30–31, 33, 39, 44–45, 141 capillary diffusion 67 capillary tube 329 carbon dioxide as a refrigerant 3, 83, 90, 115, 117, 125, 140, 160, 162–163, 175, 256, 310, 318 carboxymethyl cellulose 9, 196 Carnobacterium piscicola 32 Carnot efficiency 87 carotene 43–44, 217, 231 BLUK139-Evans 348 March 1, 2008 12:38 Index carrageenan 196, 228 carrot 36, 166, 174, 206–208, 212–220, 238 cell contraction 170 cell membrane 3, 8, 70, 74, 103, 169, 171 CFD software 20, 66, 73–74, 319 cheese 31, 38–39, 206, 232, 238, 286, 349 chemical changes 26–28, 163, 171, 224, 228, 231, 269, 338 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 105, 108, 115, 121, 318 chlorophyll 172, 230–231, 239 chopping 136–137, 168, 174 Chromobacterium spp 39 Clapeyron’s equation 71 climate classes (retail display) 311–312 closed display cabinets 305–307, 310 Clostridium spp 30–31, 173, 217, 220 CO2 (transcritical cycle) 116, 280, 318–319 coconut oil 195 coefficient of performance (CoP) 86–87, 110, 119, 121, 286, 288, 300–301 coefficient of system performance (CoSP) 86 cold store 1, 40, 69, 81, 93, 95, 99, 129, 147, 236, 276, 294 cold stores jacketed 147 cold-shock proteins 32 collapse temperature 249, 256, 264, 267–268, 273 combined cabinet 304, 306 combined cooling heat and power (CCHP) 320 combined heat and power (CHP) 320 compressor isentropic efficiency 87–88 pressure ratio 87–88 reciprocating 82, 87–88, 100, 116 screw 82, 85, 87–88, 100, 153–154 volumetric efficiency 88 compressor efficiency 87 condenser air cooled 82, 84, 94, 99, 329 evaporative 82, 85–86, 100 condenser 82–87, 93–96, 98–100, 104, 110, 120, 248, 251, 256–259, 261, 264, 268–269, 272, 281, 292, 310, 317, 329, 343 conduction 4, 11, 20, 52, 58–59, 61, 65, 68, 70, 197, 200, 259, 262, 265, 307–308 consumer behaviour 172, 326 contact freezers 128–130 continuous freeze dryer 257, 259 continuous freezers 92, 156, 198 controlled atmosphere storage 147 corn syrup solids 195–196 corynebacteria 30 coupled heat and mass transfer 65 Coxiella burnetii 39 Crank–Nicolson 58–59, 71 crumb texture (bread) 188 crust freezing 136–141, 147 cryofixation 112 cryogenic freezing 2, 4, 72, 92–93, 104–105, 109, 119, 124, 126, 130–131, 133, 136–137, 139, 147, 153, 160, 175, 179, 186, 191, 207, 210, 255, 272 cryoprotectants 3, 7–9, 112, 232 Cryptosporidium spp 30–31 crystallisation kinetics 254 cultivar 17, 34–35, 167, 208–211 Darcy flow 67 dark, firm and dry (DFD) meat 125, 142 defogging 310 defrosting 8, 86, 91, 100, 202, 236, 276, 308–311, 313–314–316, 319–320, 322, 337–340, 342–343 dehumidification 93, 311 dehydration 8, 11, 51, 113, 115–116, 161, 164, 170–172, 186, 192, 194, 212, 229, 232, 243–244, 269, 271, 304, 333 dehydrofreezing 119, 165, 179 Demersal fish 151 demisting (retail display) 308, 319 diacetyl tartrate ester of monoglycerides (DATEM) 188 differential scanning calorimetry 9–10, 18–19, 189, 233, 235–236 diffusivity 16, 65–67, 74–75, 270 dipping 161, 174, 225, 307 direct expansion 83–84, 158, 281, 317–318, 320 discretisation 58–60, 62 domestic refrigerator types 327–328 dough 2, 41, 65, 184–189, 191–194, 229, 238 drip loss 2–3, 28–29, 70, 125–126, 163, 169, 171, 210–216, 224, 231, 244, 338, 340–341 egg 9, 31, 39, 41, 143, 229, 232, 238, 272 electro-conductive blanching 177 emissivity 308, 313–314 emulsifier 188, 195–198, 201 energy consumption 87–88, 93, 95, 98, 146, 153–154, 156, 176, 282, 297–298, 303, 307, 311–313, 316–322, 337–338, 343–344 BLUK139-Evans March 1, 2008 12:38 Index