INTERFERENCE & INTEGRATION EFFECTS ON AUDITORY & VISUAL INFORMATION: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CHINESE & ENGLISH An Academic Exercise Prepared for the Faculty of Business Administration NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master of Science (Management) Degree By TAN THOR LING 2002/2003 ABSTRACT Written language is central to branding and marketing communications (Tavassoli & Han 2001) in modern society of consumerism, and the use of words and writing are key tenets in the development of brand identity for many products and services Brand identity may consist of language components such as a brand name itself, brand slogans and verbal advertising messages Majority of past advertising studies pertaining to memory have been conducted in an English-only context, implicitly assuming that advertising information is processed similarly across languages However, while Chinese logographic characters represent meanings, English script contains symbols that represent sounds (Tavassoli & Han 2001), and such structural contrasts between Asian and Western languages have been shown in separate studies to differentially affect how information is processed (Gathercole and Baddeley 1993; Zhou & Marslen-Wilson 1999) Other factors that may potentially moderate the linguistic processing of a branding or advertising message also include the audio-visual representation of message and the interitem relevancy within a message Hence, the present study seeks to improvise on past research and reexamine linguistic script differences and their effect on auditory and visual processing under relevant identifier conditions With China being increasingly recognized as a global economic force, it is an observation that many companies are keen to conduct commerce in the Asian region Knowledge about the discrepant impact of language on information-processing and memory representation is therefore of practical interest to businesses interested in successfully penetrating the Chinese consumer market through effective branding and cross-language communication strategies TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract Table of Contents CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION 1.1 Motivation of Study ……………………………………………………… 1.2 Furthering Past Research ……………………………………………… 1.3 Research Objectives …… ……………………………………………… CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction ……… ….…………………………………………………… 2.2 Language Processing ……………………………………………………… 2.2.1 Structural Differences between English and Chinese 2.2.2 Phonological Differences in Reading English and Chinese 2.2.2.1 Phonology in English 2.2.2.2 Phonology in Chinese 2.2.3 Visual (Graphic) Differences in Reading English and Chinese 2.2.3.1 Visual Processes in Reading English 2.2.3.2 Visual Processes in Reading Chinese 2.2.4 Effects of Language Processing on Memory Representation 2.2.4.1 English Processing and Memory 2.2.4.2 Chinese Processing and Memory 7 8 10 10 10 11 11 11 2.3 Information Processing and Memory …….……………………………… 2.3.1 Integration 2.3.1.1 Integrating English with Auditory Information 2.3.1.2 Integrating Chinese with Auditory Information 2.3.2 Interference 2.3.2.1 Interference between English and Auditory Information 2.3.2.2 Interference between Chinese and Visual Information 2.3.3 Integration and Interference 12 12 13 14 14 15 15 16 2.4 Integration: Language and Visual & Audio Identifiers ……………… 17 2.5 Relevancy and Integration ……………………………………………… 2.5.1 Effects of Relevancy on Memory Representation 2.5.2 Effects of Relevancy on Information Processing 18 18 19 2.6 Interference: Language and Visual & Audio Identifiers ……………… 21 2.7 Summary ………………………………………………………………… 24 CHAPTER THREE - METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction ………….…………………………………………………… 27 3.2 Design ………………… ……………………………………… 27 3.3 Manipulation of Independent Variables (IVs) ………………… ……… 3.3.1 Selection of Attributes 3.3.2 Relatedness of Attribute-Identifier Pairs 27 28 30 3.4 Experimental Procedure … ……………………………………………… 34 3.5 Testing of Dependent Variables (DVs) …………………………………… 3.5.1 Retrieval Memory (Free Recall) 3.5.2 Relational Memory ( Fair Recognition) 37 37 37 3.6 Manipulation Check ……………………………………………………… 38 CHAPTER FOUR – ANALYSIS 4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 40 4.2 Covariates ………………………………………………………………… 40 4.3 Integration & Relational Memory (Recognition) ……………………… 40 4.4 Interference & Retrieval Memory (Recall) ……………………………… 45 CHAPTER FIVE – DISCUSSION 5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 50 5.2 Findings …………………………………………………………………… 50 5.3 Theoretical Implications …………………………………………………… 51 5.4 Managerial Implications ………………………………………………… 56 5.5 Future Research …………………………………………………………… 58 5.6 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………… 60 APPENDIX BIBLIOGRAPHY Chapter One Introduction 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 MOTIVATION OF STUDY Written language is central to branding and marketing communications (Tavassoli & Han 2001) in modern society of consumerism, and the use of words and writing are key tenets in the development of brand identity for many products and services For example, brand identity commonly consists of language components such as a brand name itself (e.g Nike) and brand slogans (e.g Nike’s “Just Do It”) With Asia emerging as a major economic force - in particular reference to China and its entry into the World Trade Orgnization (WTO) - at the turn of the century, many business organizations are waking up to the fact that approximately one-quarter of the world’s population communicates in a language that is starkly different from the modern, alphabetic English script that American-influenced