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DICTIONARY OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Second Edition Compiled and edited by the International Food Information Service A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication C International Food Information Service (IFIS Publishing) 2005 Second edition published 2009 C International Food Information Service (IFIS Publishing) 2009 FSTA – Food Science and Technology Abstracts® and Food Science Central® are registered trade marks within Europe and the USA IFIS Publishing, Lane End House, Shinfield Road, Shinfield, Reading RG2 9BB, UK Telephone +44 118 988 3895, email ifis@ifis.org, or visit www.foodsciencecentral.com ISBN 978-0-86014-186-0 (IFIS Publishing e-Book) Disclaimer The information contained herein, including any expression of opinion and any projection or forecast, has been obtained from or is based upon sources believed by us to be reliable, but is not guaranteed as to accuracy or completeness The information is supplied without obligation and on the understanding that any person who acts upon it or otherwise changes his/her position in reliance thereon does so entirely at his/her own risk Use of general descriptions, trademarks and the like, even if not specifically identified as such, does not imply that they are not protected by relevant regulations Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007 Blackwell’s publishing programme has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell Registered office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom Editorial offices 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, United Kingdom 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought ISBN: 9781405187404 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Dictionary of food science and technology / compiled and edited by the International Food Information Service – 2nd ed p ; cm ISBN 978-1-4051-8740-4 (hardback : alk paper) Food industry and trade–Dictionaries [DNLM: Food Technology–Dictionary–English TP 368.2 D554 2009] TP368.2.D58 2009 664.003–dc22 Typeset by IFIS Publishing Printed in Singapore 2009 2008053562 I International Food Information Service PREFACE AND GUIDE TO DICTIONARY USAGE The first edition of the Dictionary of Food Science and Technology was published in 2005 to complement the 2004 edition of the companion Thesaurus to the bibliographic database FSTA – Food Science and Technology Abstracts® Since that time, not only has the Thesaurus been updated several times online and in print1 , but the passing of time has also meant that many of the terms appearing in the first edition of the Dictionary have become outdated; new terms have also become apparent In this second edition of the Dictionary, 763 completely new terms have been defined for the first time, and all 7,849 existing terms from the first edition have been checked for accuracy, resulting in over 1,500 term definitions being rewritten This second edition of the Dictionary contains 8,612 terms in total In keeping with the first edition, the second edition contains a large number of definitions covering food commodities of every description and also many definitions of terms which are specific to food science and technology (for example, covering sensory analysis, consumer research, food composition, catering and food safety) It is further augmented with definitions of terms from cognate disciplines (including biochemistry, biotechnology, chemistry, economics, engineering, microbiology, packaging, physics and public health) Whenever appropriate, local names, synonyms and Latin names also appear New additions to this edition include over 140 nutrition and health-related terms, reflecting recent increases in the importance and emphasis placed on nutrition and health by the food industry, academia and the general public Coverage of these topics in FSTA has also increased in recent years Similarly, terms relevant to pet foods and pet nutrition appear for the first time, since their appearance in the FSTA database from 2006 onwards The Dictionary has been designed to be comprehensive, clear and easy to use Alphabetical order in the Dictionary is determined on a letter by letter basis (not word by word) as follows: Acetates Acetic acid Acetic acid bacteria Acetic fermentation Acetobacter Characters such as numbers, hyphens, primes, subscripts and superscripts are ignored when ordering terms, as are small capitals, hyphenated modifiers and alphabetic Greek characters For example, N -Acetylglucosamine, -Amino acids, and 2-Aminobutane all appear under the letter A Similarly, ␣-Carotene and -Carotene both appear under the letter C The Greek alphabet is given at Appendix A FSTA Thesaurus, eighth edition, IFIS Publishing 2007; ISBN 978-0-86014-171-6 xi Preface and Guide to Dictionary Usage xii Terms in the Dictionary are shown in bold typeface Cross-references within definitions to other terms appearing in the Dictionary are also shown in bold For example, Ale Historically, a beer type made without hops; in modern usage, a range of British-style beers, commonly brewed with top-fermenting brewers yeasts Thus, the entry for ale given above shows that the Dictionary also contains