energy efficiency 86–89, 98–99, 101, 116–117, 120, 153–154, 318, 344 energy labelling (domestic refrigerators) 344 energy labelling (retail cabinets) 319 energy labelling (vehicles) 297 enthalpy method (modelling) 14, 61–64, 69, 71, 74 enzymatic browning 229, 231, 243 enzymatic oxidation 27, 229 enzyme denaturation 36 enzymes 26–27, 32, 35–37, 45, 68, 112, 152, 163, 168–169, 174, 177–178, 191, 195, 228–231, 269, 238–239 equalisation 139–140 Escherichia coli 30–31, 173, 217 eutectic 5, 7, 160, 254, 280–282, 290 evaporator 83–87, 93–95, 98–100, 104, 111, 120, 127, 148, 176, 200, 225, 279–280, 282, 304, 308, 310, 316, 319, 329, 337 expansion valve 83–86, 104, 110, 320, 329 fan 86, 91–92, 94, 99, 106, 110, 127–128, 131, 154, 156, 176, 279–281, 309, 317, 319, 330 fast freezing 7, 106, 117, 124, 126, 153, 156, 160, 162–163, 171, 200, 207, 220, 225, 227, 232, 249, 342 fat content 2, 42, 90, 143, 151–152, 195 fermentation 185–188, 190–194 fermented milk 40 f-gas directive 100 Fick’s law 65 finite difference method (FDM) 58, 60, 62–65, 71 finite element method (FEM) 58–60, 62–65, 74 finite volume method (FVM) 58–59, 62–65, 66, 74 first order reaction 240 fish freezing 90, 103, 108–109, 151–164, 232 post-freezing 160–161, 229–230, 232, 236–239, 241, 244 pre-freezing 28, 30–32, 108, 151–153, 162 fish farming 151 flammable refrigerants 89, 280, 310 Flavobacterium spp 39 flavour deterioration 228, 230, 232 fluidisation freezing 17, 91–92, 104–111, 119, 121, 157–158, 175–176, 272–273 folic acid 41 Fourier equation 52, 64, 262 349 freeze concentration 1, 73, 178, 194, 228, 234, 254–255, 269 freeze drying alternative methods 271–273 quality 269–271 freeze drying 1, 8, 119, 248–274 freeze drying equipment 255–262 freeze drying modelling 262–268 freeze tolerant yeast 188 freeze-chill technology 208–217 freezer burn 146, 161, 172, 212, 225, 244, 333 freezer product stacking 154, 158, 200, 216 freezers batch 86, 91–92, 94, 128–130, 138, 147, 154, 156, 197–199, 257–262 blast 40, 87, 91–92, 94, 104–105, 115, 119, 126–130, 132–134, 136, 140, 154, 156–157, 163, 175, 190–192, 197, 206, 208, 211, 213, 215–220, 244, 255 continuous 91–92, 94, 111, 128, 147, 156–158, 162, 197–200, 257, 259 fluidised bed 17, 91–92, 104–107, 111, 157–158, 175, 272–273 plate 17, 91–93, 103–104, 130, 123, 125, 129, 147–148, 156, 158–160, 162, 175, 197, 200 spiral 91–92, 94–95, 105, 126, 128, 156–157, 206–207 tunnel 43, 91, 94, 105, 127–129, 131, 154, 162, 192 freezing added water air cycle 115–119, 280 cross-linking of proteins 2, 112 cryogenic 2, 4, 72, 92–93, 104–105, 109, 119, 124, 126, 130–131, 133, 136–137, 139, 147, 153, 160, 175, 179, 186, 191, 207, 210, 255, 272 fruits 2, 34–39, 41–43, 45–46, 67, 73, 109–110, 112, 165–183, 194, 198, 231, 340 immersion 4, 11, 17, 65, 67–68, 105–111, 119, 128–130, 132–133, 135, 139, 143, 158, 174, 176, 220 impingement 17, 119, 126–127, 131, 179 magnetic resonance 113–115, 119, 121 mechanical damage to the food structure 2, 35, 161, 171, 174 re-absorption of water on thawing temperature–time relationship 4, 169–170 vegetables 165–183 freezing front 7, 51–53, 57, 60, 68, 75–76, 187, 190 BLUK139-Evans 350 March 1, 2008 12:38 Index freezing of beef 91–92, 125–127, 129–132, 135, 213, 217–220 freezing of dense foods 65–66 freezing of fish 90, 103, 108–109, 151–164, 232 freezing of meat 2, 8, 20, 26, 28, 32–34, 65, 70, 91–92, 103, 109, 124–150, 215, 225, 326, 338–3410 freezing of multi-dimensional shapes 55–57 