branding is familiar with Many advertising studies pertaining to memory have been largely conducted in single-language – typically English – conditions, implicitly assuming that consumers around the globe process verbal brand information identically across tongues Such a presumption may be erroneous: while Chinese logographic characters represent meanings, modern English scripts contain symbols that represent sounds (Tavassoli & Han 2001), and such structural dissimilarities between Asian and Western languages have been shown in separate studies to differentially affect how information is processed (Gathercole and Baddeley 1993; Hung & Tzeng 1981; Zhou & Marslen-Wilson 1999) and represented in memory (Schmitt, Pan & Tavassoli 1994) Thus, knowledge on the discrepant impact of language on information-processing and memory representation is of practical interest to foreign businesses keen on successfully penetrating the Chinese consumer market through effective branding and communication strategies Naturally, language elements are not the only considerations in the creation of a successful brand identity Impactful brand identifiers also often include the use of logos – or visual representations of a brand name (Shennan 1986), such as the Nike “SWOOSH” design – and jingles or auditory cues to a brand name (Croft 1999), such as the Nike “SWOOSH” sound Advertisements – whether in print or in multimedia form – often consist of both verbal (i.e language) and visual (e.g pictures, logos, etc) or audio accompaniments (e.g voices, jingles, etc) Hence, investigation into the possible interactions between language and audiovisual brand identifiers is also critical to provide an accurate analysis of varying linguistic effects on memory representation 1.2 FURTHERING PAST RESEARCH A couple of past studies have accounted for the influence of linguistic differences between alphabetic and logographic script on interactions with audio-visual stimuli and mnemonic performance In a cross-cultural experiment utilizing Chinese and American students from Beijing and Chicago respectively (Schmitt, Pan & Tavassoli 1994), it was showed that memory recognition will be differentially affected by whether Chinese or English words were learned auditorally or visually In another noteworthy experiment conducted on monolingual Koreans - with language differences manipulated through the use of alphabetic Korean Hangul and logographic Korean Hancha (Tavassoli & Han 2001) – it was demonstrated that memory for Chinese and English words will be affected by whether an audio or visual brand identifier was matched to the word Although research findings have proved remarkable, this study aims to improve upon their inherent limitations that arise from the necessary use of monolingual subjects in the two above-mentioned studies The first limitation is the fact that cross-cultural experiments may be somewhat limited by the host of factors that may differ between populations; differences that naturally occur when subjects in a single study consist of both Chinese speakers living in China and English speakers living in the United States These factors comprise of educational differences that can affect memory rehearsal strategies, cultural factors that can affect the evaluation of certain product characteristics as well as responses to nonverbal audiovisual stimuli Secondly, single-language manipulations (e.g comparisons within Korean Hangul and Hancha) may not prove as conclusive or as generalizable as across-language manipulations In contrast to monolinguals, proficient bilinguals rely on different scripts to access a single conceptual system (Francis 1999; Chen & Leung 1989) Proficient bilinguals have also been found to comprehend written languages significantly faster than monolinguals, and to be more advanced in terms of memory representation (Bialystok 2003) The use of bilingual subjects’ will therefore produce a more accurate and true assessment of findings in any experiment involving language processing and memory representation In addition, the use of bilinguals’ living in the same country also simultaneously controls for cross-cultural differences while allowing for across-language manipulations In Singapore, Chinese students are educated in both English and Chinese tongues from the time they are years of age Hence, in this study, bilingual 16-year-old high school students (i.e have received a minimum of 10 years learning instruction in both the English and Chinese language) were roped in for participation in the experiment Both the earlier studies mentioned also made use of “nonsensical” stimuli - such as odd shapes and meaningless sounds – in their experimental setup However, practically speaking, very rarely business organizations and advertisers utilize (i) nonsensical, meaningless brand identifiers, or (ii) irrelevant stimuli in their marketing communications Thus, while much of past research has partially-restricted real-world marketing and branding implications, this study seeks to provide further business-managerial considerations through modified experimentation of past studies with the improvised use of relevant identifiers 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES Marketers often struggle to find a dynamic combination of words and pictures and/or sounds that will convey their overall advertising message powerfully and effectively to their target audience Naturally, choice words and verbal messages are often paired with relevant, meaning-laden information for greater impact For example, BMW car advertisements often seek to communicate the idea of a BMW being “The Ultimate Driving Machine”, and their television advertisements typically pair this verbal message with both visual sights of a sleek BMW cruising on the road and auditory sounds of an engine roaring powerfully as the BMW speeds past on the screen Hence, the present study seeks to reexamine linguistic script differences and their effect on auditory and visual processing under relevant identifier conditions It is hoped that findings will produce a realistic representation of the true effectiveness of day-to-day marketing communications, and provide practical managerial recommendation in the development of crosslanguage advertising communication strategies _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 如非指示, 不要翻 开 下一页 73 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 10 与之前相同 新的 11 与之前相同 新的 12 与之前相同 新的 13 与之前相同 新的 14 与之前相同 新的 如非指示, 不要翻 开 下一页 74 IQ 问题 这个数列接下来应该是多少才符合逻辑？