Appendix A (continued) Expectations Findings Inequity + In Senegal, where private institutions receive little or no public subsidy, many private institutions enroll students from low-income families. There is no evidence that the parental income level of students is higher than in public institutions. However, a segment of the private sector clearly targets mainly high-income groups, particularly at postsecondary level. Variations in quality – Visits to institutions and interviews conducted in both and effectiveness countries indicated wide variations, probably wider than among public institutions. + Positive finding = Neutral finding – Negative finding Source: Atchoarena and Esquieu 2002, p. 13. 192 Skills Development in Sub-Saharan Africa Appendix B Mali: Private Technical-Vocational Training—Main Findings The Malian private technical and vocational education (TVE) training sector grew vigorously in the 1990s. The number of schools rose from 11 in 1993 to 71 in 2000. The private sector today handles two-thirds of TVE enrollments, 22,739 students in the 1999–2000 academic year. Between 1997–98 and 1999–2000, private school enrollments grew by 86 percent. In Mali, state financial support to the private sector is significant and increasing. The growing number of students enrolled by the ministry in pri- vate TVE schools has meant a striking increase in state aid, which was in excess of FCFA 1 billion in 2000 ($1 = FCFA 600). This amount represents more than a third of schools’ overall revenue. However, this aid varies con- siderably from school to school. Some institutions receive no public money; others rely entirely on government subsidies. The fees set by private schools are often equivalent to or higher than what the state pays. Monthly pay- ments vary, on average, between FCFA 8,000 and FCFA 10,000. To this is sometimes added a low enrollment fee of about FCFA 5,000. Based on the survey results, the average cost of a private TVE student is about FCFA 150,000. This amount appeared close to the unit cost of FCFA 157,000 calculated in a review of public expenditure for the TVE sector as a whole. In reality, the cost per student is probably much higher in the public sector alone. The available data on exam success in the private sector show a promi- nent fall-off in results during recent years, probably linked to the growing number of student strikes, which have also affected private schools. The success of private school candidates, however, seems to continue to surpass national exam results, which ranged, depending on the field of training, from only 38 percent to 50 percent in 2000. A comparison of public-private technical-vocational schools reinforces the idea of comparative advantages: public schools seem to perform better in the industrial field, and private schools seem to do better in services. The state-led nature of private sector growth in Mali makes the sector very vulnerable and suggests that a new form of regulation should be con- sidered. In the present system, private providers’ make investments based 193 on anticipated fees paid by the state. Such dependence on state interven- tion, while assuring them of a guaranteed income, inhibits their ability to adapt the training supply to labor market needs. Focusing state assistance toward schools that perform well and toward disadvantaged students is probably part of the answer. Source: Atchoarena and Esquieu 2002, p. 12. 194 Skills Development in Sub-Saharan Africa Appendix C Senegal: Private TVE—Main Findings The precise size of technical and vocational education (TVE) in Senegal’s pri- vate sector is difficult to gauge. According to official statistics, the private sector enrolls almost half of all vocational training students. Although underestimated, this share far exceeds the average importance of private schools in the overall education system. Survey results show that private TVE is expanding, and the schools surveyed are receiving a growing number of students. Between 1995 and 2000, enrollments increased by 84 percent. In Senegal, private schools finance their own operations. Nearly 90 per- cent of their revenue comes from fees. Registration fees for day courses range from FCFA 13,000 to FCFA 22,500 ($1 = FCFA 600). Monthly tuition ranges from FCFA 7,000 to FCFA 30,000. The survey results confirm the extreme diversity of private schools, where private entrepreneurs cohabit with private denominational and asso- ciative organizations to fulfill a public service mission. This diversity of sta- tus and vocation is also reflected in the financial position of many schools. Overall, according to the survey, the private sector manages to break even but does not generate enough profits to ensure survival or expansion. Based on all of the schools surveyed, the estimated average cost per stu- dent is close to FCFA 250,000 (FCFA 1.5 billion for a little more than 6,000 students). This amount is fairly modest compared with the cost of general secondary education (ranging from FCFA 196,000 to FCFA 265,000, includ- ing external aid). This unit cost figure is much lower than the official cost figures for the public sector: FCFA 362,000 for technical secondary educa- tion and FCFA 370,000 for vocational secondary education. On the basis of the sample taken, the results of the state exams for stu- dents in the private sector are not good—below 50 percent in most areas. However, available data suggest that these results are better than those reported for public schools. In this context, improving technical-vocational training, both public and private, will require a revision of the state’s role, especially further develop- ment of its regulatory function. Reform could take three complementary paths: 1. Introduction of new methods of private sector financing, providing access to both existing payroll tax-related resources and scholarships for disadvantaged students. 