freezing of mutton 124, 126, 132 freezing of non-porous foods 65–66 freezing of offal 133, 135, 142, 147, 342 freezing of poultry 28–32, 34, 45, 129–130, 132–136, 141–143, 146, 148, 229–230, 232, 241, 244 freezing of slabs 52–55, 262–266, 273 freezing of small products 91, 104, 131, 135–136, 160, 163, 175–176 freezing plateau 4, 52, 69–70 freezing point depression 5, 112, 170, 195, 196–197, 252–253 freezing processes emerging/novel 10, 101–123, 165, 179, 320 freezing rate 2, 7–8, 27, 29, 53, 68, 70, 71, 93, 103–104, 106, 108, 112–113, 124–127, 133, 135–136, 147, 153, 163, 162–164, 171, 175–176, 178, 186–187, 191–193, 199, 207, 210–212, 220, 227–229, 231, 233, 235–236, 269, 338, 341 freezing time modelling 54–57, 61, 69, 74 freezing velocity (see also freezing rate) 186 French baguette 187–190, 192 frost formation on food (domestic refrigerators) 333–338 frozen desserts 194–204 frozen food quality assessment 2–3, 26–30, 74, 133, 135, 144, 147, 151–153, 163–164, 166–173, 188–189, 194–195, 197, 200–201, 206, 208–210, 212–213, 215–218, 220–221, 224–226, 231–233, 237–243, 251, 269–271, 326, 338–340, 342 frozen ready-meals 205–223 frozen storage cheese 39, 232, 238 eggs 9, 39, 41, 232, 238 fish 160–161, 229–230, 232, 236–239, 241, 244 fruit 34–39, 41–43, 45–46, 166–179, 229–231, 233, 237–239, 244 ice cream 7, 33, 40, 42–46, 81, 200–202, 228, 232, 236, 238, 245, 307, 339 meat 141–146, 228–232, 237–239, 244 ready prepared meals 205–223 sous-vide 217–218 temperature 9, 27, 45, 143–146, 148, 163, 170, 172, 186–187, 194, 201, 207, 215, 231–238–242, 276, 303, 307, 311–312, 314, 333, 338–339, 342–343 temperature fluctuation 8, 28, 36, 144–147, 187, 196, 202, 225–226, 232, 234, 237, 243, 307, 311, 313–314, 316, 321, 330, 333, 335, 337, 339, 341, 343 vegetables 36–38, 171–172, 229–233, 237–239, 244–245 frozen storage (domestic refrigerators) 330–339 frozen storage 1–3, 8–9, 27–29, 32–34, 36–45, 51, 66, 125, 132, 136, 141–147, 163–164, 167, 168–169, 172, 179, 188–189, 191–194, 202, 206–208, 210, 213–216, 220–221, 224–247 fruit pre-freezing treatment 167–169 fruits freezing 169–171 Galerkin formulation 59–60, 62–63 gelatin 194, 196 Geotrichum spp 30 Giardia spp 30–31 glass door cabinets 305–308, 310, 313, 319 glassy state 7–9, 153, 179, 196, 234–235, 251–254, 262, 271 glazing 107, 161, 162, 225, 244 global heat transfer coefficient (K value) 279, 282–284, 286, 288, 293, 296–298 global warming potential (GWP) 105, 298, 318, 321 gluten 184, 188, 192 Gordon–Taylor equation 252–253, 273 grading 168, 174 Gram-negative bacteria 27, 30, 32 Gram-positive bacteria 27, 30, 32 green beans 108, 171, 174, 208, 212–215, 333 guar gum 188, 196, 204, 228 guillotining 136–137 gums 9, 188, 196, 228, 233, 235, 345 H5N1 virus 34 HACCP 44, 173, 217 heat load 53, 57, 61, 63, 69, 74, 87–88, 94, 98–99, 117, 147, 283, 297, 303, 313 high-pressure processing 45, 71, 74, 112, 119, 126, 179, 220, 318 high-quality life (HQL) 237 BLUK139-Evans March 1, 2008 12:38 Index high-speed bacon slicing 137–139 high-speed ham slicing 137 home freezing 216, 326, 339–342 home thawing 341–342 horizontal cabinet 307–308 humidity 7, 95, 98, 131, 190, 192, 225, 251, 272, 293, 312–313, 343 hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) 89, 105, 108, 111, 115, 121, 318 hydrocolloids 187–188, 192, 196, 228, 233 235 hydrofluidisation method (HFM) 17, 106–111, 119, 121 hydrolytic enzymes 229–231 IATA containers 294 ice dendritic 7, 70, 226 extracellular 2, 5, 