this expenditure was estimated to jump to $8.2 billion, an increase in investment of approximately 170 percent in two years (Moe & Blodget, 2000). With regard to e-learning, one type of distance learning, organizations reported spending approximately $2.2 bil- lion on the development and implementation of this training method in 2000. Those expenditures were expected to rise to $14.5 billion in 2004 (“The Payoffs of e-Learning,” 2003). The popularity of distance learning stems from its conve- nience. Distance learning allows employees to access training mod- ules on demand from any location around the world. Moreover, it has been linked with substantial cost savings. Cisco Systems re- ported savings of 40 to 60 percent after implementing distance learning methods (Gill, 2000), Dow Chemical of $34 million (Bray- ton, 2001), IBM of $400 million (Mullich, 2004), and Hewlett- Packard of eleven months of training and $5.5 million (Horton, 2000). These benefits make distance learning an obvious solution to the challenge of training a global workforce in need of contin- uous skill updating. However, despite its advantages, research sug- gests that distance learning is not always more effective than traditional forms of instruction, such as classroom instruction (Alavi, Yoo, & Vogel, 1997; Russell, 1999; Webster & Hackley, 1997). In fact, Gale (2003) suggests that distance learning can be detri- mental to organizational development if improperly implemented. One reason for this may be that distance learning programs are not always developed according to standardized, experimen- tally tested procedures but instead are often simply adaptations of other training tools used by the company (for example, text mate- rials transported into Microsoft PowerPoint and Word and placed on the web; Barton, 2001) or modifications of training programs offered by distance learning vendors (for example, click2learn.com, Smartforce, Teach.com, Learningbyte International, Learnframe, DigitalThink, Inc.; see www.distance-learning-list.com for an inven- tory of distance learning providers). As a result, organizations would benefit from a theoretically derived and empirically validated set of guidelines for the design and delivery of distance learning systems (Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001). The purpose of this chapter is to provide applied researchers and training practitioners with literature-based guidelines for the design and delivery of distance learning systems. In developing RESEARCH-BASED GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING DISTANCE LEARNING 105 Gueutal.c04 1/13/05 10:44 AM Page 105 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! 106 THE BRAVE NEW WORLD OF EHR these guidelines, we draw from the science of training literature (for example, Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Tannenbaum & Yukl, 1992) and from the theoretical and research literature on distance learning within educational (where most experimental work is per- formed) and organizational settings. However, because the focus of this chapter is on the implementation of organizational distance learning systems, our emphasis is on the findings from workplace distance learning studies. In order to provide readers with an understanding of what dis- tance learning in organizations actually involves, we begin with a definition and description of distance learning. Then, we offer thir- teen guidelines for the design of distance learning programs within workplace organizations and provide literature support for each of these recommendations. We conclude with directions for future needs of distance learning research and practice and with an over- all summary of how these recommendations might be used to improve the effectiveness of distance learning systems. What Is Distance Learning? Distance learning is “the desired outcome of distance education” (Kaplan-Leiserson, 2002, para. 78), although the terms “distance learning” and “distance education” are often used interchangeably. Distance education has been defined by the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) as an “educational situation in which the instructor and students are separated by time, location, or both. Education or training courses are delivered to remote locations via synchronous or asynchronous means of instruction, including written correspondence, text, graphics, audio- and video- tape, CD-ROM, online learning, audio- and videoconferencing, interactive TV, and facsimile” (Kaplan-Leiserson, 2002, para. 77). Many other terms are used in reference to distance learning tech- nology, including distributed, online, distance, Internet- and web- based training (Salas, Kosarzycki, Burke, Fiore, & Stone, 2002). This has resulted in a rather fragmented understanding of distance learning, which as Kosarzycki, Salas, DeRouin, and Fiore (2003) point out, might be due to the rapid pace at which this technology has developed. Gueutal.c04 1/13/05 10:44 AM Page 106 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! Distance learning is a broader concept than e-learning, which is primarily considered to be associated with electronic and computer- based learning methods (OneTouch Systems, Inc., 2003). As