VIET NAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST–GRADUATE STUDIES ***************** BÙI DANH TOÀN APPROPRIATE ERROR-CORRECTION STRATEGIES IN SPEAKING LESSONS FOR THE 10TH FORM STUDENTS AT HOA LU A HIGH SCHOOL (Chiến lược chữa lỗi thích hợp dạy kỹ nói cho học sinh lớp 10 trường THPT Hoa Lư A) M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS Field: English Teaching Methodology Code: 60 14 10 HA NOI – 2011 VIET NAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST - GRADUATE STUDIES ***************** BÙI DANH TOÀN APPROPRIATE ERROR-CORRECTION STRATEGIES IN SPEAKING LESSONS FOR THE 10TH FORM STUDENTS AT HOA LU A HIGH SCHOOL (Chiến lược chữa lỗi thích hợp dạy kỹ nói cho học sinh lớp 10 trường THPT Hoa Lư A) M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS Field: English Teaching Methodology Code: 60 14 10 Supervisor: Nguyễn Bàng, M.A HA NOI - 2011 -6TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION PAGE …………………………………………………………………………………… i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………………………………………………… ii ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… iii LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS AND TABLES ……………………………………………………………… iv DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS ……………………………………………………………………………… v TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………………………………………………… vi PART I: INTRODUCTION 1 Rationales …………………………………………………………………………… … Aims of the Study ……………………………………………………………………… Scope of the Study ……………………………………………………………………… Research Questions …………………………………………………………………… Methods of the Study …………………………………………………………………… Significance of the Study ……………………………………………………………… Structure of the Study …………………………………………………………………… PART II: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………………………………… Approaches to Teaching and Learning Speaking ……………………………………… 1.1 Common Approaches ………………… ………………………………………… 1.2 Fluency versus Accuracy ………………………………………………………… 1.3 Errors in Speaking Lessons ……………………………………………………… Overview of Errors ………………………………………………………………… 2.1 Definitions of Errors ……………………………………………………………… 2.2 Error versus Mistake……………………………………………………………… 2.3 Types of Errors …………………………………………………………………… 2.3.1 Grammatical errors ……………………………………………………… 2.3.2 Discourse Errors ………………………………………………………… 2.3.3 Phonological Errors ……………………………………………………… 2.3.4 Lexical Errors …………………………………………………………… Error Correction Strategies in Speaking Lessons ……………………………………… 3.1 Definitions of Error-correction …………….…………………………………… 3.2 Error-correction Strategies ………………….…………………………………… 3.3 Common Approaches to Errors …………….………………………… ………… 3.3.1 Behavioristic Approach …………………………………………………… 3.3.2 Humanistic Approach ……………………………………………………… 10 3.3.3 Cognitive Approach ……………………………………………………… 10 3.3.4 Communicative Approach ………………………………………………… 11 -73.4 Timing of Error-correction………………… ………………………………… 11 3.4.1 Immediate Correction …………………………………………………… 11 3.4.2 Non-Immediate Correction …………………………………………….… 11 3.5 Types of Error-correction ……… ……………………………………………… 12 3.5.1 Teacher Correction ………………………… …………………………… 12 3.5.2 Peer Correction …………………………………………………………… 12 3.5.3 Self Correction …………………………………………………………… 13 3.6 Criteria for Selecting Errors ……………………………… …………………… 13 3.6.1 Pedagogical Focus ………………………………………………………… 13 3.6.2 Errors Impairing Communication ………………………………………… 13 3.6.3 Errors of High Frequency ………………………………………………… 14 3.6.4 Learners’ Variables ………………………………………………… 14 3.7 Types of Error-correction Methods ……………………………………………… 15 3.7.1 Explicit Correction ………………………………………………………… 15 3.7.2 Implicit Correction ………………………………………………………… 15 Summary ……………………………………………………………………………… 16 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES …………………………………………………… 17 An Overview of the Research Site ……………………………………………………… 17 1.1 Hoa Lu A High School …………………………………………………………… 17 1.2 Textbook ………………………………………………………………………… 17 1.3 Teachers ………………………………………………………………………… 17 1.4 Learning Situation in 10th Form ………………………………………………… 17 The Subjects of the Study ……………………………………………………………… 18 2.1 The Students ……………………………………………………………………… 18 2.2 The Teachers ……………………………………………………………………… 18 Data Collection Instruments …………………………………………………………… 18 3.1 Questionnaires …………………………………………………………………… 18 3.2 Classroom Observation …………………………………………………………… 19 Data Collection Procedures …………………………………………………………… 19 4.1 For Questionnaires ……………………………………………………………… 20 4.2 For Classroom Observation ……………………………………………………… 20 Summary ……………………………………………………………………………… 20 CHAPTER 3: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ……………………………………… 21 Presentation and Analysis from the Questionnaires …………………………………… 21 1.1 Students’ Questionnaires ………………………………………………………… 21 1.2 Teachers’ Questionnaires ………………………………………………………… 25 -82 Presentation and Analysis from Classroom Observation ……………………………… 28 Summary ……………………………………………………………………………… 31 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ………………………………………………… 32 Findings and Discussions ……………………………………………………………… 32 1.1 Teachers’ Awareness of Error Correction ……………………………………… 32 1.2 Facts about Error Correction ………………………… ……………………… 32 1.3 Problems for Error Correction …………………………………………………… 33 Recommendations ……………………………………………………………………… 33 2.1 Raising Teachers’ Awareness …………………………………………………… 34 2.2 Getting Insights into Students ……………………………………………… …… 34 2.3 Reducing Error Correction Frequency …………………………………………… 34 2.4 Making Pre-speaking Activities Meaningful ……………………………………… 34 2.5 Redesigning Inappropriate Tasks……………………………………….