7–8, 27–28, 35, 51, 70, 169–170, 210, 229, 231, intracellular 5, 7–8, 26–27, 29, 35, 70, 125, 169–171, 177 Ostwald ripening 8, 226 recrystallisation 7–8, 51, 165, 191, 194, 201, 224–229, 232–235 spherulitic ice cream aging 197–198 homogenisation 42–44, 197–198 ingredients 195–197 mixing 197–198 pasteurisation 40, 42–43, 197–198 processing 197–200 special formulations/health foods 42–44 stability of nutrients 42–44 ice cream 1–2, 7, 9, 26, 31, 33, 40, 42–45, 69, 73, 81, 101, 120, 194–202, 228, 232, 236, 238, 245, 304, 307, 326, 338–339 ice crystal size sensory detection (ice cream) 200 ice crystal structure 7–8, 110, 133 ice fraction 5–7 ice nucleation 4–5, 18, 51, 119, 178–179 ice slurry 67–68, 106–111, 119, 130 immersion freezing 4, 11, 17, 65, 67–68, 105–109, 119, 128–130, 132–133, 135, 139, 143, 158, 174, 176, 220 impingement freezing 17, 119, 126–127, 131, 179 improvers for baking 186, 188 indirect refrigeration system 84, 310, 318 industrial-scale freeze drier 257–262 351 infiltration 129, 283, 307–311, 315–316, 319, 322, 329 initial freezing point 4, 11–12, 14–16, 18–19, 69, 105, 137–138, 187, 228 insulation 17, 99, 264, 278–279, 283, 286, 294, 297–300, 333–337 intermodal transport 289, 293 IQF (individual quick freezing) 104, 106, 108, 121, 136, 175–176 206–207 ISO thermal containers 276, 286, 294 jacketed cold stores 147 198–199 Kirchhoff transformation 64, 75 K value 279, 282–284, 286, 288, 293, 296–298 Kyoto Protocol 101, 317 laboratory-scale freeze drier 256–257 lactose 40, 195–196, 200 lamb 31, 55, 66, 124, 136, 142, 144–145, 217–220, 238 lasagne 206, 208, 212–213, 215–217 latent heat 4, 8, 11–12, 18, 52, 59–61, 63–64, 67, 69–71, 75, 90, 109, 112, 130, 169, 273 legislation freezing of fish 162–163 fruit and vegetables 172–174 meat 147, 342 legislation (frozen storage) 246–247 life cycle assessment (LCA) (retail display) 321 lighting 146, 303, 308–310, 319–320 lipid oxidation 163, 228, 230–232, liquid nitrogen 4, 17, 82–83, 105, 125–126, 130–132, 136, 175, 210, 220, 233, 255, 272 Listeria monocytogenes 30–31, 40, 173 loading (retail display) 314 locust bean (carob) gum 196, 228 long-distance transport 289–296 low-emissivity surfaces 313 magnetic refrigeration 119–120 magnetic resonance freezing (MRF) 113–115, 119, 121 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 187, 191 Maillard browning 249 maintenance (equipment) 82, 88–90, 94–95, 99–100, 117, 131, 286–287, 290, 303, 311, 316–317, 322, 326 marine containers 280, 301 mashed potato 207–211, 213–217, mass transfer 19, 51, 65–68, 70, 74–75, 113, 115, 176, 262, 264–366, 270, 272–273 BLUK139-Evans 352 March 1, 2008 12:38 Index mass transfer model 51, 65–68, 70, 74–75 Maxwell–Eucken models 15 meat freezing 141–146, 228–232, 237–239, 244 medium-distance transport 289–293 metmyoglobin 232 microbial deterioration 26–28, 30–34, 37–38, 39–41, 234 micrococci 30 micro-organisms bakery products 41 micro-organisms dairy 39–41 micro-organisms fish 30–34 micro-organisms meat 30–34 micro-organisms poultry 30–34 micro-organisms vegetables and fruits 37–38 microwave blanching 177 microwave heating (freeze drying) 271–272 milk 19, 31, 38–41, 195–196, 198, 201, 238, 251 milk protein 195–196 milk solids-not-fat (SNF) 195 mini containers 292, 294, modelling air freezing of porous foods 67–68 elliptical cylinders 56 freezing of liquid foods 73–74 high-pressure freezing and thawing 71–72, 74 immersion freezing of porous foods 67–68 infinite rectangular