4, 8, 24, 96 这个数列接下来应该是多少才符合逻辑？2, 3, 5, 6, 11, 12 左边的图形序列中，接下来应该是右边1至4号图中的哪一个才符合逻辑？ 请圈出。 ? 左边的图形序列中，画上问号的空白处应该是右边1至4号图中的哪一个才符合逻辑？ 请圈出。 ? 如非指示, 不要翻 开 下一页 75 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 如非指示, 不要翻 开 下一页 76 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 与之前相同 新的 10 与之前相同 新的 11 与之前相同 新的 12 与之前相同 新的 13 与之前相同 新的 14 与之前相同 新的 如非指示, 不要翻 开 下一页 77 请标出适合您的答案，每题仅标一处。 您的性别 女 男 您说英文的水平如何？ 非常好 非常差 您说中文的水平如何？ 非常好 非常差 您阅读英文的水平如何？ 非常好 非常差 您阅读中文的水平如何？ 非常好 非常差 谢谢您的参加! 78 Bibliography 79 Aaker, D A., and Keller, K L (1990) “Consumer Evaluations of Brand Extensions,” Journal of Marketing, 54(1), 27-41 Aaronson, D., and Ferres, S (1986) “Sentence Processing in Chinese-American Bilinguals”, Journal of Memory and Languages, 25 (April), 136-162 Baddeley, A D (1981) “The Concept of Working Memory: A View of Its Current State and Probable Future Developments,” 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Chinese and graphic information coincide with each other Hence, visual logos should be... reduce effects of processing advantages between English- Audio and Chinese- Visuals - over English -Visual and Chinese Audio respectively - that would otherwise be displayed in a neutral condition In other words, due to the greater reliance on phonological-audio processing involved in the reading of English words (Schmitt, Pan & Tavassoli 1994), relational memory strength between English words and auditory. .. English and Auditory Information Based on the assumptions underlying the described interference theory, the overlapping phonologically-based resources required for the processing of both audio information and English will result in greater memory interference between auditory stimuli and the English alphabetic script (Tavassoli & Han 2001) Past experiments have demonstrated that acoustic distractors in English. .. than pictorial information (Duncan 1980), and that auditory elements will interfere more with the learning of and cognitive responding to English than Chinese ad copy due to the modality-specific (i.e phonological) overlap in mental resource requirements (Unnava, Agarwal, and Haugtvedt 1996) 2.3.2.2 Interference between Chinese and Visual Information Due to the greater dependence on visual resources... Chinese has been demonstrated in past experiments that have shown Chinese consumers to be more sensitive to visual features of written Chinese words (Tavassoli 2001) 2.2.4 EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE PROCESSING ON MEMORY REPRESENTATION The structural and linguistic differences between English and Chinese will naturally affect the mental representations of information, and in turn, influence consumer memory (Schmitt,... processing of Chinese characters and visual information is identically influenced in memory representation Information integration may be experimentally measured by relational memory (or, associative recognition of two distinct items shown simultaneously), and interference measured by free recall based on pure retrieval memory Hence, relational memory or integration is hypothesized to be higher for English- Audio... phonetic radical sometimes provides clues to the pronunciation of the whole character (Zhou 1978; Xu, Pollatsek & Potter 1999) 2.2.2 PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES IN READING ENGLISH AND CHINESE Reading English is more dependent on phonological sound-based processes than in reading Chinese, largely because of the inherently pronunciation-linked composition of the English language: 2.2.2.1 Phonology in English. .. identifiers should be stronger than with visual identifiers, and (b): Relational memory between Chinese words and visual identifiers should be stronger than with audio identifiers 17 FIGURE 2.1 REPRESENTATION OF HYPOTHESIS H1 Relational Memory Relational Memory Chinese (H1b) English (H1a) Audio Identifier Visual Identifier Audio Identifier Visual Identifier 2.5 RELEVANCY & INTEGRATION Relevancy may be defined... words that are paired with relevant visual stimuli Hence: H2: The incremental effects of relevancy on relational memory will be significantly higher under English -Visual than English- Audio conditions Likewise, with greater dependence on visual processing involved in the reading of Chinese words (Hung & Tzeng 1981), relational memory strength between Chinese words and visual stimuli can be given as innately ... between English and Auditory Information 2.3.2.2 Interference between Chinese and Visual Information 2.3.3 Integration and Interference 12 12 13 14 14 15 15 16 2.4 Integration: Language and Visual. .. for English- Audio and Chinese -Visual conditions (H1), while retrieval memory (as an inverse reflection of interference) is predicted to be lower for English- Audio and Chinese -Visual conditions... Relevancy and Integration ……………………………………………… 2.5.1 Effects of Relevancy on Memory Representation 2.5.2 Effects of Relevancy on Information Processing 18 18 19 2.6 Interference: Language and Visual