a result, distance learning encompasses both electronic and non-electronic forms of instruction (Kaplan-Leiserson, 2002). Because of its flexi- bility, distance learning offers several benefits over traditional forms of instruction, including the ability to train employees quickly and efficiently around the globe, use the most knowledgeable instruc- tors for high-quality training, provide updates to training material as necessary, increase the responsibility trainees have for learning, and add trainees or instructors without much supplementary cost (Burgess & Russell, 2003). In addition, distance learning drastically reduces the indirect costs of training (for example, costs associated with travel to training facilities, hotel accommodations for trainees, lost work time for employees attending training) that have estimated to account for 80 percent of organizational training costs (Kozlowski, Toney, Mullins, Weissbein, Brown, & Bell, 2001). How Can Distance Learning Be Improved? As many organizations report, distance learning can be a viable method for training workplace skills (Brown, 2001; Gopher, Weil, & Baraket, 1994; O’Hara, 1990). However, this requires that it be designed in a way that facilitates effective learning. In this section, therefore, we discuss thirteen research-based guidelines for the design of successful distance learning programs (see Table 4.1 for a summary of these guidelines). Guideline 1: Only provide distance learning when you are sure it meets the organization’s needs. Before distance learning is adopted as a training approach, it is im- portant that organizations examine whether distance learning is an appropriate training strategy for the particular training need. Often and unintentionally, organizational management wants dis- tance learning to work in a situation for which it is either inap- propriate or infeasible. However, distance learning is not ideal for every training endeavor within an organization. Consequently, RESEARCH-BASED GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING DISTANCE LEARNING 107 Gueutal.c04 1/13/05 10:44 AM Page 107 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! Table 4.1. Research-Based Guidelines for Distance Learning. Guideline Description References Only provide distance Before distance learning is chosen as the strategy for Gale, 2003; Kiser, 2002; learning when you are sure delivering training, it is necessary to consider the “The Payoffs of e-Learning,” it meets the organization’s organization development problems that it will address 2003; “Ten Tactics to Make needs. and the manner in which it can help solve these problems. e-Learning ‘Stick’,” 2003. Take into consideration Distance learning should be designed so that learning Clark & Mayer, 2003. human cognitive processes modules are consistent with the tenets of cognitive when designing distance learning theory, a theory that explains how the mind learning programs. processes environmental stimuli. Enhance the learning Using multiple forms of media in distance learning is Clark & Mayer, 2003; experience by including advantageous, because past research has demonstrated Mayer, 1989; Mayer & both graphics and text that individuals learn the most when they are actively Anderson, 1991; Mayer & in the presentation of engaged in the learning process; active learning is facili- Gallini, 1990; Mayer, learning topics. tated when both graphics and text are used in distance Steinhoff, Bower, & Mars, learning, because individuals are forced to make rele- 1995. vant connections between the words and the pictures. Include learning games. Learning games are typically computer games that have DeVeaux, 2001; been adapted to train specific workplace skills; these games Horton, 2000, 2002. can be beneficial to learning in that they: (1) increase the appeal of online training; (2) make the idea of “tests” less frightening; (3) facilitate discovery learning; and (4) offer trainees substantial amounts of practice in workplace skills. Gueutal.c04 1/13/05 10:44 AM Page 108 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! Keep learners engaged. One of the primary reasons why learners drop out of Horton, 2000; Moshinskie, distance learning programs is the failure of many online 2001; Salas & Cannon- courses to keep learners engaged; this problem, however, Bowers, 2000; Skipper, can often be remedied by a simple change in the focus 2000. of the distance learning program. Offer a blended approach. Offering a combination of training techniques will likely Goodridge, 2001; Masie, satisfy both employees who prefer to work online and 2002; Mullich, 2004; employees who prefer classroom instruction. Phillips, Phillips, & Zuniga, 2000; ASTD & The Masie Center, 2001. Allow for interaction Distance learning programs can allow for interaction Davis, 2003; Green, 2003; between trainees and for between trainees and for communication between trainees Salopek, 2002; Shepherd, communication between and facilitators through asynchronous and synchronous 2003; “Ten Tactics to Make trainees and facilitators. communication tools and by building factors into the e-Learning ‘Stick’,” 2003. program such as virtual communities and interactions with expert sources and facilitators. Offer