definitions for the terms beer, hops and brewers yeasts Similarly, the entry for bacteriocins Bacteriocins Peptides produced by specific bacteria that possess antibacterial activity Both purified bacteriocins and bacteriocin-producing bacteria are used in the food industry, applications including inhibition of the growth of pathogens and spoilage organisms indicates that the Dictionary also has definitions for the terms peptides, bacteria, antibacterial activity, pathogens and spoilage The definitions in the Dictionary have been compiled and edited by specialist scientific staff at IFIS Publishing who also produce FSTA and the companion Thesaurus IFIS is an acronym for the International Food Information Service which was founded in 1968 The IFIS mission is to provide information products and services, commission research and provide education in information science for the international food science, food technology and nutrition community IFIS Publishing is a not-for-profit organization (Charity No 1068176) and a company limited by guarantee (Company No 3507902) The Dictionary has been compiled to appeal to a wide range of readers It is hoped that this resource will be a valuable tool for people of all levels working in the fields of food science, food technology and nutrition, as well as students of these subjects and their teachers, and anyone who has a general interest in the issues facing the international food sector We would be pleased to hear from readers of the Dictionary who may wish to comment on this edition or suggest candidate terms for future editions Correspondence concerning the Dictionary should be addressed to the Head of Publishing, IFIS Publishing, Lane End House, Shinfield Road, Shinfield, Reading RG2 9BB, UK; e-mail: ifis@ifis.org CONTENTS Foreword ix Preface and Guide to Dictionary Usage xi The Dictionary Appendix A Greek Alphabet 465 Appendix B Scientific Societies and Organisations in the Food Sciences 467 Appendix C Web Resources in the Food Sciences 471 vii A AAS Abbreviation for atomic absorption spectroscopy Abalones Marine gastropod molluscs belonging to the family Haliotidae, which contains around 70 species; widely distributed, but found mainly in the Western Pacific (Japan and Australia), and also off California and Southern Africa Only the adductor muscle is edible, having a mild sweet flavour; this muscle is normally tenderized to soften the naturally tough, rubbery texture Marketed in a variety of forms, including powdered, brined and canned products Abate Alternative term for the pesticide temephos Abattoirs Types of slaughterhouses where animals are slaughtered for meat and offal Abattoirs usually include lairage (a holding area for live animals), a slaughtering line and cold stores Facilities for processing of by-products (blood, intestines, skins, fat, bristle, unusable waste products), and treatment of waste water and air are often included Abondance cheese French semi-hard mountain cheese made from milk of cows of the breeds Abondance, Montbeliard and Tarine Characterized by a strong aroma and a complex flavour The crust and a grey layer beneath are removed before consumption Abreh Alternative term for abrey Abrey Sudanese, non-alcoholic, fermented beverages made from sorghum Abscisic acid Plant growth regulator, important in ripening of fruits and cereals Absidia Genus of fungi of the class Zygomycetes Occur as saprotrophs on decaying vegetable matter, grains, soil or dung, and meat, or as parasites or pathogens of plants or animals Some species may be used in the production of chitosan (e.g Absidia coerulea, A glauca and A atrospora) Other applications include the production of enzymes for use in the food industry (e.g Į-galactosidases) Absinthe Spirits flavoured with aniseed and wormwood Widely believed to exhibit neurotoxicity as a result of thujone derived from wormwood The spirit was prohibited in many countries early in the 20th century However, legal manufacture and sale of the beverage have become more widespread since the 1990s Absorbents Materials or substances that are capable of absorption Uses of absorbents include incorporation within food packaging (to absorb oxygen as a preservation technique, to control humidity, and to manage aroma and flavour problems in packaged foods) and for purification of foods and beverages, such as drinking water and liquid foods Absorption Process involving molecules of one substance being taken directly into another substance Absorption may be either a physical or a chemical process, physical absorption involving such factors as solubility and vapour-pressure relationships, and chemical absorption involving chemical reactions between the absorbed substance and the absorbing medium Absorption includes such processes as the passage of nutrients and other substances from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood and lymph, and also the uptake of water, fats and other substances into foods Acacia Plants of the genus Acacia (family Fabaceae), mostly tropical shrubs and trees Acacia seeds are used as foods, and shoots may be used in soups, curries, omelettes and stir fries Acacia honey has a mild flowery flavour Several species of Acacia yield gums, such as gum