ABSTRACT This study was conducted as an action research in which students were taught on how to process vocabulary deeply by applying some vocabulary learning strategies (VLS). The study first aimed at identifying the vocabulary problems that students are facing with; evaluating the improvement of students’ vocabulary retention with some helpful memory strategies, namely structured reviewing, using mechanical techniques, using imagery and placing new words into a context; finding out which strategies are the most popularly used among students; and finally collecting students’ attitudes towards the strategy training scheme, four sub-memory strategies and their suggestions for a better future teaching and learning program. For the accomplishments of these purposes, 28 first-year students in one class at Phuong Dong university, Vietnam were involved in the study. The data instruments varied from a Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) test, a group-interview, learners’ diaries, pre-test/post-tests to a questionnaire. Through the VKS test and the group interview, the results revealed that among many obstacles students encountered in their independent vocabulary learning, lack of remembering techniques was the biggest problem. Learners’ diaries noticeably indicated students’ equal concerns for all four sub-memory strategies, and especially for “using imagery” strategy. The results from the pre-test and the two post-tests helped to prove the effectiveness of using memory strategies in both short-term and long-term vocabulary learning. Finally, students’ positive attitudes towards both the strategy training scheme and four memory strategies and their suggestions about the future learning and teaching vocabulary were comprised in the last instrument- questionnaire. On this basis, the study gave some implications for teachers’ preparation, classroom practices and future research. LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES i TABLES Table 1: Results from VKS test Table 2: Students’ strategic problems in vocabulary learning Table 3: Mean scores gained by the group in the pre-test and post-test 1 Table 4: Mean scores gained by the group in the pre-test and post-test 2 Table 5: Students’ preference of four sub-memory strategies Table 6: Students’ suggestions for future schedule Table 7: Types of strategy training FIGURES Figure 1: Action Research circle Figure 2: Data collection procedure Figure 3: Strategies used as reported students’ diaries Figure 4: Report of strategies used in post-test 1 Figure 5: The whole group’s performance in the pre-test and post test 1 Figure 6: The whole group’ performance in the pre-test and post test 2 Figure 7: The whole group’ performance in the pre-test, post-test 1 and post test 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ii ABSTRACT i CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 3 1.1.1. Background of language learning strategies 3 1.1.2. Definition of language learning strategies 4 1.1.3. The importance of language learning strategies in language learning and teaching. 5 1.1.4. Classification of learning strategies 7 1.1.5. Strategies Training 8 1.1.5.1. Why is training? 8 1.1.5.2. How to train 10 1.2. Vocabulary Learning Strategies 12 1.2.1. Definition of vocabulary 12 1.2.2. The importance of vocabulary in second language learning 13 1.2.3. Factors affecting vocabulary learning and acquisition 14 1.2.4. Retention and factors affecting vocabulary retention 15 1.2.4.1. Memory 16 1.2.4.2. Language exposure 18 1.2.4.3. Effective Vocabulary learning strategies 19 1.2.5. Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) 20 1.2.6. Classification of VLS 20 1.2.7. Oxford’s taxonomy 22 1.3. Memory strategies 23 1.3.1. Definition of memory strategies 23 1.3.2. Why memory strategies? 24 1.3.3. Oxford’s classification of Memory Strategies 24 1.3.3.1. Structured reviewing 26 1.3.3.2. Using mechanical techniques 27 1.3.3.3. Using imagery 28 1.3.3.4. Placing new words into a context 29 iii 2.1. The rationale of using Action Research 30 2.2. The background to the study 30 2.3. The research process 31 2.3.1. Identify the problems 32 2.3.2. Gather data 34 2.3.2.1. Results from VKS 34 2.3.2.2. Results from the interview 35 2.3.3. Interprete data 39 2.3.4. Act on evidence 40 2.3.4.1. Participants 40 2.3.4.2. Materials 40 2.3.4.3. Training procedures 41 Data collection procedure 43 2.3.5. Evaluation 45 2.3.5.1. Data analysis methods and procedures 45 2.3.5.2. Findings and discussion 46 2.3.6. Plan for the next stages. 54 1. Major findings of the study 58 2. Limitations of the study 59 3. Suggestions for further study 59 REFERENCES 60 Appendix 1: Direct and Indirect learning strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 18-20) I Appendix 2: Schedule of Teaching GE1 IV Appendix 3: VKS test VII Appendix 7: Strategies used as reported in students’ diaries XVI Appendix 8: Individuals’ performance in the Pre-test, Post-test 1 and Post-test 2 XVII Appendix 9: Mean difference between pre-test, post test 1 and post-test 2 XX Appendix 10: Suggested activities for introducing and practicing memory strategies XXII iv PART A: INTRODUCTION This chapter presents the statement of the problem, rationale as well as aims and objectives of the study reported in this thesis. It also presents the research questions and the scope of the research. Finally, the chapter ends with an outline of structure of the thesis. 