195 2. Establishment of a partnership system, involving private sector representatives, for the definition, recognition, and upgrading of diplomas. 3. Review, in consultation with private sector representatives, of the legal and administrative framework that supervises the operations of private organizations and strengthening of the education ministry’s institutional capacity to implement rules and regulations. Source: Atchoarena and Esquieu 2002, p. 13. 196 Skills Development in Sub-Saharan Africa Appendix D Benin: BAA—Improving Traditional Apprenticeship Training Objectives The Bureau d’Appui aux Artisans (BAA) is improving the quality and results of the apprenticeship training system in Benin through complemen- tary training for traditional apprentices, a kind of “dual system.” The Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) is providing external sup- port. BAA’s ultimate objective is to break the cycle of “incomplete” skills development of traditional apprentices who later become masters who are not adequately equipped to train their apprentices. Organization and Implementation The BAA works mainly through ISAs, such as Association Professionnelle des Artisans du Bois de Cotonou and l’Union Professionnelle des Artisans Tourneurs, Fraiseurs et Forgerons de Porto-Novo. It links the master craftspersons who are members of these ISAs, as well as their apprentices, with local training centers, either a public sector training provider (for example, a Lycéé Technique) or an NGO (for example, Mgr. Steinmetz VTC). BAA is the catalyst, financier, and technical adviser; the ISAs are the main implementers. The ISAs organize and supervise the training through a Comité de For- mation. The committee’s tasks include • Collaborating in the preparation of new training modules, • Setting the criteria and carry out the selection of the trainees, • Negotiating the fee for the instructors, • Organizing the training together with the staff of the training center, • Monitoring the attendance of the apprentices, • Checking on the tools made available to the trainees, • Co-organizing the trade test at the end of the training, and • Participating in the evaluation of the training. The members of the committee are also assigned the task of monitoring the progress of several apprentices through regular workshop visits. To pre- pare them for these tasks, the committee members made several exchange 197 visits to the Centre Régional d’Enseignement Technique et de Formation Professionnelle in Lomé (Togo). The training is directed first at apprentices of master craftspersons who are members of the ISA. The masters can propose two of their apprentices for the training. The apprentices need to have minimum basic education, be in their second year of training, and have at least two more years remaining. The masters must guarantee that the selected apprentices will be in a posi- tion to follow the training regularly, and the apprentices must sign their agreement to this guarantee. The main topics for such training are (i) theoretical knowledge indis- pensable for the trades, (ii) improved knowledge of marketing, (iii) perfec- tion of technical knowledge and expansion to include modern production techniques, and (iv) improved professional attitudes. The training in woodworking consists of two cycles and five modules: (i) general knowl- edge of wood and other materials, (ii) use of manual tools, (iii) wood assembly, (iv) interior and exterior carpentry, and (v) use of mechanized equipment. After the course, the apprentices receive copies of all relevant training materials, so they do not have to take notes during the training. The trainers are contracted from technical colleges and training centers. They receive training and follow-up guidance from staff members of the Lomé training center. At the end of the training, the committee organizes a trade test. Appren- tices who pass receive a certificate of attendance signed by the training insti- tution and the association. After they finish the apprenticeship training they get another certificate from their master. Master craftspersons are also eligible for training, especially skills upgrading, through groups of 20–30 masters formed by the participating ISAs. Their main motivation to participate is to ensure that they are not surpassed by their apprentices once the apprentices have finished their training. Most of the training takes place in the workshop of one of the participat- ing master craftspersons at spare hours (afternoons and weekends) and lasts almost two years. Costs On the basis of partial information on the training results, the dropout rate can be estimated at 10–35 percent and the completion rate at 60–75 percent. The costs of the training are calculated as approximately $1.30 per trainee per session (excluding depreciation of equipment). The training costs are still largely borne by SDC and BAA, although the subsidy has decreased from 90 percent to 65–80 percent. The