8 S. Osafo Acquaah and E FrempongChapter 2 Pesticides in the marine environment of Ghana S. Osafo Acquaah and E. Frempong INTRODUCTION The Republic of Ghana – formed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coast and the Togoland trust territory in 1957 – was the first country in colonial Africa to gain its independence. It is located in western Africa roughly between Lat. 5°N and 11°N, Long. 1°E and 3°30'W. It borders the Gulf of Guinea in the south, Burkina Faso (Upper Volta) along its north and northwest border, the Republic of Côte d’Ivoire in the west and the Togolese Republic (Togo) in the east. Ghana has a total land area of 238,540 km 2 divided among 10 administrative regions: Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Central, Eastern, Greater Accra, Northern, Upper East, Upper West, Volta, and Western (Figure 2.1). Ghana’s climate is warm and comparatively dry along the southeast coast but hot and humid in the southwest and hot and dry in the north. There are two distinct rainy seasons in the south: April to July and September to November; however, in the north, the rainy seasons tend to merge lasting from April through September. Annual rainfall ranges from about 1,100 mm in the north to about 2,100 mm in the southeast. The harmattan, a dry, northeasterly desert wind, blows from December to March, lowering the humidity and creating hot days and cool nights in the north. In the south the effects of the harmattan are felt primarily in January. A tropical rainforest belt, broken by heavily forested hills along with many streams and rivers, extends northward from the Gulf of Guinea, near the Côte d’Ivoire frontier. This area, known as the Ashanti, produces most of the country’s cocoa, minerals, and timber. North of the rainforest, Ghana is covered by low bush, park-like savanna, and grassy plains. Ghana’s dominant feature is 8,482 km 2 Lake Volta, which backs up behind Akosombo Dam on the Volta River, and is one of the world’s largest artificially created lakes. This lake generates electricity, provides inland transportation, and is a potentially valuable resource for irrigation and fish farming in Ghana. It also provides an additional 1,125 km of arterial and feeder waterways beyond the 168 km of perennial navigation – for launches and © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in the marine environment of Ghana 9 lighters – on the Volta, Ankobra, and Tano rivers. Ghana’s coastline stretches for 539 km along the Gulf of Guinea and is mostly a low, sandy shore backed by plains and scrub. It is intersected by several rivers and streams, most of which are navigable only by canoe. The country is well endowed with natural resources, e.g. gold, timber, industrial diamonds, bauxite, manganese, fish, rubber, and hydropower, and has twice the per capita output of the poorer countries in West Africa. Gold, timber, and cocoa production are its major sources of foreign exchange while the domestic economy continues to revolve around subsistence agriculture. Agriculture, including natural resource extraction, accounts for 47 percent of Ghana’s GDP and employs 54.7 percent of the work force, mainly small landholders. Ghana’s land use includes 12 percent in arable land, 7 percent in permanent crops, 22 percent in permanent pastures and 35 percent in forests and woodlands with the remaining 24 percent in other uses (1993 est.). There are also 60 km 2 of irrigated farmland (1993 est.). The recent drought in the north has severely affected agricultural activities in that region. However, throughout the country deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, poaching, Figure 2.1 Map of Ghana showing the ten administrative regions and the marine coastline on the Gulf of Guinea © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 10 S. Osafo Acquaah and E Frempong and habitat destruction threaten wildlife populations. Water pollution and inade- quate supplies of potable water also pose serious problems for the approximately 19.5 million inhabitants of Ghana. Ghana is party to a number of international agreements affecting the environ- ment including the Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, and Wetlands agreements. Ghana has also signed but not yet ratified the Marine Life Conservation agreement. The effect of pesticides on public health and on the environment including the tropical marine environment of Ghana are of special interest to the nation. The marine environment of Ghana is polluted from a variety of sources: industrial waste effluent of several industries, e.g. breweries, textile manufacturers, fish proces- sors, paint manufacturers, poultry and livestock feedmills, cement manufacturing companies, and oil refineries, located in the coastal industrial towns of Accra, Tema, Sekondi, Takoradi, and Cape Coast; discharges from the inland Lake Volta and the rivers Densu, Tano, Ankobra, and Pra; domestic sources such as sewage; agricultural activities; mining; quarrying; and others. In the past 15 years, there has been a growing interest and increased investment in agriculture