1. Statement of the problem and rationale for the study Vocabulary is considered an essential part of language learning. According to Knight (1994, cited in Gu, 2003), learning words is the most important aspect of language acquisition. Learning vocabulary is regarded as the basis of obtaining other skills. Vocabulary deficiency can result in weaknesses in reading comprehension, listening comprehension, speaking competence, writing performance and grammatical accuracy. Therefore, learning vocabulary is an indispensable step of L2 acquisition. However, how recently learners have learnt something is not important, but in fact, the depth of processing. In other words, students must be taught on how to process information deeply. This view confirmed the role of understanding and applying Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) in teaching and learning vocabulary. Studying VLS has been an interest for a great deal of psychologists, linguists and language teachers for a long time. There are numerous studies conducted about VLS, their effectiveness in learning vocabulary and these researchers almost have attempted to develop a framework of category of VLS (e.g O’Malley & Chamot 1990, Oxford 1990; Gu & Johnson 1996, Schmitt 1997, Nation 2001) Vocabulary retention is one of the prolems of vocabulary learning. Students have not known how to use memory strategies. Thus the training of memory strategies is esential. However, there are many memory strategies so each study focuses on a group of Memory strategies. 2. Aim of the study. 1 The study aims at finding out the extent to which the training of memory strategies help the students to retain the learned words better. The training in this study is limited to four strategies as introduced in Oxford (1990)’s taxonomy. These are structured reviewing, using mechanical techinques, using imagery and placing new words into a context. 3. Research questions. In an attempt to achieve the above-presented aim, the study was designed to answer the three following research questions: 1. What are the problems second language learners have with vocabulary retention? 2. Why do they have those problems? 3. To what extent does applying the 4 selected strategies, i.e, structured reviewing, using mechanical techniques, using imagery and placing new words into a context help to improve students' vocabulary retention? 4. Scope of the study This action research is an investigation into the effectiveness of the training of Memory Strategies on students’ vocabulary retention. However, the training does not cover all the memory strategies. In an attempt to make this study more managable, the study focuses on the effectiveness of the training of 4 memory strategies: structured reviewing, using mechanical techniques, using imagery and placing new words into a context on a group of students (n=28) who were studying English as a minor in Phuong Dong university curriculum. 5. The organization of the thesis The thesis is composed of three parts: Part A, Part B, and Part C. Part A – Introduction - introduces the rationale, aims and objectives as well research questions of the study. Part B labelled as Development is composed of two chapters: Chapter 1- Literature review - introduces the theoretical foundations for the whole study and Chapter 2 – Methodology - elaborates on the participants, the method used, the instruments, the date collecting and processing procedure from the 2 tests, questionnaires, interviews and learners’ diaries. Part C – Conclusion - summarizes all the major points in the study, reveals the limitations of the study and proposes some suggestions for further research. PART B: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter provides an overview of the literature related to the study: from vocabulary learning strategies, next, memory strategies and last four sub-memory strategies. Besides, this review also reveals some critical analysis about the systems of classifying vocabulary learning strategies as well as the research gap, thus motivating to carry out the study. 1.1. Language learning strategies 1.1.1. Background of language learning strategies There has been a prominent shift within the field of language learning and teaching over the last twenty years with greater emphasis being put on learners and learning rather than on teachers and teaching. In parallel to this new shift of interest, how learners process new information and what kinds of strategies they employ to understand, learn or remember the information have been the primary concern of the researchers dealing with the area of foreign language learning. So, language learning strategies (LLS) for foreign language learning and the teacher's role in strategy training is very important. As vocabulary learning strategies are a component of second language learning strategies, a brief review of the literature on language learning strategies is needed. Research into LLS began in the 1960s. Particularly, developments in cognitive psychology influenced much of the research done on LLS. In most of the research on LLS, the primary concern has been on “identifying what good language learners report they do to learn a second or foreign language, or, in some cases, are observed 3 doing while learning a second or foreign language” (Rubin & Wenden 1987:19). In 