acacia which is also known as gum arabic Acai Small, dark purple fruits from the palms Euterpe oleraceae The pulps and juices may be used in beverages, as well as in functional foods Rich in dietary fibre and fatty acids, and have strong antioxidative activity Acanthamoeba Genus of free-living amoebae which occur in soil and fresh water Some species may be opportunistic pathogens Acaricides Pesticides used to control mites and ticks (family Acaridae), many of which are responsible for animal diseases and spoilage of stored crops Examples include amitraz, bromopropylate, coumaphos and fluvalinate Residues in foods may represent a health hazard to consumers ACC Abbreviation for the plant growth regulator, 1aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid Acceptability The degree to which the quality of a food is regarded as satisfactory Acceptable daily intake A safety level for substances used as food additives Usually calculated as Acceptance 1/100th of the maximum dose of the substance that causes no adverse effects in appropriate test organisms Abbreviated to ADI Acceptance The willingness to regard the quality of a food as satisfactory ACE inhibitors Enzyme inhibitors which inhibit activity of peptidyl-dipeptidase A, EC 3.4.15.1, also known as angiotensin converting enzyme or ACE Inhibition of this enzyme in vivo leads to reduced vasoconstriction, thus ACE inhibitors exhibit antihypertensive activity and are components of some functional foods Acephate One of a number of systemic organophosphorus insecticides used to control a wide range of chewing and sucking insects (e.g aphids, sawflies and leafhoppers) in fruits and vegetables Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III) Acerola Alternative term for Barbados cherries Acesulfame K One of the non-nutritive artificial sweeteners (trade name Sunett) A white crystalline powder, approx 200 times sweeter than sucrose Often blended with other sweeteners to give a more sugar-like taste and to mask aftertaste Stable under heat, and moderately acid or basic conditions Used in foods and beverages since 1983 and approved by >100 countries worldwide Used in beverages, dairy products, preserves, bakery products, confectionery, salad dressings and breakfast cereals Acetaldehyde Aldehyde, synonym ethanal One of the common flavour compounds in many foods and beverages May cause taints in some foods Toxic at excessive concentrations Acetals Group of diethers which occur as natural flavour compounds in foods such as fruits and herbs, and alcoholic beverages May be used in flavourings Acetan Anionic, xanthan-like exopolysaccharides formed by Acetobacter xylinum Of potential use in thickeners or gelling agents Acetates Salts or esters of acetic acid Flavour compounds in many foods and beverages May be used as preservatives Acetic acid Member of the short chain fatty acids group, which occurs in a range of foods and beverages May be one of the flavour compounds, or cause taints, depending on food or beverage type and the concentration at which it is present Acetic acid is the main constituent of vinegar It may be used for preservation or flavouring of foods Acetic acid bacteria Any aerobic, rod-shaped Gram negative bacteria, e.g Acetobacter spp and Gluconobacter spp., capable of oxidizing ethanol to acetic acid Occur on the surface of fruits, vegeta- Acetophenone bles and flowers, and in soil Used industrially in the manufacture of vinegar May cause spoilage of beer and wines Acetic fermentation The process by which acetic acid bacteria such as Acetobacter and Gluconobacter spp metabolize an alcoholic substrate to form acetic acid, the main constituent of vinegar Alcoholic substrates can be obtained from a variety of sources, such as fruits, vegetables and grain Acetobacter Genus of Gram negative, strictly aerobic, rod-shaped acetic acid bacteria of the family Acetobacteraceae, that are capable of oxidizing ethanol to acetic acid Occur on fruits and flowers May be responsible for spoilage of beer and wines Acetobacter aceti and A pasteurianus are used in commercial production of vinegar Acetoin Flavour compound found commonly in dairy products and wines Synonyms include 3hydroxy-2-butanone and acetylmethylcarbinol Į-Acetolactate Molecular formula, C5H8O4; synonym, 2-acetoxypropanoic acid Precursor of the flavour compounds diacetyl and acetoin which are valuable in dairy products but which cause off flavour in sake and beer Acetolactate decarboxylases EC 4.1.1.5 Decarboxylases used to reduce maturation times in winemaking by converting acetolactate to acetoin, and in brewing to reduce levels of diacetyl, a cause of taints in beer Also used to analyse diacetyl and acetoin concentrations in beer Diacetyl produces a desirable aroma in dairy products, and development of lactic acid bacteria with reduced levels of these enzymes has been attempted Acetolactate synthases EC 2.2.1.6 Transferases which catalyse the conversion of pyruvic acid to Įacetolactate in the presence of its cofactor, thiamine diphosphate These enzymes can also catalyse formation of 2-ethyl-2-hydroxy-3-oxobutanoate from pyruvate and 2-oxobutanoate Involved in synthesis of amino acids (valine, isoleucine and leucine) and flavour compounds, including