Biogeochemical, Health, and Ecotoxicological Perspectives on Gold and Gold Mining CRC PRESS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. Ronald Eisler, Ph.D. Biogeochemical, Health, and Ecotoxicological Perspectives on Gold and Gold Mining This work is a reprint of a publication of the United States government (Patuxent Wildlife Research Center internal report, Gold and Gold Mining: Biogeochemical, Medical, and Ecotoxicological Perspec- tives ; available from Librarian, USGS, PWRC, Laurel, MD 20708). Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information; however, neither the United States Government nor the publisher makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. 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No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-2898-5 Library of Congress Card Number 2004051932 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Eisler, Ronald, 1932– Biogeochemical, health, and ecotoxicological perspectives on gold and gold mining. Ronald Eisler. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-2898-5 (alk. paper) 1. Gold mines and mining—Health aspects. 2. Gold mines and mining—Environmental aspects. 3. Gold—Toxicology. 4. Gold—Physiological effect. I. Title. RC965.M48E35 2004 615.9 ′ 02—dc22 2004051932 2898_C00.fm Page iv Friday, September 24, 2004 10:38 AM Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com Dedication To Jeannette, Renée, David, Charles, Julie, and Eb 2898_C00.fm Page v Friday, September 24, 2004 10:38 AM Preface Over the past several decades I have been tasked by environmental specialists of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service with the preparation of risk assessment doc- uments of chemical and biological hazards of various compounds to wildlife. For the most part, these documents involved analysis of measurable risks associated with agricultural, industrial, municipal, military, and industrial chemicals and their wastes. Risk assessment — still an inexact science — depends heavily on well-documented databases that include the compound’s source and use; its physical, chemical, and metabolic properties; concentrations in field collections of abiotic materials, plants, and animals; lethal and sublethal effects, including effects on survival, growth, reproduction, metabolism, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and teratogenicity; pro- posed regulatory criteria for the protection of human health and sensitive natural resources; and recommendations for additional research when databases are incom- plete. However, this approach was only partially successful in attempting to evaluate gold and gold mining practices because none of the preceding reports — unlike the present account on gold — relied significantly on social, political, economic, med- ical, or psychological variables in assessing risk to the biosphere. For the past several years — through literature analysis, visits to operating gold mines, and consultations with colleagues — I have tried to evaluate critically the enormous effort expended by society in producing gold mainly for coinage, bullion, and personal jewelry, regardless of environmental damage. This book is the result; however, all interpre- tations are my own and do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. Geological Survey or any other federal agency. Moreover, mention of trade names or commercial products is not an endorsement or recommendation for use by the U.S. government. Ronald Eisler, Ph.D. Senior Research Biologist U.S. Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Laurel, Maryland 2898_C00.fm Page vii Friday, September 24, 2004 10:38 AM Acknowledgments I owe a special debt of gratitude to Judd A. Howell, the Director of the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center (PWRC), and Harry N. Coulombe, Chief of Research at PWRC, for their encouragement and financial support during the course of this five- year effort. I thank Wanda Manning and Lynda J. Garrett for providing essential library services, and my colleagues at PWRC for discussions and technical support, specifically, Peter H. Albers, Thomas W. Custer, Gary H. Heinz, David J. Hoffman, T. Peter Lowe, Glenn H. Olsen, Oliver H. Pattee, Matthew C. Perry, Barnett A. Rattner, Graham W. Smith, and Nimish Vyas. Computer assistance was kindly provided by PWRC specialists Kinard Boone and Henry C. Bourne. I am also obligated to others for their insights on gold mining aspects, including David N. Weissman (National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health), Stanley N. Wiem- eyer (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service), Rory E. Lamp (State of Nevada Department of Wildlife), Roger D. Congdon and David J. Vandenberg (U.S. Bureau of Land Management), David Gaskin (State of Nevada Bureau of Mining Regulation and Reclamation), Michael L. Strobel (U.S. Geological Survey), Tom Jeffers (U.S. Forest Service), Jeff White (Newmont Mining Corporation), and Ron A. Espell and Peter G. Bodily (Barrick Goldstrike Mines, Inc.). Finally, I thank CRC staffers Randi Cohen, Gail Renard, and Kathy Johnson for their professionalism in expediting publication of this volume. 2898_C00.fm Page viii Friday, September 24, 2004 10:38 AM About the Author* Ronald Eisler received his B.A. degree from New York University in biology and chemistry, and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Washington in aquatic sciences and radioecology, respectively. Eisler has been a senior research biologist since 1984 at the U.S. Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Laurel, Maryland. Prior to 1984, he held, in order, the following positions: bioscience advisor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.; research aquatic toxicologist, U.S. Environmental Pro- tection Agency, Narragansett, Rhode Island; fishery research biologist, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Highlands, New Jersey; radiochemist, University of Washing- ton Laboratory of Radiation Ecology; aquatic biologist, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Raybrook, New York. During the Korean War, he served in the U.S. Army Medical Service Corps. He has held a number of special assignments and teaching appointments includ- ing senior science advisor to the American Fisheries Society, adjunct professor of zoology at American University in Washington, D.C., adjunct professor of ocean- ography at the University of Rhode Island, and visiting professor of marine biology and resident director of the Marine Biological Laboratory of Hebrew University in Eilat, Israel. Since 1955, he has authored more than 135 technical articles and books on contaminant hazards to living organisms, mainly on physiological and toxico- logical effects of trace metals, as well as agricultural chemicals, municipal wastes, crude oils and oil dispersants, and military and industrial wastes. He resides in Potomac, Maryland, with his wife Jeannette, a teacher of French and Spanish. * Dr. Eisler retired in July 2004 after 45 years of federal service. 2898_C00.fm Page ix Friday, September 24, 2004 10:38 AM Books by Ronald Eisler Handbook of Chemical Risk Assessment: Health Hazards to Humans, Plants, and Animals. Volume 1. Metals; Volume 2. Organics; Volume 3. Metalloids, Radia- tion, Cumulative Index to Chemicals and Species. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida, 2000. Trace Metal Concentrations in Marine Organisms. Pergamon Press, New York, 1981. 