………… 35 2.6 Correcting Errors Strategically ………………………………………………… 35 2.6.1 Choosing Errors to Correct ……………………………………………… 35 2.6.2 Deciding Time to Correct Errors ………………………………………… 35 2.6.3 Diversifying Types of Correction ………………………………………… 36 2.6.4 Applying Different Error-correction Strategies …………………………… 36 Summary ……………………………………………………………………………… 36 CHAPTER 5: APPLICATIONS ……………………………………………………………………………… 37 PART III: CONCLUSION 38 Summary ………………………… …………………………………………………… 38 Pedagogical Implications ………………………………………………………….…… 38 Limitations of the Study ………………………………………………………………… 39 Suggestions for Further Studies ………………………………………………………… 39 REFERENCES APPENDICES Appendix 1: Questionnaire for Students Appendix 2: Questionnaire for Teachers Appendix 3: Classroom Observation Form 40 -4LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS AND TABLES Abbreviations CLT Commuonicative Language Teaching COFs Classrom Observation Forms CUP Cambridge University Press EFL English as a Foreign Language ELT English Language Teaching ESL English as a Second Language FL Foreign Language HLA Hoa Lu A IL Interlanguage L1 First Language/Mother Tongue (in this research: Vietnamese) L2 Second Language/ Target Language (in this research: English) OUP Oxford University Press SLA Second Language Acquisition Tables Tables Page Table 1: Students’ judgement on error-correction in their speaking lessons 30 Table 2: Students’ opinions of effective error-correction methods in speaking lessons 31 Table 3: Teachers’ judgement on the error-correction in their speaking lessons 33 Table 4: Teachers’ opinions of effective error-correction methods in speaking lessons 35 Table 5: The types of errors made and the timing of error-correction 37 Table 6: The types of correction and the types of correction methods 38 -5DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS (1) Aims are the underlying reasons for purposes of a course of instruction (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p 254) (2) Approach refers to different theories about the nature of language and how languages are learned (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p 20) (3) Communicative Competence is the ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a language in order to form grammatically correct sentences but also to know when and where to use these sentences and to whom (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p 65) (4) Input is language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p 182) (5) Language Froficiency refers to the degree of skill with which a person can use a language, such as how well a person can read, write, speak, or understand language (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p 204) (6) Linguistic Competence is the knowledge a learner knows about the language (Bailey, 2005, p 3) (7) Linguistic Performance is how a learner use the known knowledge in communication (Bailey, 2005, p 3) (8) Objectives are descriptions of what is to be achieved in a course (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p 253) (9) Speech (Oral) Errors are faults made by speakers during the production of sounds, words and sentences (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p 344) (10) Strategy is a procedure used in learning, thinking, etc which serve as a way of reaching a goal (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p 355) (11) Target Language is the language a person is learning, in contrast to a first language or mother tongue (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p 373) -9PART I: INTRODUCTION I Rationales Nowadays English plays an important role in socio-economic life Learning English is necessary for a lot of people The central of teaching and learning is to perfect four skills of which speaking is probably the most difficult for learners to develop because it requires them to produce the language most of the time spontaneously or without enough time to construct appropriate and correct utterances Over a long period, considerable attention has been paid to errors and error correction in speaking classes (Ellis, 1994) Different authors have different views Some consider an error as something natural They claim that people cannot avoid making errors and even can learn from them Making errors is a part of learning, and error correction should be done selectively in order to have better results in the classroom Others, however, regard an error as something