acetoin and diacetyl Acetomonas Former name for the genus Gluconobacter Acetone Smallest of the ketones, synonym propanone Widely used as a solvent in food analyses, particularly for lipids and related compounds Produced along with butanol and ethanol as a microbial fermentation product from unconventional feedstocks including food processing wastes Acetophenone Aromatic ketone and one of the flavour compounds in honeys and a variety of other foods and beverages A precursor for phenylethanol Acetylacetone Acetylacetone Ketone which occurs in the flavour compounds of foods and beverages, including beer, coffee and fermented dairy products Also widely used as an analytical reagent, e.g in the determination of formaldehyde Synonym is pentanedione Acetylation Introduction of acetyl groups into a compound or substance Usually achieved by reaction with acetic anhydride, acetic acid or an acetate such as vinyl acetate Sometimes used to protect hydroxyl groups during organic syntheses Such modification is also used to alter the physicochemical properties, functional properties or nutritional quality of substances such as starch, proteins and carbohydrates Acetylcholinesterases EC 3.1.1.7 Esterases which convert the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to choline and acetates Act on a variety of other acetic esters and also possess transacetylase activity Inhibition of these enzymes can be a marker for neurotoxicity Some acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are used medically, e.g to treat Alzheimer's disease, and some are used as pesticides These enzymes can be used analytically to detect pesticide residues in foods and beverages Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity has been found in essential oils and plant foods Also known as cholinesterases N-Acetyl-L-cysteine One of the antioxidant compounds used as food additives, e.g to minimise browning and off flavour formation in fruit juices, other fruit products and vegetable products, and to inhibit haemagglutinins in legume meal Also used to inhibit formation of biofilms on food contact surfaces Commercially available as a food supplement claiming to provide detoxification effects and benefits to the immune system Acetylene Hydrocarbon which acts as a plant growth regulator and can be used to control ripening of fruits N-Acetylglucosamine Derivative of the amino sugar glucosamine in which the amino group is acetylated Component of cell walls and chitin Acetylglucosaminidases Comprise Į-Nacetylglucosaminidases (EC 3.2.1.50), which hydrolyse terminal non-reducing N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residues in N-acetyl-Į-D-glucosaminides, and mannosyl-glycoprotein endo-ȕ-N-acetylglucosamidases (EC 3.2.1.96), which catalyse endo-hydrolysis of the N,Ncdiacetylchitobiosyl unit in high-mannose glycopeptides and glycoproteins containing the [Man(GlcNAc)2]Asn structure; one N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residue remains attached to the protein, while the rest of the oligosaccharide is released intact These glycosidases are involved in chitin degradation applications, and con- Acidophilin tribute to antibacterial activity in egg shell membranes and to autolysis due to autolysins in some bacteria ȕ-N-acetylhexosaminidases EC 3.2.1.52 Glycosidases which catalyse the hydrolysis of terminal non-reducing N-acetyl-D-hexosamine residues in Nacetyl-ȕ-D-hexosaminides Substrates include Nacetylglucosides and N-acetylgalactosides Involved in degradation of polysaccharides including chitin N-Acetyllactosamine synthases Alternative term for lactose synthases Acetylmethylcarbinol Flavour compound found commonly in dairy products and wines Synonym of acetoin N-Acetylneuraminic acid One of the organic acids, synonym sialic acid A nitrogen-containing sugar derivative with a carbonyl functional group found ubiquitously in complex carbohydrates Acetyltransferases Acyltransferases which are members of the class EC 2.3.1 and catalyse transfer of acetyl groups, usually from acetyl-coenzyme A Acha Species of cereal crop, Digitaria exilis, indigenous to West and North Africa and grown for its grain Achromobacter Genus of strictly aerobic, rodshaped, non spore forming Gram negative bacteria of the family Alcaligenaceae Occur in soil and water Some species produce pigments and enzymes of industrial importance Acid casein Casein produced by acid precipitation from milk at its isoelectric point, pH 4.7 Acidification can be achieved by direct addition of an acid or through the action of lactic acid bacteria Acid curd cheese A cheese produced by microbial ripening of quarg, ripening proceeding from the outside of the cheese Cultures used include bacteria, fungi and yeasts, the selection depending on the type of cheese being made Acidification Process by which the pH of a substance is decreased to below making it acidic Acidity The degree to which a substance or solution is acidic, being dependent upon the concentration of hydrogen ions Level of acidity is expressed using pH Acidocins Bacteriocins produced by Lactobacillus acidophilus Acidolysis Esterification reactions of acids with esters Used to produce structured lipids (e.g acidolysis of tristearin with long