contribution from the master craftsperson has increased from 10 percent to 17 percent while the ISA and parents association (for apprentice training) are con- tributing the rest. 198 Skills Development in Sub-Saharan Africa Results and Impact No data on impact were available. Master craftspersons benefited from the complementary training as it enhanced their technical, pedagogical, and management skills and they became gradually convinced of the need to strengthen their apprenticeship training. The master craftspersons admitted afterwards that the training had changed their approach and methods for apprenticeship training. Apprentices who have received complementary training have become more precise, responsible, serious, confident, and attracted to work well done. Lessons On the basis of limited information, some preliminary lessons can be noted: • Master craftspersons are not familiar with the notion of complemen- tary training, for themselves or for their apprentices, and they need to be carefully shown the benefits of such training. • Master craftspersons who allow their apprentices to follow addi- tional training tend to have the most dynamic workshops and to have a real need for skilled workers. • Apprentices who have followed the training acquired more authority and assumed new responsibilities in the workshop and took more pride in their status. • Involving existing NGO and public sector training providers in com- plementary training for master craftspersons and apprentices makes it necessary to improve equipment, enhance the technical skills of the instructors, and adapt teaching methodologies. Source: Haan and Serriere 2002, pp. 84–87. Benin: BAA—Improving Traditional Apprenticeship Training 199 Appendix E Cameroon: APME—Micro Enterprise Support and Promotion Program (Programme d’Appui au Milieu Artisanal de Maroua) Project Concept The project seeks to increase the incomes of micro and small enterprises through increased product diversification and quality. Four trades are sup- ported: leatherworking, metalworking, woodworking, and auto mechanics. To avoid market saturation, APME started motorcycle repair in 2001. Its training interventions are directed at both the masters and the apprentices. The project activities combine action-research with awareness raising and animation. The actual activities can be grouped into training and marketing interventions: • Skills training: literacy training, management training, and technical skills upgrading and introduction of new technological knowledge (for example, design skills); • Business advice: advice based on a workshop diagnosis, for instance on improving the layout of the workshop and the organization of the work; • Financial support: in the form of a loan scheme and a credit and sav- ings union, together with training and follow-up assistance; • Marketing assistance: in the form of market studies, development of prototypes, informal sector promotion, and improved access to information; • Opportunities for meetings: exchange visits between artisans, research for collective problems and solutions, and meetings for representa- tives of the sector; • Information: through a documentation center with information on administrative and legal aspects; production techniques, equipment, and suppliers; and product designs. 200 Technical skills training is the main entry point of the project. It refers to short-term, modular, and personalized training, mostly conducted in the workshops and tested after each module. The trainers move on motorcycles. The training is demand led and tailor made for the participating artisans— which requires flexibility by the trainers. To improve the marketing prospects, the technical training focuses on (i) improving the quality of the products, and (ii) lowering the costs (for example, of materials). At the end of the training the graduates receive technical materials. Other training con- cerns management training (orders and cash books) and marketing skills. After the training, there are several follow-up activities for the benefit of the graduates. APME’s training interventions are as much as possible linked to its support interventions in marketing. Promotion activities, for instance, are related to the introduction of new products through the development of prototypes. Costs, Financing, and Implementation The project is making a serious effort to introduce genuine cost-sharing for the services it provides. According to its own calculations the level of cost- recovery is already high: 62 percent in the case of technical training (pre- sumably of operational costs)—by making available the equipment in the workshops and selling training materials—and 47 percent for marketing assistance. Cost-recovery of literacy training is only 9 percent. After initial support from Agence Française de Développement (AFD) and the European Union, the project is currently funded by the United Nations Development Programme or UNDP (60 percent). The staff of the project consists of one project manager (expatriate), two trainers-animators, and four trainers. The budget for the period August 1998–July 2001 totaled $1.7 million: some $105,000 for preparation and studies, $423,000 for inter- ventions, $411,000 for vehicles and transport costs, and $692,000 staff costs. Results During the first phase (1997–99) some 150 informal sector artisans were sup- ported by the project, distributed across four trades. In 2000 APME ran 58 short courses. In December 2001, APME was providing training and follow- up visits to 83 workshops and a total of 260 artisans: 121 masters, 51 work- ers, and 88 apprentices. APME’s interventions in marketing resulted in the creation of a brand name by the Maroua micro and small enterprises. The KALKAL brand name is especially applied to leather products: out of 232 articles offered for labeling, 87 percent were accepted after screening. In the first phase of the project, efforts to diversify the production of the informal producers resulted in 65 new items for leather workers, 18 for metalworkers, and 7 for woodworkers. Cameroon: APME—Micro Enterprise Support and Promotion Program 201 [...]