negative which must be avoided As a consequence, language teachers have always adopted a repressive attitude towards it They usually hold most authority to correct learners‟ errors automatically, regarding the fact that learners value and expect teachers‟ correction To most language teachers, correcting learners‟ oral errors is one of the most frustrating tasks because it has more potential for subjectivity due to individual variables (Cohen, 1998) In considering the individual variables as influential parts in speaking, error correction is highly challenging and possibly perplexing Therefore, error correction should be done appropriately; lest, it will discourage learners from learning and practicing the language It should be noted that although error correction has been the focus of research for a long time, a large number of authors have concentrated mostly on the causes of errors, whether to correct oral error or not and the techniques to correct errors However, there is little research dealing with appropriate error-correction strategies in general and in speaking classes in particular The above situation of error correction in speaking classes and the gap of knowledge in the research area have aroused my interest and encouraged me to carry out the study entitled: “Appropriate Error-Correction Strategies in Speaking Lessons for the 10th Form Students at Hoa Lu A High School” II Aims of the Study The current research occurs in the context of Hoa Lu A (HLA) High School The major aim of the research is to find out appropriate error-correction strategies in speaking lessons To be specific, the aims of this thesis are: - 10 + to have insights into error correction, + to look at how teachers correct their students‟ oral errors, + to find out appropriate error-correction strategies in speaking lessons, + to offer some recommendations on correcting oral errors in speaking lessons III Scope of the Study Language generated by learners in either speech or writing is considered productive Errors occur in either speaking or writing lessons Due to the limits of time, ability and availability of the data, the researcher intends to investigate the current situation of correcting errors in speaking lessons at HLA High School and find out appropriate error-correction strategies for application in real context The respondents of this study are limited to the 10th form students at HLA High School, therefore, their opinions of appropriate error-correction strategies in speaking lessons might not be representative of all students at HLA High School in particular and all students learning English nationwide in general IV Research Questions To achieve the aims of the study, the following research questions are addressed: What kinds of oral errors are often made by the students in speaking lessons? Who often corrects oral errors? When and how are oral errors corrected in the classroom? What are appropriate error-correction strategies for speaking lessons? V Methods of the Study To achieve the aims of the study, the researcher reviews the related documents, which is a method to lay the theoretical background of the study In the study both qualitative and quantitative methods are used That is the data serving the research analysis and discussion are collected by means of survey questionnaires and classroom observation Quanlitative method is applied to analyze the results from data collection of the survey questionnaires on the 10th form students and teachers of English at HLA High School Besides, quatitative method is employed to analyze the data from classroom observation forms (COFs) The COFs are then synthesized and analyzed by the researcher By using each of the methods, relevant information to support the study will be achieved VI Significance of the Study Learners‟ errors are significant to both EFL teaching and learning, for errors are evidence of their learning development This thesis, therefore, will contribute a new implication to second language acquisition (SLA), particularly, to the area of error correction in speaking classes - 11 Pedagogically, information obtained from this study might help teachers of English get insights into oral errors and oral error correction From this they adjust their teaching and apply appropriate error-correction strategies to make error-correction more effective Personally, the researcher himself, as a language teacher, will have a good command of the process of teaching and learning EFL in general and errors and error correction in speaking lessons in particular These will help to enhance the teaching efficiency VII Structure of the Study The study consists of three main parts: Part I, Introduction, consists of the rationale, aims, scope, research questions, research methods, significance and structure of the study Part II, Development, is organized into five chapters: Chapter 1, Literature Review, presents various concepts relevant to the research topic such as approaches to teaching and