to boost food production in Ghana. This has led to increased use of pesticides for the control or eradication of agricultural pests. Most of the pesticides used for agricultural and other purposes are non-specific and can affect both target and non-target organisms if they reach the marine ecosystems of Ghana. This chapter presents the status of pesticide pollution in the tropical marine environment of Ghana. Although some of the problems associated with the pollution of Ghana’s marine environment have been recognized, very little research work has been done to assess the magnitude of the pollution problem and the nature of the pollutants. PESTICIDE LEGISLATION IN GHANA For many years, there was no organization or agency responsible for regulating the importation, manufacture, distribution, handling, and use of pesticides in Ghana. Early attempts by some government organizations such as the Ministry of Health, Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ghana Standards Board to control the importation and distribution and use of pesticides in the country were not successful due to lack of coordination and logistics. The Environmental Protection Council, now referred to as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), was established in 1974 as an advisory and research organization to coordinate the activities of other government bodies concerned with issues related to the environment. It adopted procedures that required all importers and formulators of pesticides to seek clearance for the importation of pesticides (Environmental Protection Council, 1991). In this regard, chemicals are screened by the agency before they are imported into the country. The EPA is assisted and supported by the Ghana Standards Board © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in the marine environment of Ghana 11 (GSB), Ghana Customs, Excise and Preventive Services, Factories Inspectorate Department, and the Plant Quarantine and Regulatory Services. This screening provides a form of control over the industrial chemical trade within the country and the importation of chemicals into the country. In 1994, the EPA Act (Act 490) was promulgated and, eventually the Pesticide Control and Management Bill (PCMB) was passed in 1996. The PCMB ensures an effective monitoring of the importation, distribution, storage, sale, and use of pesticides and other hazardous substances in the country. The Ghana Government enacted the PCMB to protect farmers, consumers, and the environment from harmful chemicals by ensuring quality in the manufacture of these chemicals and judicious use of these substances (particularly pesticides). Through this PCMB, the government hopes to ensure that end users are able to buy efficacious pesticides and apply them to best advantage; protect pesticide applicators, handlers, and those in contact with pesticides against the toxic effects of pesticides, especially irreversible effects; protect the general population against hazardous residues in foodstuffs; and protect the environment, especially non-target wildlife, against undesirable effects or hazards from applied pesticides. The legislation is divided into four parts and the essential provisions of each part are as set out below. Part I addresses the registration of pesticides and provides for the compulsory registration, by Ghana’s EPA, of all pesticides unless a pesticide is exempted from registration under Clause 2. Under such circumstances an unregistered pesticide may be imported for experimental or research purposes but not for general distribution, imported in the event of a national emergency, or imported only for purposes of a direct transhipment through Ghana (and it is permitted for entry into the country of destination). Part I also outlines the method for companies to apply for registration of pesticides and the mode and basis of classification of pesticides. Pesticides are classified as restricted, suspended, or banned and are subject to the ‘Prior Informed Consent Procedure’, which enables the national pesticide law to be linked with internal regulations at the local district and regional levels in order to meet obligations under international trade protocols for control of pesticides and other chemical substances. Ghana’s EPA may approve and register a pesticide under such conditions as it may determine and may only register a pesticide if it is satisfied that the pesticide is safe and effective for the use for which it is intended and that the pesticide has been tested for efficacy and safety under local conditions. In addition, it has the power to ban or suspend the registration of any pesticide or cancel the registration where it is satisfied that the pesticide is not effective or may cause hazards to people, animals, crops, or the environment (Environmental Protection Council, 1991). There is also a provision for the provisional clearance of some pesticides, valid for no more than two years, for use before registration under certain circumstances. The EPA also has the authority to cancel such provisional clearance status. Applicants