computer-based, Distance learning that employs computer-based instruction Brown, 2001; Schelin & distance learning methods will likely be most suitable for trainees with high levels of Smarte, 2002. to computer-savvy trainees prior experience with computers; however, one way to or train learners on bring trainees with lower levels of computer experience computer basics before up to the level of trainees with more extensive experience offering computer-based is to provide instruction on basic computer skills before training. trainees begin computer-based, distance learning. Gueutal.c04 1/13/05 10:44 AM Page 109 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! Table 4.1. Research-Based Guidelines for Distance Learning, Cont’d. Guideline Description References Provide distance learning Distance learning appears to be particularly appropriate Mullich, 2004; Welsh, for hard-skill training but for the training of explicit, factual-based knowledge, for Wanberg, Brown, & supplement it with other soft-skill training, and for training on such abstract topics Simmering, 2003. forms of instruction for as workplace ethics; however, distance learning might best soft-skill training and for be administered by supplementing it with other training training on such abstract approaches (lecture, role play). topics as workplace ethics. Offer trainees control over Trainees in distance learning programs might benefit Freitag & Sullivan, 1995; certain aspects of instruction. from control over both the context of training examples/ Gray, 1989; Judd, practice problems and the amount of instruction; however, Bunderson, & Bessent, it might be better to withhold some types of control from 1970; Lai, 2001; Ross, trainees, such as control over pacing, sequencing, and Morrison, & O’Dell, 1989; provision of optional content, because research has not Ross & Rakow, 1981; shown these types of control to be consistently positive. Steinberg, Baskin, & Matthews, 1985. When offering trainees In order to ensure that increased learner control will lead Baldwin & Ford, 1988; control over instruction, to better training outcomes, certain conditions should be DeRouin, Fritzsche, & make sure that trainee met before trainees are granted this control, such as Salas, 2004; Gay, 1986; preparation, system design, providing instructions on how to use learner control and Hicken, Sullivan, & Klein, and workplace conditions why, allowing trainees to “skip” rather than “add” extra 1992; Rouiller & Goldstein, facilitate successful use of instruction, and promoting use of learner control through 1993; Salas & Cannon- that control. supervisor support of this instructional feature. Bowers, 2000, 2001; Gueutal.c04 1/13/05 10:44 AM Page 110 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! Steinberg, Baskin, & Matthews, 1985; Tannenbaum & Yukl, 1992. Guide trainees through the Tools, such as advanced organizers and cognitive maps, Bell & Kozlowski, 2002; distance learning program. may help trainees to have a better understanding of the Cannon-Bowers, core elements of training and, simultaneously, to traverse Rhodenizer, Salas, & a distance learning program more easily. Bowers, 1998; Mayer, 2004. Make the program The course content of distance learning must be divided Mullich, 2004; Zeidman, user-friendly. into small, manageable sections and each web page 2003. within the program should be limited to no more than two hundred words. Gueutal.c04 1/13/05 10:44 AM Page 111 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! 112 THE BRAVE NEW WORLD OF EHR before distance learning is chosen as the strategy for delivering training, it is necessary to consider the organizational development problems that it will address and the manner in which it can help solve these problems. In addition, the costs of distance learning, its feasibility given the organizational infrastructure, and its use- fulness must be discussed before a distance learning program reaches the initial design phase (“Ten Tactics to Make e-Learning ‘Stick’,” 2003). Furthermore, according to the same source, distance learning courses should be designed with a specific job in mind. Many orga- nizations make the mistake of buying a distance learning program before they consider the objectives of the program. However, the phrase “one size fits all” does not apply to distance learning, and organizations are often forced to make their distance learning needs fit the purchased program. One company, the Royal Bank of Scotland, was able to avoid this problem by conducting a thorough analysis of existing distance learning programs before making the switch from classroom to online training (Kiser, 2002). The Royal Bank decided to create its own “homegrown” web-based/CD-ROM program with the help of a custom e-learning developer, Epic Group. According to Lars Hyland, the Epic Group account man- ager, “The system didn’t offer the full range of functionality written on the advertisements of a lot of LMS [Learning Management Sys- tem] vendors, but it met 80 to 90 percent of the bank’s actual needs” (Kiser, 2002, p. 34). Because the Royal Bank did not choose to adopt an off-the-shelf program whose customization would have cost even more time and money, the company was