learning speaking The following is the overview of errors which reviews the definitions of errors as well as types of errors This chapter also includes the views of appropriate error-correction strategies in which, when, what, who and how to correct errors effectively are mentioned in detail Chapter 2, Methodology, presents the situation of teaching and learning English, the facts of error correction in the 10th form speaking lessons at HLA High School and general information about the study subjects It also focuses on the data collection instruments and procedures Chapter 3, Presentation and Analysis of the Data, gives a detailed presentation and analysis of the data from the questionnaires and classroom observation Chapter 4, Findings, Discussions and Recommendations, consists of some discussions and interpretations of the findings of the study This chapter also provides some recommendations for effective error correction in speaking lessons Chapter 5, Applications, engages the practice of error correction in speaking lessons by following the three-stage model Part III, Conclusion, includes the summary of the study and some pedagogical implications for correcting errors appropriately in speaking lessons This part also points out some limitations of the study and provides some suggestions for further studies - 45 CHAPTER 5: APPLICATIONS In order to achieve more success in correcting oral errors, the practice of error correction is important for the teacher to employ in speaking classes According to Bailey (2005), when the interaction is in progress, the teacher listens to learners' L2 utterances in order to determine the errors, their frequency and gravity Then he or she decides on appropriate error-correction strategies for individual students The three-stage model to correct an error was suggested: In the first stage, the teacher should see if the learner initiates a self-correction In most cases, a cue (e.g., a voice signal) can signal that an error has occurred The student must hear the teacher‟s response and realize that the response is intended to elicit a correction He or she has to remember the original utterance which contained the error Then a wait of about 45 seconds is needed to see if he or she makes the correction With a “wait-time” in teacherlearner interaction, the learner is able to rethink what was said and initiate a self-correction In the second stage, if self-correction fails, the teacher asks the learner‟s peers for assistance This approach will help the other students to be engaged in what is happening in the interaction It also helps the teacher to know if the students are aware of the language problem Once the peer correction is given, it is important to refer the correction back to the learner to check comprehension If the student repeats the correction and also shows understanding, be sure to give praise or recognition However, if the learner cannot process the correction, not prolong the situation, but note it for additional practice or for focus at a later time when the learner has progressed in overall language proficiency and is developmentally ready to deal with the aspect of the language that has caused the problem In the third stage, if steps and fail, the teacher should help the learner with the correction To this, the teacher can choose and employ the appropriate error-correction strategies He or she can give the direct correction by providing the correct utterances or answers More clearly, the teacher can give the reason why the error is made, and suggestions for the students to avoid it in the future The ways the teachers correct errors must not upset the learners The teacher must also be concerned with what the student can and cannot understand and provide adaptive, qualified and motivating support for the individual learner in his learning process By following this process and determining the types of errors to treat, more well-informed decisions can be made with errors that impair communication, stigmatize the learner, or are repeated often - 46 PART III: CONCLUSION Summary This study carried out to investigate error correction in 10th form students‟ speaking lessons at HLA High School, to find out what appropriate error-correction strategies are, and to suggest some recommandations, applications and pedagogical implications in order to improve the situation The findings indicate that error correction is really a problem for both teachers and learners The teachers are not fully aware of errors and error correction in speaking lessons, so the effect of error correction was low From this situation, a good command of error-correction strategies and how to use them appropriately in speaking lessons will lead to the success in correcting errors A number of error-correction strategies have been recommended However, there is no perfect strategy so it is suggested corporating error-correction strategies when correcting learners‟ oral errors Besides appropriate error-correction strategies