are informed in writing of refusals to register a pesticide and the grounds for the refusal. A pesticide registration remains valid for a period not exceeding two years and is renewable subject to review. Ghana’s EPA maintains a registry of © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 12 S. Osafo Acquaah and E Frempong pesticides with the names and particulars of registered and provisionally cleared pesticides and publishes, annually, in the Gazette a list of registered pesticides, their classification, and amendments made to their classifications. Part II of the legislation sets forth requirements for the licensing of dealers in pesticides, which are defined as importers, exporters-manufacturers, distributors, advertisers, and sellers of pesticides. Dealers are required to obtained licenses as a prerequisite for dealing in pesticides and to keep records of their activities, retain them for 10 years, and make them available to the EPA when so required. The EPA also sets out safeguards for the use of pesticides and has the power to restrict or prohibit the use of a registered pesticide in designated areas within specified periods. The legislation prescribes appropriate containers, packaging, and labels for pesticides; stipulates that certain acts in relation to the adulteration of registered pesticides are prohibited; sets forth certain standards for the chemical component of registered pesticides; and prohibits the false advertisement of registered or provisionally cleared pesticides. Furthermore, it establishes a Pesticides Technical Committee of the GSB to perform pesticide control and management functions under the Bill as directed by the Board. Part III details the enforcement provisions of the PCMB and provides for inspectors and persons authorized by District Assemblies to perform the functions of properly implementing the provisions of this law. It also provides penalties for failing to comply with provisions of the law. The final part of this landmark legislation contains several general provisions that enjoin customs officers to assist in enforcement, provided that the Minister for the Environment in consultation with the Minister responsible for Food and Agriculture makes regulations for the full implementation of the law, and allowed a 6-month grace period for registration of pesticides and issuance of licenses before sanctions could be imposed (Environmental Protection Council, 1991). Ghana’s EPA is working with other appropriate bodies to establish the necessary machinery for executing provisions of the law. PESTICIDE USE IN GHANA For the past several decades, pesticides have been used in Ghana in the public health sector for disease vector control and in agriculture to control and eradicate crop pests. However, there has been a rapid rise in the quantity of pesticides used in agriculture over the past ten years and this growth trend is expected to continue for the next ten or more years. Agricultural pesticides are used in the cocoa growing industry (cacao tree cultivars from the genus Theobroma), for cotton farming, in vegetable production, and for other mixed-crop farming systems involving maize, cassava (perennial shrubs of the genus Manihot grown for the edible tubers), cowpeas (the vine-like herb Vigna unguiculata L. grown for its edible seeds), sugarcane, rice, etc. The majority of pesticides used in agriculture are employed in the forest region located in the Ashanti, Brong Ahafo, western, and eastern regions of Ghana. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in the marine environment of Ghana 13 Organochlorine pesticides are widely used by farmers because of their cost effective- ness and their broad spectrum activity. Lindane is widely used in Ghana on cocoa plantations, on vegetable farms, and for the control of stemborers in maize (Ministry of Agriculture, 1990). Endosulfan is widely used in cotton growing areas, on vegetable farms, and on coffee plantations. Most of the farms in Ghana’s vegetable growing areas are situated along rivers that also serve as the water supply source for farming and for drinking water. Pesticides are also employed to control ectoparasites of farm animals in Ghana. In a study encompassing 30 organized farms and 110 kraals distributed throughout the 10 regions of Ghana, Awumbila and Bokuma (1994) found that 20 different pesticides were in use with the OC lindane being the most widely distributed and used pesticide, accounting for 35 percent of those used on farms and 85 percent of those used by herdsmen. Of the 20 pesticides, 45 percent were OPs, 30 percent were pyrethroids, 15 percent were carbamates, and 10 percent were OCs (Awumbila and Bokuma, 1994). The favorite method of application was by hand dressing and no post application interval was used before slaughter or sale of milk for human consumption (Awumbila, 1996). In this regard, there is the potential for significant risk to human health, both for the applicators and the end-users of agricultural products. Clarke et al. (1997) studied the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of 