rods, bricks, finite cylinders 65–66 irregular shapes 56–57 three-dimensional ellipsoids 56 modelling 26–50 modelling (quality loss) 239–242 modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 208, 213, 215–216, modified starches 194, 212 moisture migration 51, 196, 220, 224–225 monitoring (retail display) 316–317 Montreal Protocol 279, 298–299, 317 moulds 27, 30, 32, 37–38, 41, 43, 234 multi-compartment vehicle 282 multi-deck cabinet 304–305, 307, mutton freezing 124, 126, 132 mycobacteria 39 myofibrillar protein 239 natural refrigerants ammonia 84, 88–90, 94, 115, 198, 301, 310, 318–319 carbon dioxide (inc as cryogen) 3, 81, 82, 90, 115, 117, 125, 130, 160, 162–163, 175, 256, 310, 318 hydrocarbons 115, 298, 310, 317–318 nematodes 33 Neumann boundary 58, 70 Newton’s cooling law 60, 62 night covers (retail display) 308, 311, 316–317, 322 night curtains (retail display) 308 nitrates 173 nitrogen freezer 82–83, 160–161 non-condensable gases 248, 256 Norovirus 178 Nusselt (Nu) number 16 nutritional aspects of freezing bakery products 41 dairy 38–39 fish 28–29 meat 28–29 poultry 28–29 vegetables and fruits 34–37 offal freezing 133, 135, 142, 147, 342 open display cabinets 309–310 osmosis 170 oxidation 1, 3, 27, 29, 35–36, 146, 163, 172, 177, 210, 228–233, 242–243 ozonation 173 ozone depletion potential (ODP) 318, 321 packaging 17, 27, 30, 91–93, 103, 111, 128, 135, 142–143, 146, 148, 161, 163, 166, 171–173, 185, 196–198, 200, 207–208, 215–216, 220, 225, 231, 237, 239, 243–244, 294, 313–314, 338, palm oil 195 partial pressure 66, 75, 85, 248, 256, 259, 262, 264, 267, 268–269, 272 partially baked frozen bread (PBF) 184 particle image velocimetry (PIV) 319 pasta 8, 205–206, 215, 217–220 pasteurisation 36, 39–40, 42, 112, 197, 217, 219 pathogens 27–28, 33, 37–40, 45, 215, 217, 221 peanut oil 195 pectin methyl esterase 229 peeling 31, 35, 157, 167, 174, 189 pelagic fish 151–152, 154–156, 160 phospholipases 229 Photobacterium spp 31–32 physical changes during frozen storage 224–228 phytonutrients 45 pigments 142, 171, 228–229, 230–231 BLUK139-Evans March 1, 2008 12:38 Index Plank’s equation 160, 186–187, 262 plant design flexibility 95, 99, 117, 141, 162 sustainability 99, 101, 161, plate freezing 104, 129, 133, 135 polysaccharide stabilisers 194 post-harvest treatment 35–36 potato 114, 171, 206–211, 213–217, 219, 236, 333–335 poultry freezing 28–32, 34, 45, 129, 132–134, 136, 141–143, 146, 148, 229–230, 232, 241, 244, 325, 343 power failure (domestic refrigerators) 341, 343 practical storage life (PSL) 142–144, 237–239, 241–242 pre-freezing fish 151–153 pre-freezing treatment fruit 166–169 meat 141–143 vegetables 166–169 pre-rigor filleting 152 Pressure Equipment Regulations (PER) 96 pressure shift freezing 71–72, 112–113, 119, 126, 220 Pressure Systems Safety Regulations (PSSR) 96, 100 product throughput 92–93, 95 product–process–package (PPP) 166, 205, 207, 239 protein denaturation 163, 228–231, 269 protozoan parasites 27, 33 proving (bread) 192–193 PSE (pale soft and exudative) meat 142 pseudomonads 30, 39 PSL (practical storage life) 142–144, 237–238 pumpable ice slurries 106–111 pumped recirculation 84, 94 radiative heat transfer (retail display) 308 rail transport 290, 293 rancidity 29, 143–144, 146, 160, 229–232, 326, 333 Raoult’s equation rate of freezing 2, 7–8, 27, 29, 53, 68, 70, 71, 93, 103–104, 106, 108, 112–113, 124–127, 133, 135–136, 147, 153, 163, 162–164, 171, 175–176, 178, 186–187, 191–193, 