1966, Aaron Carton published his study entitled “The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study”, which was the first attempt on learner strategies. After Carton, in 1971, Rubin started doing research focusing on the strategies of successful learners and stated that, once identified, such strategies could be made available to less successful learners. Rubin classified strategies in terms of processes contributing directly or indirectly to language learning. The strategies initiated by Rubin were expanded and refined by other scholars and researchers such as Wong-Fillmore (1976), Tarone (1977), Naiman et al. (1978), Cohen & Aphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot & O'Malley (1987), Politzer & Mc Groarty (1985), Conti & Kolsody (1998). Before presenting an overview of these studies, a review of the definitions of language learning strategies is needed, and this is presented below. 1.1.2. Definition of language learning strategies It is clearly seen that research on learning strategies in general and language learning strategies in particular is becoming increasingly popular. So far, there has been no consensus among the linguists regarding to the definitions of leaning strategies. According to Nunan (1991:168), “Learning strategies […] are the mental processes which learners employ to learn and use the target language”. Nunan’s definition restricts learning strategies only to “mental processes”. Richard et al. (1992:209), offers a broader definition of learning strategies, that is, learning strategies are intentional behavior and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn and remember new information. Similarly, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) (in O’ Malley and Charmot 1990:43) have learning facilitation as a goal and are intentional on the part of the learner. The goal of strategy use is to affect the leaner’s motivational or affective state, or the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organizes, or integrates new knowledge. 4 Oxford (1990:8) defines learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self directed, more effective and more transferable to new situation.” Ellis defines learning strategies as “the particular approaches or techniques that learner employs to try to learn an L2.” (1997:76). He further explains that learning strategies can be behavioral or mental and are typically problem - oriented. Rubin (in Wenden and Rubin 1987:19) is even more explicit when he defines learning strategies as “any set of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of information, that is, what learner do to learn and do to regulate their learning.” According to O’Malley and Charmot (1990:1), learning strategies are “special ways of processing information that enhance comprehension, learning, or retention of the information” or in their other words learning strategies are the “special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information.” Obviously, learning strategies are defined in different words and from different perspectives such as cognitive, social or pragmatic. Therefore, researchers worked out the taxonomy of learning strategies instead of defining them. This can be seen in the following part. 1.1.3. The importance of language learning strategies in language learning and teaching. Bridging the gap between students’ learning styles and teachers’ teaching styles will be a powerful means to guide students towards successful learning. Thus, teaching students learning strategies should not be neglected. Oxford (1990) describes learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations”. Learning strategies will compensate for the weakness of a learning style and maximize the strengths of a learning style powerfully. 5 To emphasize the importance of LLS, Chamot et al. (1999) stated, “differences between more effective learners and less effective learners were found in the number and range of strategies used, in how the strategies were applied to the task, and in whether they were appropriate for the task”. Therefore, teaching learning strategies is especially useful for the latter learners. If they can find effective strategies, they will be able to succeed, through effective strategy teaching, students will acquire not only vocabulary but also the way for studying. The language learner capable of using a wide variety of LLS appropriately can improve his language skills. According to Oxford (1990), memory strategies “help students store and retrieve new information”, cognitive strategies “enable learners to understand and produce new language by many different means”, compensation strategies “allow learners to use the language despite their often large gaps in knowledge”, metacognitive strategies “allow learners to control their own cognition - that is, to coordinate the learning process by using functions such as centering, arranging, planning, and evaluating”, affective strategies “help to regulate emotions, motivations, and attitudes” and social “help students learn through interaction with other”. Developing skills in three areas, such as metacognitive, cognitive, and socio-affective can help the language learner build up learner independence and autonomy whereby he can take control of his own learning. Lessard-Clouston (1997:3) states that LLS contribute to the development of the communicative competence of the students. Being a broad concept, LLS are used to refer to all strategies foreign language learners use in learning the target language and communication strategies are one type of LLS. As Oxford (1990:1) stated, LLS “ are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self- directed movement, which is essential for developing communicative competence”. Besides developing the communicative competence of the students, teachers who train students to use LLS can help them become better language learners. Helping students understand good LLS and training them to develop and use such good LLS can be considered to be the appreciated characteristics of a good language teacher. 