123 farm workers on three irrigation project areas in the Accra Plains regarding the safe handling and use of pesticides. They found moderate levels of knowledge of pesticide absorption routes and of potential symptoms following exposure. However, farm workers’ knowledge of personal protective measures was poor to moderate and their use of personal protective equipment was minimal – due primarily to financial constraints. They concluded that training of agriculture and health workers in safety precautions, recognition, and management of pesticide poisoning was a matter of urgency. In the public health arena, pesticides, primarily temephos (Osei-Atweneboana et al., 2001), have been used by the Onchocerciasis Programme in the Volta Basin for control of black flies (Simulium spp. Diptera: Simuliidae), which transmit Oncho- cerciasis (African river blindness, a disease caused by the pathogenic nematode, Onchocerca volvulus) to humans and for control of domestic pests, e.g. cockroaches, various flies, mosquitoes, ectoparasites including ticks, and other insects. Blindness caused by Onchocerciasis is a serious and ongoing problem in this region of Africa such that the systematic treatment of most rivers across West Africa is likely to continue for the foreseeable future. However, Osei-Atweneboana et al. (2001) have found evidence for mild resistance development (slight to five-fold) to temephos in black fly populations from two sites in south-west Ghana – Sutri Rapids on the Tano River and Sekyere-Heman on the Pra River – where the larvicide had not been applied. They speculate that the likely cause of resistance could have been local selection of black flies exposed to agrochemical runoff from cocoa, coffee, and palm oil plantations flanking the rivers. No detailed records have been kept on the volume and types of pesticides used in the country, except for a few chemicals. However, analysis of pesticide trade © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 14 S. Osafo Acquaah and E Frempong flow patterns, recorded by Ghana’s Statistical Service, between Ghana and other countries for the period January to December 1992 and January to June 1993 indicate a total of 2,589,254 kg and 1,264,872 kg of pesticides respectively, were imported during this period (Boateng, 1993a; 1993b). Analysis of external trade statistics compiled from custom bills of entry completed by importers and exporters or their agents show that pesticides are mostly imported rather than exported in Ghana. Analysis of the data available for the period January to December 1992 showed the following distribution of the various types of pesticides: insecticides (60.8 percent), herbicides (24.2 percent), fungicides (8.9 percent), rodenticides (1.5 percent), and other pesticide types (4.6 percent) (Boateng, 1993a). A survey conducted between 1992 and 1994 found that the following pesticides are most commonly used by farmers (in percentage of farmers using a pesticide): copper (II) hydroxide (kocide) 29.0 percent, mancozeb (dithane) 11.0 percent, fenitrothion (sumithion) 6.0 percent, dimethoate (perfekthion) 11.0 percent, pirimiphos methyl (actellic) 11.0 percent, λ-cyhalothrin (karate) 22.0 percent, and endosulfan (thiodan) 10.0 percent. Lindane is widely distributed by the Ministry of Agriculture and was not included in the survey. The study also indicated that insecticides constitute about 67 percent of pesticides used by farmers while fungicides made up about 30 percent and herbicides and other pesticide types were about 3 percent of total use (Osafa Acquaah and Frempong, 1995). Table 2.1 lists some of the pesticides used in agriculture in Ghana based on a survey conducted from 1992 to 1994 in the Ashanti, Brong Ahafo, eastern, and western regions of Ghana. PESTICIDE RESIDUES IN BIOTA AND NON BIOTIC MATRICES IN THE INLAND, COASTAL, AND MARINE ECOSYSTEMS OF GHANA OC residues in the interior of Ghana Osafo Acquaah (1997) measured lindane and endosulfan in river water and fish tissues collected from rivers passing through regions of intense cocoa production and other farming activities in the Ashanti Region between 1993 and 1995. Water and fish samples from 1995 contained both lindane and endosulfan – these were the only two pesticides being investigated but chromatogram peaks corresponding to the DDTs and other OCs were observed – with much lower levels of both pesticides present in water samples. For the Oda, Kowire, and Atwetwe rivers, mean concentrations found in water samples for lindane and endosulfan were 19.4, 12.4, 16.4 and 17.9, 20.5, and 21.4 ng L –1 , respectively (Osafo Acquaah, 1997). Concentrations in all the fish varied by species and month of sampling but were generally higher for lindane and much higher for endosulfan. Ntow (2001) measured OC pesticide residues in water; sediment; the tomato crop, which constitutes more than 90 percent of the major vegetables grown in the © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in the marine environment of Ghana 15 Table 2.1 Trade names of agrochemicals, classified by use, used by farmers