199, 207, 210–212, 220, 227–229, 231, 233, 235–236, 269, 338, 341 ready prepared meals 205–223 ready to bake bread 184–185, 191 353 receiver (refrigeration system) 84–86, 96, recrystallisation 7–8, 51, 165, 191, 194, 201, 224–229, 232–235 re-freezing (freeze-chilled products) 208, 216 refrigerant choice 88 refrigerant emissions (retail) 317–319, 321 refrigerants ammonia 84, 88–90, 94, 115, 198, 301, 310, 318–319 halocarbon 88–90 toxicity 89–90, 321 refrigerants (transport vehicles) 299–301 refrigeration cycles 82–88 refrigeration safety standards 88–90, 96, 100–101, 115, 297–298, 319 refrigeration system 81–83, 87, 89, 94, 96, 140–141, 282, 299–301, 320, 329, 331, 343 refrigeration system maintenance 82, 88–90, 94–95, 99–100, 117, 131, 286–287, 290, 303, 311, 316–317, 322, 326 rehydration ability (after freeze drying) 271 remote condensation units (retail display) 313 retail cabinet design 307–311 retail display 303–324 Reynolds (Re) number 16 rheology 185–186, 188, 212 Rhodotorula spp 30 rice 31, 206, 217–220, 252 road transport 289–290, roll containers 291, 294, safety coefficient 297–298 salmon 29, 32, 151–152, 217–221, 236, 238 Salmonella 30–31, 40, 173, 207, 217, 221, 232, salt 5, 30, 41, 67, 84, 93, 129, 137–140, 143–144, 163, 192, 206–207, 219, 229 sauces 198, 205–208, 212, 216, 228, 232 scalding 30 scraped surface heat exchanger/swept-surface heat exchanger (SSHE) 42–43, 198–200 secondary fluid 310, 318–319 selecting refrigeration plant 81–100 self-contained (‘stand-alone’) units (retail display) 313, 317 self-refrigerated containers 292 semi-trailer 290 sensors (temperature) 17, 243 sensory score 214 shape factor 53–54, 57, 75 shelf-life testing 237, 246 BLUK139-Evans 354 March 1, 2008 12:38 Index shelf-life 8, 27, 33, 39–40, 45, 102, 111–112, 151–153, 156, 160, 175, 177, 196, 200–201, 205, 208, 215–216, 220, 228, 230, 232, 236–237, 239–242, Shewanella putrefaciens 32 Shigella 30, 173 short-distance delivery transport 289 shortening 188–189, single-door chiller with ice box freezer 327 single-door freezer 327 single-stage tempering 136, 139 slicing 1, 137–139, 147, 168, 174 slicing temperature 137–139 slow freezing 7, 27, 33, 92, 103, 124–125, 127, 163, 175, 185, 187, 225, 228, 231, 233, 235, 340–341 small product freezing 91, 104, 131, 135–136, 160, 163, 175–176 sodium alginate 296 solar radiation (vehicles) 278, 283, 298 Soret effect 65 sous vide-freezing 205–207, 217–221 specifying refrigeration plant 81–100 spoilage organisms 27 spray-freeze-drying (freeze drying) 272–273 spraying 105, 131, 161, 25 stabilisers 194–198, 202, 233 Staphylococcus aureus 30–31, 207 Star marking (domestic refrigerators) 331 state diagram 5, 7, 252–254 static freezing ice cream 200 steam ejector 262 storage 1–3, 8–9, 27–29, 32–34, 36–45, 51, 66, 125, 132, 136, 141–147, 163–164, 167, 168–169, 172, 179, 188–189, 191–194, 202, 206–208, 210, 213–216, 220–221, 224–247 stress cracking 51, 72, 74, 135, 153, 160, 163 sub-atmospheric fluidised bed freeze drying 272–273 sublimation 8, 66, 160, 225–226, 248–249, 254, 254, 259, 262–263, 265, 267–268, 270–273, 333–334 sucrose 36, 109, 188, 195–196, 231–232, 235, 252–253–254 sunflower oil 195 supercooling 4–5, 19, 51, 68–70, 115, 254–255 surface free energy 225 surface heat transfer coefficient 16–17, 19–20, 109, 283 surfactants (emulsifiers) 188, 195–198, 201 sweeteners ice cream 196 temperature abuse 32, 208, 215–216, 217, 339, temperature during frozen storage 9, 27, 