2898_C00.fm Page x Friday, September 24, 2004 10:38 AM List of Tables 2.1 Gold production in Canada in 1975, 1985, and 1992 by source 13 2.2 Total gold production in the United States, 1799–1965 16 2.3 Total placer gold production in the United States, 1792–1969 17 2.4 U.S. gold production by state: 1995 vs. 2000 18 4.1 Oxidation states of gold, examples, and stability in water 41 5.1 Gold concentrations in selected abiotic materials 52 5.2 Gold concentrations in selected plants and animals 57 6.1 Distribution of 198 Au + in anesthetized Sprague-Dawley rats 79 9.1 Gold thiolate compounds used medicinally 133 10.1 Metal concentrations (in µ g/L) in stream waters at Goldenville Gold Mine, Nova Scotia 176 10.2 Average concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in waters, soils, and crops near Korean gold mining activities 176 10.3 Acute toxicity of aged gold mill effluent to marine fishes and crustaceans 181 10.4 Tissue metal burdens of juvenile tanner crabs, Chionoecetes bairdi 181 10.5 U.S. Food and Drug Administration guidance for arsenic, cadmium, lead, and nickel in shellfish 182 10.6 Drinking water limits and soil threshold values for protection of human health 184 11.1 Cyanide and metals concentrations in water and sediments downstream of Portovela-Zaruma cyanide-gold mining area, Ecuador; dry season, 1988 192 11.2 Single oral dose toxicity of sodium cyanide (mg NaCN/kg body weight) fatal to 50% of selected birds and mammals 200 12.1 Arsenic concentrations in biota and abiotic materials collected near gold mining and processing facilities 226 12.2 Lethal and sublethal effects of various arsenicals on humans and selected species of plants and animals 231 12.3 Proposed arsenic criteria for the protection of human health and selected natural resources 242 13.1 Total mercury concentrations in abiotic materials, plants, and animals near active Brazilian gold mining and refining sites 259 13.2 Total mercury concentrations in abiotic materials, plants, and animals near historic gold mining and refining sites in the United States 271 13.3 Lethal effects of mercury to sensitive species of aquatic organisms, birds, and mammals 278 13.4 Proposed mercury criteria for the protection of selected natural resources and human health 287 14.1 Metals and arsenic in tailings, soils, rice, and groundwater near an abandoned gold-silver-copper-zinc mine, Dongil, Korea, 2000–2001 311 2898_C00.fm Page xi Friday, September 24, 2004 10:38 AM Contents Part 1 Gold and Gold Compounds 1 Chapter 1 Introduction 3 Literature Cited 5 Chapter 2 Geology, Sources, and Production 7 2.1 Geology 8 2.2 Sources and Production 10 2.2.1 Asia and Environs 12 2.2.2 Canada 12 2.2.3 Europe 13 2.2.4 Republic of South Africa (RSA) 14 2.2.5 South America 14 2.2.6 United States 14 2.3 Summary 19 Literature Cited 19 Chapter 3 Uses 23 3.1 Jewelry 23 3.2 Coinage 24 3.3 Electronics 26 3.4 Radiogold 26 3.5 Medicine 28 3.6 Dentistry 31 3.7 Delivery Vehicle 32 3.8 Electron Microscopy 32 3.9 Other 33 3.10 Summary 33 Literature Cited 33 Chapter 4 Properties 39 4.1 Physical Properties 39 4.2 Chemical Properties 41 4.3 Biochemical Properties 43 4.4 Summary 47 Literature Cited 48 Chapter 5 Gold Concentrations in Field Collections 51 5.1 Abiotic Materials 51 5.2 Plants 56 5.3 Animals 59 5.4 Summary 60 Literature Cited 61 2898_C00.fm Page xiii Friday, September 24, 2004 10:38 AM [...]... on Ecosystems 16 1 Chapter 10 Gold Mine Wastes: History, Acid Mine Drainage, and Tailings Disposal 16 3 10 .1 Overview 16 3 10 .1. 1 Lode Mining 16 5 10 .1. 2 Placer Mining 16 6 10 .2 Acid Mine Drainage 16 8 10 .2 .1 Effects .16 9 10 .2.2 Mitigation 17 0 10 .3 Tailings 17 2 10 .3 .1 Freshwater Disposal 17 2 10 .3.2 Marine Disposal... 