include choosing errors to correct based on certain criteria, using more student correction and implicit correction at suitable time so as not to interrupt students‟ speech, and taking students‟ variables into account Significantly, error correction will help improve students‟ language knowledge as well as skills In brief, the study successfully fulfils its aims as stated in research questions Pedagogical Implications It is important to restate that this study is planned to offer some insights to the teachers about learners‟ perception of oral error correction That is why it is worth considering the possible implications of the study for classroom practice There could be a number of ways in which the results of the present study might be applied to classroom practice Firstly, approaches to error correction in the language classroom cannot be rigid Rigid and immediate correction of every error at the time production may interfere with and alter learners‟ path of thinking and induce severe psychological frustration Secondly, not all errors need correcting Overcorrection will students harm and hence corrections should highlight important errors so that the students are able to use the target language correctly and avoid making errors Moreover, teachers should be sensitive enough to tolerate some errors, especially those that are evidence of learning taking place Such an attitude to errors on the part of the teacher will have positive effects on students the most important of which is to boost their confidence and overcome their fear of making errors Thirdly, error correction is a sensible practice It is believed that the teacher‟s practices are influenced by their viewpoints on error correction; therefore, teachers should be encouraged to - 47 gain knowledge of and insights into error correction Correcting a student‟s speech errors should aim to promote learning and get more involvement from other students Depending on the circumstances, teachers decide which language is used for correction to create favourable conditions for learning Lastly, a good understanding of the nature of error is necessary before a systematic means of eradicating them could be found Therefore, the teachers should be aware of the system of errors Only when the teachers know why an error has been produced can they set about correcting in a systematic and appropriate way Limitations of the Study This study has some constraints that might be essential to mention in this discussion Firstly, the external reliability is under threat since the combined role of the teacher and researcher might result in deviation of the data analysis The teacher might have his own expectation about the results of the study Nunan (1992) questions whether an independent researcher, on replicating the study, would come to the same findings Secondly, what are needed are more systematic and detailed analyses, which take into account different levels of explicit and implicit correction The present research included only two levels of manner of correction: explicit and implicit There can be an expandable range of focus on possibilities to include various levels of implicitness and explicitness found in classroom situations Thirdly, the issues such as timing, manner and type of correction are so broad and complex that they can not be explained comprehensively and inclusively by a limited study such as the present one Moreover, more comprehensive studies could be done to investigate students of which kind of language proficiency might benefit most from correction Suggestions for Further Studies This study opens up other areas for investigation into error correction Although much research was done to find out appropriate error correction strategies for speaking classes, the area of correcting students‟ errors according to their needs, demands and preferences was not much mentioned If the teacher turns to consider student individual differences thoroughly and uses several different correction strategies according to their needs, demands, and preferences, then the effect might be more satisfying for the students - 48 REFERENCES Allan, D (1991) Tape Journal: Bridging the Gap between Communication and Correction English Teaching Journal, 45(1), pp 61-66 Allwright, R (1975) Problems in the Study of the Language Teacher's Treatment of Learner Error In M.K Burt & H.C Dulay (Eds.), On TESOL 75: New Directions in Second Language Learning, Teaching, and Bilingual Education, (pp 96-109) Washington, D.C.: TESOL Allwright, D., & Bailey, K M (1991) Focus on the Language Classroom: An Introduction to Classroom Research for Language Teachers New York: CUP Bailey, K.M (2005) Practical English Language Teaching: Speaking New York: McGraw-Hill Brown, H D (1994) Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents Burt, K.M., & Kiparsky, C (1972) A Repair Manual for English Rowley, MA: Newbury House Burt, H D (1975) Error Analysis in the Adult EFL Classroom TESOL Quarterly, 9(1), pp 53-63 