45, 143–146, 148, 163, 170, 172, 186–187, 194, 201, 207, 215, 231–238–242, 276, 303, 307, 311–312, 314, 333, 338–339, 342–343 temperature fluctuation 8, 28, 36, 144–147, 187, 196, 202, 225–226, 232, 234, 237, 243, 307, 311, 313–314, 316, 321, 330, 333, 335, 337, 339, 341, 343 temperature in domestic freezers 330–332 tempering 1, 136–140, 147, 208, 216–217 tendering 82, 95–98 test standards (retail display) 311–312 test standards (vehicles) 286–289 texture 1–3, 29, 37, 42, 68, 74, 103, 110, 112, 126, 133, 136, 143, 164–169, 188–189, 191, 197, 199–201, 208, 210, 213, 215, 217–220, 222–225, 228–229, 231–232, 235, 248, 252, 338, thawing microwaves 11 pressure shift thawing 10 ultrasound 11 thawing 2–3, 8, 10–12, 16–17, 19–20, 26–29, 32–33, 37–39, 45, 68, 71, 74, 109, 112–113, 125, 132, 160–163, 165, 169, 171–173, 179, 184–186, 191–194, 206, 208–209, 212–213, 215–217, 224, 228–229, 231–233, 236, 244, 248, 326, 338, 340–342 thermal load (vehicles) 283, 298 thermal stress 51, 72, 74, 135, 153, 160, 163 thermo physical properties density 16 enthalpy 14 predictive software 17–19 specific heat capacity 11–14 thermal conductivity 14–15 thermal diffusivity 16 thermoacoustic Stirling heat engine 119-120 time–temperature integrator (TTI) 243 time–temperature–tolerance (TTT) 205, 207–208, 239 total viable count (TVC) 212, 214 Toxoplasma gondii 30–31 transport vehicles air circulation 279–280 refrigeration system 279–280 transport vehicles 276–302 BLUK139-Evans March 1, 2008 12:38 Index Trichinella spp 30–31, 33 trimming 168, 174, 244 tunnel freezers 43, 91, 94, 105, 127–129, 131, 154, 162, 192 two-stage refrigeration plant 87–88, 105 ultra-high-temperature (UHT) treatment 39 ultra-rapid freezing 175 ultrasonication 173, 178 ultrasound 11, 178 unfermented frozen dough (UFD) 184–185 UV-C radiation 173, 177–178 vacuum insulation 298 vegetable fats 195 vegetables freezing 165–183 pre-freezing treatment 166–169 vertical cabinets (retail) 307–308, 310 Vibrio spp 30–32 virus 27, 34, 39 viscosity 9, 73–74, 106, 110, 176, 195–196, 198, 212, 229, 234, 318 vitamins 28–29, 34–35, 38, 165, 168, 195, 228, 233, 243 volatiles 239, 269–271 355 washing 30, 35, 37, 82–83, 152, 154, 168, 174, 343 water activity (aw ) 1, 5, 75, 172, 197, 334 water binding capacity 3, 125–126 water content 2, 6, 12, 19–20, 90–91, 103, 138, 170–171, 179, 186, 195, 255, 270, 341 water diffusion 187 water vapour pressure 224–225, 263, 268–269 weight losses during freezing 225 weight losses during thawing 125 whey proteins 195–196 whipping ice cream 195–201 William–Landel–Ferry (WLF) equation xanthan 196, 228, 233, 235 yeast 28, 185–189, 192, 338–339 Yersinia enterocolitica 30–31, 39 yoghurt 40 zero order reaction 240, 242 α-amylase 186 [...]... (19 71) , Mohsenin (19 80), Rha (19 75), Tschubik and Maslow (19 73), Houˇska et al (19 94, 19 97), Rahman (19 96) and Qashou et al (19 72) Papers giving comprehensive data sets for groups of food products are those of Lentz (19 61) , Hill et al (19 67), Mellor (19 76, 19 79), Morley (19 66, 19 72, 19 86) Morley and Miles (19 97), Pham and Willix (19 89), Sanz et al (19 87) and Sweat (19 74, 19 75, 19 85) BLUK139-Evans 18 ... 2008 16 :14 Frozen Food Science and Technology Table 1. 