from the Ashanti, Brong Ahafo, eastern, and western regions of Ghana Insecticide Herbicide Fungicide Other Actellic (primiphos Gesaprim Baygon Grofol methyl) a (atrazine) (propoxur) (foliar 20-30-10 NPK + micronutrients) Cymbush Bellater (atrazine Caacobre Pracol (cypermethrin) + cyanazine) (copper (II) oxide) (ampicillin trihydrate –antibacterial) Desis (deltamethrin) Garlon (triclopyr, Champion (copper a pyridine (II) hydroxide) herbicide) Diazinon Gramoxone Cobox (copper (paraquat) oxychloride) Dimethoate 40 EC Ronstar Dithane (oxadiazon) (mancozeb) Dursban (chlorpyrifos) Roundup Kocide (glyphosate) (copper (II) hydroxide) Endosulfan Stam F34T Gastoxin (propanil) (aluminum phosphide) Fenitrothion Basta 20 SL (glufosinate) Fenom C (profenophos Sturnmate + cypermethrin) (thiobencarb) Primigram (metolachlor + atrazine) Bladex (cyanazine) Nogos (dichlorvos) Bladex (cyanazine) Ofunack (pyridiphenthion) Perfekthion (dimethoate) Phostoxin (aluminium phosphide) Ripcord (cypermethrin) Secto (lindane + synergized pyrethroids) Sumithion (fenitrothion) Thiodan (endosulfan) Trebon (etofenprox) Gammalin 20 (lindane) Callifan 50CE (endosulfan) Furadan (carbofuran) Unden (propoxur) Karate (λ-cyhalothrin) Totals 24 10 7 2 Note: a Common names for a.i.(s) of commercial products are given in parenthesis where known. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 16 S. Osafo Acquaah and E Frempong district; and human fluids – blood samples and mothers’ breast milk – for 208 samples collected from the environs of Akumadan, a vegetable farming community located 95 km northwest of Kumasi in the Ashanti Region. Aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, 2,3,5-TCB, p,p´-DDD, and p,p´-DDT were not detected in any of the samples. However, endosulfan sulfate, α-endosulfan, β-endosulfan, and lindane were detected in water samples taken from four area streams and a community standpipe at mean levels (frequency of detection in parentheses) of 30.8 ng L –1 (78 percent), 62.3 ng L –1 (60 percent), 31.4 ng L –1 (60 percent), and 9.5 ng L –1 (76 percent), respectively (Table 2.2). Sediment samples from the four streams contained all seven OCs, each appearing in 88 percent or more of the samples analyzed. Lindane was detected at the highest level (3.2 µg kg –1 ) followed by HCB (0.9 µg kg –1 ), heptachlor epoxide (0.63 µg kg –1 ), and p,p´-DDE (0.46 µg kg –1 ). HCB and p,p´- DDE were the only OCs detected in blood and milk and both were at lower levels in milk than those reported in industrialized countries. Ntow (2001) estimated the daily intake of DDE and HCB by nursing infants and found that consumption of both pesticides were below WHO/UNEP acceptable daily intakes. The Ghanaian coastline The Ghanaian coastal zone is a part of the coastal area of the Gulf of Guinea and is subject to some level of erosion. The degree of erosion depends on the location and geology of the area of concern. The coastal zone, especially around the ports of Accra, Tema, and Takoradi, has been the major area of industrial development in Ghana. Almost 60 percent of all industries in the country are located in the Accra-Tema metropolis, which covers less than 1 percent of the total area of Ghana. Along the entire coastline of Ghana, discharges into the environment are, to a large extent, untreated and unregulated, thus increasing the risk of pollution and modification to the marine environment especially in areas of high population density (Calamari, 1985; Calamari and Naeve, 1994). The marine area of Ghana The marine area of Ghana covers about 203,720 km 2 based on the 550 km stretch of Ghana’s coastline and encompasses the area between the landward low-water mark of the coastal zone and the seaward boundary of the 200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone, which is 370.4 km from shore. This area is equivalent to 85 percent of the total land area of the country. Impact of inland drainage and land-based pollution sources on coastal lands and waters The Volta River system which, apart from its large tributaries, includes Volta Lake and the Kpong Headpond is the dominant inland drainage system in Ghana. Some other major rivers, including the Tano, Ankobra, Pra, and Densu, also drain into the sea through coastal lagoons and estuaries. These rivers may carry pollutants © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in the marine environment of Ghana 17 Table 2.2 Organochlorine pesticide residues in water, sediment, tomato, and human fluids in a vegetable farming community located in the Ashanti Region of Ghana Pesticide Water Sediment Tomato Blood Milk ng L –1 % of µ g kg –1 dw a % of µ g kg –1 fw b % of µ g kg –1 % of µ g kg –1 % of samples samples samples samples samples HCB BD c 10 0.90 90.5 <0.10 d 51.3 30 55 1.75 95 Lindane 9.5 76 3.20 95.2 <2.50 23.7 ND e 0ND0 p,p´-DDE BD 8 0.46 88.1 <0.10 7.9 380 85 17.15 80 Heptachloor epoxide BD 12 0.63 97.6 1.65 55.3 ND 0 ND 0 α-endosulfan 62.3 64 0.19 95.2 <0.05 23.7 ND 0 ND 0 β-endosulfan 31.4 60 0.13 88.1 <0.01 11.8 ND 0 ND 0 Endosulfan sulfate 30.8 78 0.23 97.6 <0.01 35.5 ND 0 ND 0 Source: Adapted from Ntow, 2001. Notes: a dw indicates dry weight. b fw indicates fresh weight. c BD indicates compound detected but below detection limit of 100 ng L –1 . d (<) indicates compound detected but below detection limits. e ND indicates compound not detected. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts [...]... effective execution and delivery of environmental projects and programs REFERENCES Awumbila, B 1996 Acaricides in tick control in Ghana and methods of application Tropical Animal Health and Production 28 (2) :S50–S 52 Awumbila, B and Bokuma, E 1994 Survey of pesticides used in the control of ectoparasites of farm animals in Ghana Tropical Animal Health and Production 26 (1):7– 12 Biney, C 19 82 Preliminary survey... biological impacts, and recording baseline data on the distribution of flora and fauna on beaches, in coastal lagoons and estuaries, and in other near-shore ecosystems Conduct studies on the impact of inland drainage and land-based pollution sources on coastal lands and waters The objective would be to develop the scientific basis for legislative provisions for appropriate abatement and control measures... managers, both locally and overseas, should be accelerated Monitoring An effective monitoring system must be established to monitor estuarine and marine pesticide levels, oil pollution, industrial and sewage pollution, and to conduct research including analysis for metals and OC pesticides in biota Additionally, pollution monitoring of beaches and coastal waters should be instituted and bacteriological... Acquaah and E Frempong originating from point sources such as municipal sewers and industrial discharges into the coastal zone The principal sources of land-based pollution are municipal, industrial, and agricultural discharges, which are usually untreated and unregulated Agricultural practices contribute to the release of pollutants, mainly pesticides and fertilizers, into the coastal zone through land... bathing waters should begin © 20 03 Milton D Taylor, Stephen J Klaine, Fernando P Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 20 S Osafo Acquaah and E Frempong Management Relevant institutions must be strengthened and restructured through provisions for skilled staff, state-of-the-art equipment, and logistical support, as necessary This would ensure reliable data gathering, standard setting, and monitoring... Education 1 2 Training programs should be established to increase public education on sound environmental practices Furthermore, agricultural management practices that minimize excessive use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers should be developed and instituted Training programs for pesticide handlers and applicators should be implemented The training of more environmental scientists and managers,... insecticides, e.g DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, and endosulfan, have been used in Ghana for more than three decades in agriculture, vector control, and other facets of public health So far, however, no studies have looked for the presence of OCs in biota Biney (19 82) identified the main sources of pollution of the coastal environment of Ghana as sewage of both industrial and domestic origin and oil, in the form of tar... loading, and atmospheric transport In drainage basins, where the levels of pollutants such as pesticides, trace metals, and nutrients are high as a result of industrial, agricultural, or domestic activities, the continuous discharge of such surface waters may cause localized pollution of coastal environments, especially in lagoons and estuaries Marine pollution and pesticide residue research Within... plans covering African countries have been signed The action plans covering West and Central Africa, of which Ghana is a part, comprise projects on marine pollution monitoring and research with components for analysis of metals and OCs in biota; oil pollution monitoring on beaches and in coastal waters; and bacteriological quality control of bathing waters (UNEP, 1985) Many chlorinated insecticides,... Protection Council Ministry of Agriculture 1990 Technical Bulletin GDB/MI Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Agriculture Ntow, W.J 20 01 Organochlorine pesticides in water, sediment, crops, and human fluids in a farming community in Ghana Arch Envir Contam Toxicol 40(4):557–63 Osafo Acquaah, S and Frempong E 1995 Organochlorine Insecticides in African Agroecosystems Vienna: IAEA IAEA TECDOC-931, pp 111–18 Osafo . small landholders. Ghana’s land use includes 12 percent in arable land, 7 percent in permanent crops, 22 percent in permanent pastures and 35 percent in forests and woodlands with the remaining 24 . on beaches, in coastal lagoons and estuaries, and in other near-shore ecosystems. 2 Conduct studies on the impact of inland drainage and land-based pollution sources on coastal lands and waters Ghana. PESTICIDE RESIDUES IN BIOTA AND NON BIOTIC MATRICES IN THE INLAND, COASTAL, AND MARINE ECOSYSTEMS OF GHANA OC residues in the interior of Ghana Osafo Acquaah (1997) measured lindane and endosulfan