chain fatty acids) or to modify the lipid composition of fats and oils (e.g acidolysis of seal blubber oils with lauric acid and interesterification of butterfat with CLA) Catalysed by lipases or chemical catalysts Acidophilin Fermented milk prepared by fermentation of milk with a mixture of lactic acid bacteria, Acidophilus milk including Lactobacillus acidophilus, and kefir grains Acidophilus milk Fermented milk produced by fermentation of milk with Lactobacillus acidophilus Consumption of acidophilus milk has beneficial effects on the intestine Acidophilus pastes Cultured milk products made using curd resulting from milk acidification with Lactobacillus acidophilus Acid phosphatases EC 3.1.3.2 Hydrolases with wide specificity which catalyse hydrolysis of orthophosphoric monoesters into an alcohol and orthphosphate Also catalyse transphosphorylation Widely distributed in nature, and therefore found in a range of foods Involved in acidity regulation in fruits, and in flavour development, e.g in cheese Also used as a marker of thermal processing in meat Produced by microbial fermentation for commercial applications Acid rain Rain which has low pH caused by formation of acids due to interaction of industrial gas emissions with water Studies with simulated acid rain have shown adverse effects on yield and quality of exposed crops, especially fruits such as apples, pears and peaches Fruit marketability and composition were affected Acids Chemical compounds which release hydrogen ions when dissolved in water, or whose H can be replaced by metal atoms or basic radicals, or which react with bases to form salts and water Include both organic acids and inorganic acids Inorganic acids may be used in food processing or cleaning of equipment Organic acids of many types are constituents of a wide range of foods, both as natural constituents and as processing aids Important types of organic acids in foods include fatty acids, amino acids and carboxylic acids Į-Acids The main bitter compounds of hops resins, used to impart a bitter taste to beer Converted to the more soluble and more bitter iso-Į-acids during boiling of worts Also known as humulones ȕ-Acids Low-solubility resin constituents in hops which have little bittering capacity in beer Also known as lupulones Acids resistance Ability of organisms to withstand acidic conditions Important for survival of microorganisms in acid environments such as the gastrointestinal tract and during fermentation of foods Acidulants Organic acids used in foods to control pH and fulfil a variety of functions Applications include preservation of meat products, flavour enhancement, prevention of discoloration in sliced fruits, and prevention of development of rancidity in Acremonium oils and fats Commonly used acidulants in the food industry include citric acid, acetic acid, propionic acid and lactic acid Acid values The level of free fatty acids present in lipids The acid value, also known as the acid number, is determined by measuring the amount of KOH in milligrammes that neutralizes g of the lipid Acid values of fresh edible fats tend to be low and increase with storage as the glycerides present in the lipids break down to generate free fatty acids Acid whey Whey produced by acid coagulation of milk during cheesemaking Acinetobacter Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped, psychrotrophic Gram negative bacteria of the family Moraxellaceae Occur in soil, water and raw milk, and on the surfaces of chilled meat and fish Some species may be used in production of lipases (e.g Acinetobacter radioresistens and A calcoaceticus) Ackee Common name for Blighia sapida, also known as akee This fruit was introduced to the West Indies from West Africa and is particularly popular in Jamaica Fruits are pear shaped and can be consumed raw, cooked, or in canned or frozen forms Unripe ackee contains hypoglycine A, a toxic amino acid, which can cause the potentially fatal Jamaican vomiting sickness Levels of hypoglycine A rapidly diminish at maturity, but damaged or fallen fruit should not be consumed Aconitic acid One of the organic acids found in sugar cane Used in flavourings and acidulants for the food industry and also in the manufacture of emulsifying agents, plastics and detergents Acorns Nuts obtained from the oak tree (Quercus spp.) Widely available, and used as a source of food by some populations, particularly in times of need Can be pounded into meal for use in baked goods or used as coffee substitutes Acorns are high in starch and are used in Korea to produce an edible starch gel known as mook They also represent a source of edible oils Acoustics Study of the physical properties of sound; also refers to techniques based on transmission, generation or reception of sound Acoustic devices have been used to detect insects infestation of grain Acoustics has also been employed in examining the structure of materials, e.g pasta, and as the basis of non-destructive methods to determine the texture of foods, such as fruits, cheese and bakery products Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Epidemic disease commonly abbreviated to AIDS Acremonium Genus of fungi of the phylum Ascomycota May be used in biotechnology for the pro-