... skills upgrading training in three modalities 210 Senegal: FEDNAPH—A Trade Association Providing Skills Training 211 FEDNAPH: Types of Training Provided Type of training Target group Duration Training fee Bac training (basic training) Clients selected by Direction de l’Emploi 12 months $50/month Academic training (extended basic training) Individuals 2 9 months $30/month Modular training (special skills. ..202 Skills Development in Sub-Saharan Africa Various marketing interventions were undertaken, ranging from participating in local and national trade fairs, to setting up a permanent exposition in Maroua, developing catalogues, and creating new products—all of which resulted in significant extra income in 2000: FCFA 3.8 million in woodworking, FCFA 5 .9 million in leather, and FCFA 13.5 million in metalworking... point for upgrading the technology of small and medium enterprises 4 Linkages with vocational training institutes proved disappointing— they did not become sustainable providers of training to Jua Kali 5 Independent trainers could be promoted as providers of training services to the informal sector This is probably a more sustainable approach than working through vocational training institutes, which,... marketable skills into tangible gains Training has to be delivered in a flexible manner, taking into account the opportunity cost of the labor and the time of the participating master craftspersons 2 Master craftspersons seek training not mainly to increase fees for traditional apprenticeships but to increase income from productive aspects of the business 3 Training interventions proved a useful entry point... craftspersons will continue their own business activities 215 216 Skills Development in Sub-Saharan Africa Results and Impact The master craftspersons have started their own advisory services In addition to in- plant advice, they conduct training needs assessments with local vocational training centers and set up skills upgrading courses for local producers As an indication of interest in such training, when there... “unitbased training approach” offers short, modular training programs so that the trainees do not have to attend long courses This system can also be used to train some target groups in the informal sector Preliminary assessments indicate that the modules and courses are costeffective, provide adequate training, and are successful in introducing trainers to the informal sector After training, the quality... Providing Skills Training In the informal sector in Senegal, textile activities (for example, tailoring and dressmaking) are well organized In 199 1 the Association des Couturiers (ACS) was set up with local chapters in various regions in the country To complement its activities, in 199 5 the Fédération National de Professionnels de l’Habillement (FEDNAPH) was started at the initiative of the clothing sector;... FEDNAPH training center is facing a number of operational problems, such as lack of space and inadequate equipment They could probably be solved by increasing fees, but in this respect FEDNAPH seems to have failed to solve the ubiquitous problem of low training revenues leading to suboptimal training provision and quality, which in turn reduces the possibilities for increasing training fees The feelings... teaching methods, 8 on business skills, and 20 on technical skills In all, 420 master craftspersons and 280 apprentices were trained directly, 208 Kenya: SITE Project—Improving Traditional Apprenticeship Training 2 09 and 1,400 apprentices received improved training from the project’s host trainers In addition, training materials and videos were produced Over the project period, the costs of running... resulted in higher levels of organization, equipment, 212 • Skills Development in Sub-Saharan Africa and management and probably better quality training than in most public sector training centers The external assistance, and especially the link with the Paris fashion academy, seems to have resulted in low-cost, effective capacity building In sum, FEDNAPH shows that trade associations can be instrumental in . actual activities can be grouped into training and marketing interventions: • Skills training: literacy training, management training, and technical skills upgrading and introduction of new technological. training sector grew vigorously in the 199 0s. The number of schools rose from 11 in 199 3 to 71 in 2000. The private sector today handles two-thirds of TVE enrollments, 22,7 39 students in the 199 9–2000. Neutral finding – Negative finding Source: Atchoarena and Esquieu 2002, p. 13. 192 Skills Development in Sub-Saharan Africa Appendix B Mali: Private Technical-Vocational Training—Main Findings The