6 [...]... of this research paper It includes first the background of the study, the size and characteristics of the sample, the materials used then the implementation of an action research as well as the description of data collection instruments Furthermore, an elaborate report on the procedures of data collection and data analysis is also incorporated 2.1 The rationale of using Action Research Action research. .. strategies that help the learners to control their own learning, affective strategies that help the learners to arrange their emotions and motivation, and social strategies that help the learners to cooperate and learn with their peers (See Appendix 1 for the full taxonomy) As this study focuses on the correlation between memory strategies training and students vocabulary retention, what follows is... Learning Strategies; Communication Strategies; Social Strategies Stern (1992:262-266) stated that, there are five main LLS These are as follows: Management and Planning Strategies; Cognitive Strategies; Communicative Experiential Strategies; Interpersonal Strategies; Affective Strategies 7 It seems that among numbers of classifications of learning strategies given by researchers, Oxford’s scheme is the. .. information), long-term memory encodes information for storage semantically (i.e based on meaning and association) In other words, the main way of transferring from short- term memory to long-term memory is by finding some pre- existing information in the long-term memory to attach the new information to 1.2.4.2 Language exposure While the term memory more often refers to later storage and retrieval of. .. brief review of memory strategies in second and foreign language learning 1.3 Memory strategies 1.3.1 Definition of memory strategies As one group of direct learning strategies set in Oxford (1990), memory strategies (traditionally known as mnemonics) have been found to enhance remembering through the connection of new knowledge with familiar words and images These strategies involve relating the word... Metacognitive strategies are composed of selective attention (what words are important to learn and are essential for adequate comprehension of a passage) and self-initiation strategies (a variety of means to clarify the meaning of vocabulary items) Cognitive strategies include guessing strategies, skillful use of dictionaries and note-taking strategies Learners using guessing strategies draw upon their background... most Research into VLS stems from two directions of research The first one is the research of general language learning strategies which showed that many of the learning strategies used by learners are in fact vocabulary learning strategies (e.g memory strategies in Oxford’s classification, 1990) or may be used in vocabulary learning The second one is the research oriented towards exploring the effectiveness. .. imagery: New vocabulary items are related to concepts in memory by means of meaningful visual imagery either in mind or in real drawings The imagery can be a picture of an object, a set of collocations for remembering a sequence of words or expressions, or a mental presentation of the letters of a word Semantic mapping: A key concept is put at the center or at the top, and the related words and concepts... adequately describes the kind of strategies used by an individual when facing with discovering a new word’s meaning without recourse to another person’s expertise, so he added another new category – determination strategies (DET) to the system Therefore, there are 58 21 individual strategies divided into two big groups: discovery strategies and consolidation strategies Nation (2001) introduces a taxonomy... system of six strategies, classified as direct and indirect Oxford's (1990:17) taxonomy of LLS is shown as following: Direct strategies Indirect strategies  Memory strategies  Metacognitive strategies  Cognitive strategies  Affective strategies  Compensation strategies  Social strategies It can be seen that much of the recent work in this area has been underpinned by a broad concept of LLS that goes . investigation into the effectiveness of the training of Memory Strategies on students vocabulary retention. However, the training does not cover all the memory strategies. In an attempt to make. first and other languages, the incremental nature of vocabulary acquisition, the role of memory in vocabulary learning and acquisition, the organization and development of L2 mental lexicon, the. Johnson 1996, Schmitt 1997, Nation 2001) Vocabulary retention is one of the prolems of vocabulary learning. Students have not known how to use memory strategies. Thus the training of memory strategies