able to develop a program that appropriately matched the organization’s training needs and that could later be rebuilt for added functionality. Guideline 2: Take into consideration human cognitive processes when designing distance learning programs. Distance learning should be designed so that learning modules are consistent with the tenets of cognitive learning theory. Cognitive learning theory explains how the mind reacts to sensory informa- tion in the environment. In order for sensory information to be processed and stored in long-term memory, several events have to occur. First, the critical information from the environment needs Gueutal.c04 1/13/05 10:44 AM Page 112 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! to be recognized. Second, working memory has to be cleared so that room is available for rehearsal (an essential component of learning) of this critical information. Third, the new auditory and visual infor- mation has to be consolidated and then integrated with the infor- mation already present in long-term memory through rehearsal in working memory. Fourth, the knowledge and skills gained from the integration must be retrieved from long-term memory and placed into working memory when needed. Fifth, meta-cognitive skills (that is, skills in how to manage one’s cognitive processes) must guide and direct all of the above events (Clark & Mayer, 2003). The design of distance learning programs should take into account each of these cognitive events. For instance, in order for critical information in learning modules to be recognized, instruc- tors should ensure that this information is presented via vibrant colors or lists of learning objectives. To reduce the load on work- ing memory, distance learning designers should omit irrelevant pictures and sounds and be concise in their wording of text. In order to consolidate the information from the eyes and ears and to integrate it with existing information, pictures on the screen should be combined with text and sounds and active practice should be encouraged. To improve retrieval and transfer, the prac- tice exercises and examples in the distance learning program should incorporate material from the actual job. And last, in order to enhance meta-cognitive monitoring, the distance learning pro- gram should include self-checks on learning progress (Clark & Mayer, 2003). Guideline 3: Enhance the learning experience by including both graphics and text in the presentation of learning topics. Using multiple forms of media in distance learning is advantageous because past research has demonstrated that individuals learn more from a combination of graphics and text than from text alone (Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Anderson, 1991; Mayer & Gallini, 1990). Active learning is facilitated when both graphics and text are used in distance learning, because individuals are forced to make relevant connections between the words and the pictures (Clark & Mayer, 2003). However, the illustrations that accompany RESEARCH-BASED GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING DISTANCE LEARNING 113 Gueutal.c04 1/13/05 10:44 AM Page 113 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! 114 THE BRAVE NEW WORLD OF EHR the text must enhance the material presented in the text rather than distract the learner. Graphics can be used to teach content types, organize topics, demonstrate relationships, and present case studies (Clark & Mayer, 2003). Typical distance learning programs that use both graphics and text present the textual information and graphical illustrations sep- arately (Clark & Mayer, 2003). That is, the individual must first read the text and then scroll down to view the graphics. Learning would be enhanced if the text and graphics were presented in a more integrative fashion. Instead, the text should be placed as closely as possible to the graphical illustrations used to enhance textual meaning. Research supports this assertion in that several studies have revealed that learners receiving integrated informa- tion presentations outperform learners receiving material in which the text is separated from the graphics (Mayer, Steinhoff, Bower, & Mars, 1995; Moreno & Mayer, 1999). Guideline 4: Include learning games. Another way in which distance learning can be improved is through the use of learning games. Learning games are typically computer games (arcade games, quiz-show games, crossword puz- zles) that have been adapted to train specific workplace skills. How- ever, learning games can also involve tools as simple as email, chat, and Internet forums through which groups of employees collabo- rate on training topics (for example, the galactic wormhole game in which players “travel” back and forth in time and discuss how relevant, work-related issues would change depending on the time period considered) (Jasinski & Thiagarajan, 2000). According to Horton (2002), games can be beneficial to learning in that they: (1) increase the appeal of online training; (2) make the idea of “tests” less frightening; (3) facilitate discovery learning (that is, allow trainees to uncover the patterns and relationships in infor- mation themselves); and (4) offer trainees substantial amounts of practice in workplace skills. Learning games also allow trainees to actively participate in distance training without taking their focus away from the training content (Horton, 2000). One place where learning games have been applied extensively is in military training. Because many of today’s military recruits have extensive experience with video games, the military now uses Gueutal.c04 1/13/05 10:44 AM Page 114 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! [...]... TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! 130 THE BRAVE NEW WORLD OF EHR Fourth, researchers must study the application of synthetic learning environments to distance learning Synthetic learning environments refer to the use of simulation and virtual reality in the training of complex tasks (Aidman, Galanis, Manton, Vozzo, & Bonner, 2002) Distance learning may involve the use of synthetic... words These strategies help to ensure that learners are not overwhelmed by the sheer quantity of instructional material The quality of the course design can also be improved by including instructional pages at the beginning of each learning module (Zeidman, 2003) The first few pages of each course should include instructions regarding the use of the distance learning program This procedure enables the. .. trainees will be given during training and, more importantly, why they are given this control (Gay, 1986; Steinberg, Baskin, & Matthews, 19 85) An example of how training instructions might fulfill these dual purposes is as follows: In this training course, you are free to select the context of training examples In other words, because you are the best judge of your own learning style, this program offers... add extra instruction during training may increase the amount of time spent on the optional portions of a program and still offer trainees control over the amount of instruction Trainees may benefit from control over the context of their examples, such as nursing, sports, and so forth The training program may need to provide trainees with tools that allow them to pilot themselves through the program... appropriate for the training of explicit, factual-based knowledge (Mullich, 2004) However, its use in the training of soft skills has been the subject of some debate (Welsh, Wanberg, Brown, & Simmering, 2003) For instance, distance learning may be inappropriate for training in interpersonal skills and teamwork These skills often involve the use of nonverbal and verbal communication and may, therefore, require... manufacturing company, found that the effects of low computer experience on distance learning outcomes could be ameliorated by including computer training and e-learning in their classroom courses (Schelin & Smarte, 2002) According to Michael McGinnis, the training manager at Jabil Circuit, The way we introduced e-learning to our campus was TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! 120 THE BRAVE. .. engagement in e-learning can be enhanced simply by tying training material to requisite job skills One way in which this might be accomplished is to describe how the training objectives are related to workplace KSAs (Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2000) This information can be provided in the instructions trainees are given before training begins In addition to linking training objectives to job skills in the. .. K (2002, July) Taking it to the bank: How the Royal Bank of Scotland group led one of the United Kingdom’s first and largest online learning initiatives—and has been able to cash in on the results e-Learning, 3, 32–36 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! 134 THE BRAVE NEW WORLD OF EHR Kosarzycki, M P., Salas, E., DeRouin, R., & Fiore, S M (2003) Distance learning in organizations: A... instruction may be presented in the form of a tutorial that trainees complete before training In order to determine who needs to complete the tutorial, a brief quiz on computer knowledge may be administered before training Trainees who pass the quiz may continue on to the main topics of the distance learning program, whereas trainees who do not pass may be presented with the training on computer skills Jabil... significant gap exists in the number of employees who register for their e-learning courses and the number of employees who actually complete them (Moshinskie, 2001) In addition, estimates suggest that as many as 80 percent of employees who sign up for online training programs drop out before the TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! 116 THE BRAVE NEW WORLD OF EHR programs end (Flood, . before the RESEARCH-BASED GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING DISTANCE LEARNING 1 15 Gueutal.c04 1/13/ 05 10:44 AM Page 1 15 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! 116 THE BRAVE NEW WORLD OF EHR programs. words. Gueutal.c04 1/13/ 05 10:44 AM Page 111 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine ! 112 THE BRAVE NEW WORLD OF EHR before distance learning is chosen as the strategy for delivering training, it. use in the training of soft skills has been the sub- ject of some debate (Welsh, Wanberg, Brown, & Simmering, 2003). For instance, distance learning may be inappropriate for training in interpersonal