Carroll, S., & Swain, M (1993) Explicit and Implicit Negative Feedback: An Empirical Study of the Learning of Linguistic Generalizations Studies in SLA 15, pp 357-386 Chaudron, C (1986) Teachers‟ Priorities in Correcting Learners‟ Errors in French Immersion Classes In R Day (Ed.), Talking to Learn: Conversation in SLA Rowley: Newbury House 10 Chaudron, C (1987) The Role of Error Correction in Second Language Teaching In B.K Das (Ed.), Patterns of Classroom Interaction in Southeast Asia, pp 17-50 Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre 11 Chomsky, N (1959) Review of Verbal Behaviour by B F Skinner Language, 35, pp 26-58 12 Chun, A E., Day, R R., Chenoweth, N A., & Luppescu, S (1982) Errors, Interaction, and Correction: A Study of Native-nonnative Conversations TESOL Quarterly 16, pp 537-546 13 Cohen, A D (1975) Error Correction and the Training of Language Teachers Modern Language Journal, 59(8), pp 414-422 14 Cohen, A D (1998) Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language New York:Longman 15 Corder, S P (1967) The Significance of Learner‟s Errors International Review of Applied Linguistics (5), pp 161-170 - 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51 49 Truscott, J (1999) What's Wrong with Oral Grammar Correction? Canadian Modern Language Review, 55(4), pp 347-366 Retrieved November, 4th 2010 from http://www.utpjournals.com/jour.ihtml?lp=product/cmlr/554/554-Truscott.html 50 Walz, J C (1982) Error Correction Techniques for the FL Classroom Language in Education: Theory & Practice, (50), Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics - 52 - APPENDIX THE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS The questionnaire is designed for the research into Appropriate Error-correction Strategies in Speaking Lessons for the 10th Form Students at Hoa Lu A High School This is not a test, so there are no „right‟ or „wrong‟ answers Your assistance in completing the questionnaire is highly appreciated All the information provided by you is solely for the study purpose, and you can be confident that you will not be identified in any discussion of the data Part I: Give some information of yourself Age: ……………………………………………………… Gender: Female Male Part II: Please circle your choice(s) in answering each of the following questions How often are errors corrected in your speaking lessons? A Always B Usually D Seldom C Sometimes E Never Which kinds of errors are often corrected? A Lexical errors B Grammatical errors C Discourse errors D Phonological errors Others; (please specify): ………………….……………………………………………… When there are many errors in learners‟ speech, which types are corrected? A Errors hindering communication B Errors beyond learners‟ ability C Errors of common types D Errors of high frequency Others; (please specify): …………………………………….…………………………… When does your teacher often initiate error correction? A At transition periods B At the end of the lesson C During the activities D In the next lesson Others; (please specify): ……………………………….………………………….…… Who usually corrects errors? A You yourself B Your classmates C Your teacher Others; (please specify): ………………………………….……………………….…… How does your teacher correct errors in speaking lessons? A Showing the errors and then giving direct corrections B Showing the errors and giving hints for students to correct C Pointing out the errors without correction D Correcting errors in an encouraging way Others; (please specify): ………………………………………….………………….… Continued on back - 53 What does your teacher in order to correct errors effectively? A Try to be friendly and helpful B Get insights into students C Give students support for self-correction D Correct errors selectively Others; (please specify): …………………………………………….……………… … Part III: Below are some beliefs that learners have about correction of errors Read each statement and then decide if you: Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Not sure, Agree, or Strongly Agree Please show your choice by putting a tick ( ) in the space provided Strongly Items Disagree Not sure Disagree Much correction discourages learners from speaking while much tolerance results in the fossilization of errors In selecting errors to correct, repeated and shared errors are a priority 10 Constant immediate correction destroys the purpose of speaking activity 11 It is best for teachers to make a note about learner errors and return to them later 12 Correcting errors in an implicit way helps students to reflect more on their errors 13 The teachers use positive and encouraging error-correction strategies, and provide models for students to correct THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION! Agree Strongly Agree - 54 - APPENDIX THE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS The questionnaire is designed for the research into Appropriate Error-correction Strategies in Speaking Lessons for the 10th Form Students at Hoa Lu A High School This is not a test, so there are no „right‟ or „wrong‟ answers Your assistance in completing the questionnaire is highly appreciated All the information provided by you is solely for the study purpose, and you can be confident that you will not be identified in any discussion of the data Part I: Give some information of yourself Age: ………………………………………………….