1 Water content ranges of commonly frozen foods Food commodity Breads Doughs Fisha Ice cream Meats Vegetables Fruit (strawberries, raspberries) Ready meals Water content (% wet mass basis) 28–46 5–20 50–80 59–62 35–90 55–90 87–90 50–85 Reference Holland et al (19 91) Miller and Kaslow (19 63) Love (19 82) Holland et al (19 91) Holland et al (19 91) Holland... freezing 10 40 10 30 Density (kg/m3) 10 20 10 10 10 00 990 980 970 960 −40 −35 −30 −25 −20 15 10 −5 0 5 Temperature (°C) Fig 1. 6 Density of food as a function of temperature calculated with Tf = 1 C, xw = 0.8, xprotein = 0.05, xfat = 0.075, xcarbohydrate = 0.075 and xu = 0.05 BLUK139-Evans 12 March 5, 2008 16 :14 Frozen Food Science and Technology Specific heat capacity ( kJ/kg K) 200 15 0 10 0 50 0 −45... capacity of food Temperature T (◦ C) Table 1. 2 BLUK139-Evans 16 :14 BLUK139-Evans 14 March 5, 2008 16 :14 Frozen Food Science and Technology 400 350 Enthalpy (kJ/kg) 300 250 200 15 0 10 0 50 0 −45 −35 −25 15 −5 5 Temperature (°C ) Fig 1. 8 Enthalpy of food as a function of temperature, calculated with Tf = 1 C, xw = 0.8, xprotein = 0.05, xfat = 0.075, xcarbohydrate = 0.075 and xu = 0.05 1. 4.2 Enthalpy... 16 0 15 00 Bird et al (19 60) Becker and Fricke (2004), Hallstr¨ om et al (19 88) Anderson and Singh (2006), Soto and B´ orquez (20 01) Sheen and Whitney (19 90) Cleland and Earle (19 82) Heldman (19 80) Cleland and Earle (19 82), Fikiin (2003) Heldman and Singh (19 81) Verboven et al (2003) 5–25 850 17 00 Anderson and Singh (2006) Ling et al (19 76) Air – Fluidised bed Plate heat exchanger Immersion in brine Immersion... 23–25 June, 19 97, Food Research Institute Prague, pp 13 5 14 3 Miles, C.A., Mayer, Z., Morley, M.J and Houˇska, M (19 97) Estimating the initial freezing point of foods from composition data International Journal of Food Science & Technology 32, 389–400 Miles, C.A., Morley, M.J and Randell, M (19 99) High power ultrasonic thawing of frozen foods Journal of Food Engineering 39(2), 15 1 15 9 Miller, B.S and Kaslow,... of foods: Its potential use in food processing and product stability Trends in Food Science & Technology 17 , 12 9 14 1 Rasmussen, D.H., MacKenzie, A.P., Angell, C.A and Tucker, J.C (19 73) Anomalous heat capacities of supercooled water and heavy water Science 18 1, 342–344 Ratcliffe, E.H (19 62) The Thermal Conductivity of Ice: New Data on the Temperature Coefficient Philosophical Magazine 79, 11 97 12 03... Lebensmittel 5(5), 12 9 13 3 Roos, Y.H (19 92) Phase transitions and transformations in food systems In: D.R Heldman and D.B Lund, eds Handbook of Food Engineering New York: Marcel Dekker, p 14 5 Roos, Y.H (19 95) Phase Transitions in Foods London: Academic Press Roos, Y.H and Karel, M (19 91) Applying state diagrams to food processing and product development, Food Technology 45 (12 ) 66– 71 Sakiyama, T., Matsushita,... 2.5 2 1. 5 1 0.5 0 −40 −35 −30 −25 −20 15 10 −5 0 5 Temperature (°C) Fig 1. 9 Thermal conductivity of food as a function of temperature, calculated with Tf = 1 C, xw = 0.8, xprotein = 0.05, xfat = 0.075, xcarbohydrate = 0.075 and xu = 0.05 BLUK139-Evans 16 March 5, 2008 16 :14 Frozen Food Science and Technology 1. 4.4 Density Water expands by about 10 % on freezing and thus with increasing amount of ice... (19 40), p 617 b Riedel (19 78) L(T ) = 334 .1 + 2.05T − 0.00 419 T 2 c Kaye and Laby (19 86), p 58 d COSTHERM program with xw = 0.8, xprotein = 0.05, xcarbohydrate = 0.075, xfat = 0.075 e International Critical Tables (19 33) ci (t) = 0.0067T + 2.073 f Triple point of water/ice I/ice III 1. 82e 1. 68e 1. 54e 1. 39e 1. 94e 308.5 284.8 2 61. 6 2 41. 4 234.8 333.6 4 .18 2c 4 .18 6c 4 .19 2c 4.202c 4. 217 c 2.06e Food L(T )b