19 5 11 .2.2 Birds 19 9 11 .2.3 Mammals 2 01 11. 2.4 Terrestrial Flora 203 11 .3 Cyanide Mitigation and Research Needs 203 11 .4 Water Management Issues 206 11 .4 .1 Affected Resources 207 11 .4.2 Pit Lakes 211 11 .5 Water Quality and Management Research Needs . 213 11 .6 Summary 214 Literature Cited 215 Chapter 12 ... .17 8 10 .3.3 Terrestrial Storage 18 3 10 .4 Waste Rock 18 3 10 .5 Summary 18 3 Literature Cited 18 4 2898_C00.fm Page xvi Friday, September 24, 2004 10 :38 AM Chapter 11 Cyanide Hazards to Plants and Animals from Gold Mining and Related Water Issues .18 9 11 .1 History of Cyanide Use in Gold Mining 18 9 11 .2 Cyanide Hazards 19 5 11 .2 .1 Aquatic... Chapter 14 Abandoned Underground Gold Mines 307 14 .1 Habitat for Biota 307 14 .2 Land Development .309 14 .3 Effects on Water Quality 310 14 .4 Science Site Potential 312 14 .5 Summary 312 Literature Cited 312 Part 4 Mining Legislation, Concluding Remarks, and Indices 315 Chapter1 5 Selected Mining Legislation 317 15 .1. .. in 18 49; the Australian gold rush of 18 51, resulting in a doubling of that population in seven years to one million; and the Alaskan gold rush that started in 18 97 (Morteani 19 99) Unfortunately, the human costs of mining, extraction, refining, marketing, and accumulation of gold include war, slavery, conscripted 3 2898_book.fm Page 4 Monday, July 26, 2004 12 :14 PM 4 PERSPECTIVES ON GOLD AND GOLD MINING. .. Mercury .10 0 7.3 .1 Case Histories 10 1 7.3.2 Mercury in Tissues 10 2 7.3.3 Mercury in Air and in Fish Diet 10 4 7.4 Summary 10 5 Literature Cited 10 6 Chapter 8 Human Sensitivity to Gold 11 3 8 .1 History 11 3 8.2 Adverse Reactions 11 5 8.2 .1 Suicide Attempt 11 5 8.2.2 Teratogenicity and Carcinogenicity 11 5 8.2.3 Hypersensitivity... 245 Chapter 13 13 .1 13.2 13 .3 13 .4 Mercury Hazards from Gold Mining for Humans, Plants, and Animals 2 51 History of Mercury in Gold Mining 2 51 Ecotoxicological Aspects of Amalgamation 255 13 .2 .1 Brazil 255 13 .2.2 South America Other than Brazil 265 13 .2.3 Africa 267 13 .2.4 People’s Republic of China .268 13 .2.5 The Philippines 268 13 .2.6... 11 5 8.3 Case Histories 11 8 8.3 .1 Hypersensitivity 11 8 8.3.2 Goldschlager Syndrome 12 1 8.3.3 Prostheses 12 2 8.3.4 Protective Effect of Gold Rings .12 3 2898_C00.fm Page xv Friday, September 24, 2004 10 :38 AM 8.4 Dental Aspects 12 3 8.4 .1 Allergic Reactions and Sensitization .12 3 8.4.2 Case Histories 12 5 8.5 Summary 12 6... States 317 15 .1. 1 Federal Laws 317 15 .1. 2 Mining Public Lands in the Western United States 323 15 .1. 3 State Laws 327 15 .1. 4 Mining Law Reform 328 15 .2 Foreign 328 15 .3 Summary 330 Literature Cited 3 31 Chapter 16 Concluding Remarks .333 2898_C00.fm Page xviii Friday, September 24, 2004 10 :38 AM And a river goes out... 12 6 Chapter 9 Chrysotherapy 13 1 9 .1 History 13 1 9.2 Proposed Modes of Action 13 4 9.2 .1 Au+ and Au+ Metabolites 13 5 9.2.2 Immunomodulatory Activity 13 9 9.2.3 Tumor Necrosis Factor 14 1 9.2.4 Bone Resorption .14 2 9.2.5 Leukocyte Infiltration .14 2 9.2.6 Lysosomal Enzymes .14 2 9.2.7 Macrophages 14 3 9.2.8 Polymorphic . Disposal 16 3 10 .1 Overview 16 3 10 .1. 1 Lode Mining 16 5 10 .1. 2 Placer Mining 16 6 10 .2 Acid Mine Drainage 16 8 10 .2 .1 Effects 16 9 10 .2.2 Mitigation 17 0 10 .3 Tailings 17 2 10 .3 .1 Freshwater Disposal 17 2 10 .3.2. Plants and Animals from Gold Mining and Related Water Issues 18 9 11 .1 History of Cyanide Use in Gold Mining 18 9 11 .2 Cyanide Hazards 19 5 11 .2 .1 Aquatic Ecosystems 19 5 11 .2.2 Birds 19 9 11 .2.3. Potential 312 14 .5 Summary 312 Literature Cited 312 Part 4 Mining Legislation, Concluding Remarks, and Indices 315 Chapter1 5 Selected Mining Legislation 317 15 .1 United States 317 15 .1. 1 Federal