…………… Gender: Female Male Number of years of teaching:…………… ……………………… Part II: Please circle your choice(s) in answering each of the following questions How often are learner errors corrected in your speaking lessons? A Always B Usually D Seldom C Sometimes E Never Which types of errors are often corrected? A Lexical errors B Grammatical errors C Phonological errors D Discourse errors Others; (please specify) ………………….……………………………………………… When you often initiate error correction? A During the activity B At transition periods C At the end of the lesson D In the next lesson Others; (please specify) ………………….……………………………………………… Which type(s) of correction is/are often used? A Teacher-correction B Peer-correction C Self-correction Others; (please specify) ………………….……………………………………………… Which criteria for selecting errors you base on? A Errors hindering communication B Errors of high frequency C Learners‟ variables D Pedagogical focus of the lessons Others; (please specify) ………………….……………………………………………… How you usually correct errors? A Rejecting what your students have just said B Showing the error and giving clues about how to correct it C Giving direct corrections of the errors D Ignoring the errors and only paying attention to the ideas Others; (please specify): …………………………………………………….………… Continued on back - 55 What you often for the sake of successful error-correction? A Use appropriate error correction strategies B Make suitable changes to the teaching material C Give clear instructions with examples D Get insight of lesson focus Others; (Please specify) ………………….……………………………………………… Part III: Below are some beliefs that teachers have about correction of errors Read each statement and then decide if you: Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Not sure, Agree, or Strongly Agree Please show your choice by putting a tick () in the space provided Strongly Items Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree In speaking lessons, improving learners‟ fluency is more important than accuracy When there are many errors in learners‟ speech, errors should be corrected selectively 10 Teachers should consider the effect of error-correction on groups of learners or the whole class 11 Indirect correction reduces learners‟ error frequency ratios more than direct correction 12 Errors that are beyond learners‟ level should not be corrected 13 Knowing learners‟ variables helps teachers decide whether to overlook or to correct errors THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION! Agree Strongly Agree - 56 - APPENDIX CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FORM Teacher‟s name:…………………………… …….….……… Observer‟s name:……………….……………………….……… Class:………………………………………… ….….……… School:……………………… ………………………….……… Number of Students:…………………………… …………… Female:……….……… Date:………………………………………… ….….………… Time (From/To):………………………….……………….…… Lesson:………………………………………………………… Focus of Observation:………………….…….……….……… Types of Errors Timing of Types of Error-correction Error-correction No Discourse Lexical Grammatical Phonological Immediate Error Error Error Error Correction Types of Errorcorrection Methods Non- Self Peer Teacher Explicit Implicit immediate Correction Correction Correction Correction Correction Correction Male:…….… ….… Brief Description of Errors and Error Corrections - 57 Total Comments: ……………………………………… …………….…….…… ……………… ………………….………………………………………… ……………………………………… …………….……… ………….………… ………………….………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… …………….……… …………….… …… …………………… ……….……………………………………… Judgements: ……… ………………………… …………….………….… …… ………… …………….….………………………………………… ……………………………………… …………….……… …………….……… …………… …….…….…….……………………………………… ……………………………………… …………….………….…………….……… ………………….…….…….……………………………………… Signature of Teacher Signature of Observer - 58 - Thank you for evaluating AnyBizSoft PDF Merger! To remove this page, please register your program! Go to Purchase Now>> AnyBizSoft PDF Merger  Merge multiple PDF files into one  Select page range of PDF to merge  Select specific page(s) to merge  Extract page(s) from different PDF files and merge into one ... developing a set of teaching strategies for themselves and learning strategies for their learners in - 17 language learning process As Mitchell (1998) claims that appropriate strategies facilitate and... to examine what appropriate errorcorrection strategies in speaking lessons are Finally, a summary of the chapter will conclude the literature review Approaches to Teaching and Learning Speaking. .. of them are female Three of them got formal training The rest are in- service graduates 1.4 Learning Situation in 10th Form In English lessons, the main teaching aids used are simply a blackboard,