template<class ForwardIterator> ForwardIterator min_element(ForwardIterator first, ForwardIterator last); template<class ForwardIterator, class Compare> ForwardIterator min_element(ForwardIterator first, ForwardIterator last, Compare comp); The min_element() function returns the first iterator it in the range [first, last) such that no element in the range is less than *it. The first version uses < to determine the ordering, while the second version uses the comp comparison object. template<class ForwardIterator> ForwardIterator max_element(ForwardIterator first, ForwardIterator last); template<class ForwardIterator, class Compare> ForwardIterator max_element(ForwardIterator first, ForwardIterator last, Compare comp); The max_element() function returns the first iterator it in the range [first, last) such that there is no element that *it is less than. The first version uses < to determine the ordering, while the second version uses the comp comparison object. template<class InputIterator1, class InputIterator2> bool lexicographical_compare(InputIterator1 first1, InputIterator1 last1, InputIterator2 first2, InputIterator2 last2); template<class InputIterator1, class InputIterator2, class Compare> bool lexicographical_compare(InputIterator1 first1, InputIterator1 last1, InputIterator2 first2, InputIterator2 last2, Compare comp); The lexicographical_compare() function returns true if the sequence of elements in range [first1, last1) is lexicographically less than the sequence of elements in range [first2, last2) and false otherwise. A lexicographical comparison compares the first element of one sequence to the first of the second, that is, it compares *first1 to *first2. If *first1 is less than *first2, the function returns true. If *first2 is less than *first1, the function returns false. If the two are equivalent, comparison proceeds to This document was created by an unregistered ChmMagic, please go to http://www.bisenter.com to register it. Thanks. the next element in each sequence. This process continues until two corresponding elements are not equivalent or until the end of a sequence is reached. If two sequences are equivalent until the end of one is reached, the shorter sequence is less. If the two sequences are equivalent and of the same length, neither is less, so the function returns false. The first version of the function uses < to compare elements and the second version uses the comp comparison object. The lexicographic comparison is a generalization of an alphabetic comparison. Permutations A permutation of a sequence is a reordering of the elements. For example, a sequence of three elements has six possible orderings, because you have a choice of three elements for the first element. Choosing a particular element for the first position leaves a choice of two for the second, and one for the third. For example, the six permutations of the digits 1, 3, and 5 are as follows: 123 132 213 232 312 321 In general, a sequence of n elements has n*(n-1)*…*1, or n! possible permutations. The permutation functions assume that the set of all possible permutations can be arranged in lexicographical order, as in the previous example of six permutations. That means, in general, that there is a specific permutation that precedes and follows each permutation. For example, 213 immediately precedes 232, and 312 immediately follows it. However, the first permutation (123 in the example) has no predecessor, and the last permutation (321) has no follower. template<class BidirectionalIterator> bool next_permutation(BidirectionalIterator first, BidirectionalIterator last); template<class BidirectionalIterator, class Compare> bool next_permutation(BidirectionalIterator first, BidirectionalIterator last, Compare comp); The next_permutation() function transforms the sequence in range [first, last) to the next permutation in lexicographic order. If the next permutation exists, the function This document was created by an unregistered ChmMagic, please go to http://www.bisenter.com to register it. Thanks. returns true. If it doesn't exist (that is, the range contains the last permutation in lexicographic order), the function returns false and transforms the range to the first permutation in lexicographic order. The first version uses < to determine the ordering, while the second version uses the comp comparison object. template<class BidirectionalIterator> bool prev_permutation(BidirectionalIterator first, BidirectionalIterator last); template<class BidirectionalIterator, class Compare> bool prev_permutation(BidirectionalIterator first, BidirectionalIterator last, Compare comp); The previous_permutation() function transforms the sequence in range [first, last) to the previous permutation in lexicographic order. If the previous permutation exists, the function returns true. If it doesn't exist (that is, the range contains the first permutation in lexicographic order), the function returns false and transforms the range to the last permutation in lexicographic order. The first version uses < to determine the ordering, while the second version uses the comp comparison object. Numeric Operations Table G.12 summarizes the numeric operations, which are described by the numeric header file. Arguments are not shown, and overloaded functions are listed just once. Each function has a version that uses < for ordering elements and a version that uses a comparison function object for ordering elements. A fuller description including the prototypes follows the table. Thus, you can scan the table to get an idea of what a function does; then look up the details if you find the function appealing. Table G.12. Sorting and Related Operations Function Description accumulate() Calculates a cumulative total for values in a range. inner_product() Calculates the inner product of two ranges. partial_sum() Copies partial sums calculated from one range into a second range. This document was created by an unregistered ChmMagic, please go to http://www.bisenter.com to register it. Thanks. adjacent_difference()Copies adjacent differences calculated from elements in one range to a second range. template <class InputIterator, class T> T accumulate(InputIterator first, InputIterator last, T init); template <class InputIterator, class T, class BinaryOperation> T accumulate(InputIterator first, InputIterator last, T init, BinaryOperation binary_op); The accumulate() function initializes a value acc to init; then it performs the operation acc = acc + *i (first version) or acc = binary_op(acc, *i) (second version) for each iterator i in the range [first, last) in order. It then returns the resulting value of acc. template <class InputIterator1, class InputIterator2, class T> T inner_product(InputIterator1 first1, InputIterator1 last1, InputIterator2 first2, T init); template <class InputIterator1, class InputIterator2, class T, class BinaryOperation1, class BinaryOperation2> T inner_product(InputIterator1 first1, InputIterator1 last1, InputIterator2 first2, T init, BinaryOperation1 binary_op1, BinaryOperation2 binary_op2); The inner_product() function initializes a value acc to init; then it performs the operation acc = *i * *j (first version) or acc = binary_op(*i, *j) (second version) for each iterator i in the range [first1, last1) in order and each corresponding iterator j in the range [first2, first2 + (last1 - first1)). That is, it calculates a value from the first elements from each sequence, then from the second elements of each sequence, and so on, until it reaches the end of the first sequence. (Hence the second sequence should be at least as long as the first.) The function then returns the resulting value of acc. template <class InputIterator, class OutputIterator> OutputIterator partial_sum(InputIterator first, InputIterator last, OutputIterator result); This document was created by an unregistered ChmMagic, please go to http://www.bisenter.com to register it. Thanks. template <class InputIterator, class OutputIterator, class BinaryOperation> OutputIterator partial_sum(InputIterator first, InputIterator last, OutputIterator result, BinaryOperation binary_op); The partial_sum() function assigns *first to *result, *first + *(first + 1) to *(result + 1), (first version) or binary_op(*first, *(first + 1)) to *(result + 1) (second version, and so on. That is, the n th element of the sequence beginning at result contains the sum (or binary_op equivalent) of the first n elements of the sequence beginning at first. The function returns the past-the-end iterator for the result. The algorithm allows result to be first, that is, it allows the result to be copied over the original sequence, if desired. template <class InputIterator, class OutputIterator> OutputIterator adjacent_difference(InputIterator first, InputIterator last, OutputIterator result); template <class InputIterator, class OutputIterator, class BinaryOperation> OutputIterator adjacent_difference(InputIterator first, InputIterator last, OutputIterator result, BinaryOperation binary_op); The adjacent_difference() function assigns *first to the location result (*result = *first). Subsequent locations in the target range are assigned the differences (or binary_op equivalent) of adjacent locations in the source range. That is, the next location in the target range (result + 1) is assigned *(first + 1) - *first (first version) or binary_op(*(first + 1), *first) (second version, and so on. The function returns the past-the-end iterator for the result. The algorithm allows result to be first, that is, it allows the result to be copied over the original sequence, if desired. CONTENTS This document was created by an unregistered ChmMagic, please go to http://www.bisenter.com to register it. Thanks. CONTENTS Appendix H. SELECTED READINGS Bibliography Booch, Grady. Object-Oriented Analysis and Design. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1993. This book presents the concepts behind OOP, discusses OOP methods, and presents sample applications. The examples are in C++. Booch, Grady, Jim Rumbaugh, and Ivar Jacobson. Unified Modeling Language User Guide. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1998. This book by the creators of the Unified Modeling Language presents the core of UML along with many examples of its use. Cline, Marshall, Greg Lomow, and Mike Girou. C++ FAQs, Second Edition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1999. This book addresses a great number of frequently asked questions about the C++ language. Jacobson, Ivar. Object-Oriented Software Engineering: A Use Case Driven Approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1994. This book describes successful guidelines and methods (Object-Oriented Software Engineering, or OOSE) for developing large-scale software systems. Josuttis, Nicolai M. The C++ Standard Library: A Tutorial and Reference. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1999. This book describes the STL as well as other C++ library features, such as complex number support, locales, and input/output streams. Lee, Richard C. and William M. Tepfenhart. UML and C++, Second Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001. This book is a self-teaching guide to the Unified Modeling Language, and it includes a review of C++ fundamentals. Meyers, Scott. Effective C++: 50 Specific Ways to Improve Your Programs and Designs, Second Edition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1998. This book is aimed at programmers who already know C++, and it provides 50 rules and guidelines. Some are technical, such as explaining when you should define copy constructors and This document was created by an unregistered ChmMagic, please go to http://www.bisenter.com to register it. Thanks. assignment operators. Others are more general, such as discussing is-a and has-a relationships. Meyers, Scott. Effective STL: 50 Specific Ways to Improve Your Use of the Standard Template Library. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 2001. This book provides guidance in choosing containers and algorithms and in other facets of using the STL. Meyers, Scott. More Effective C++: 35 New Ways to Improve Your Programs and Designs. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1996. This book continues in the tradition of Effective C++, clarifying some of the more obscure aspects of the language and showing how to accomplish various goals, such as designing smart pointers. It reflects the additional experience C++ programmers have gained the last few years. Rumbaugh, James, Michael Blaha, William Premerlani, Frederick Eddy, Bill Lorensen, William Lorenson. Object-Oriented Modeling and Design. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1991. This book presents and explores the Object Modeling Technique (OMT), a method for breaking problems into suitable objects. Rumbaugh, James, Ivar Jacobson, and Grady Booch. Unified Modeling Reference Manual. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1998. This book by the creators of the Unified Modeling Language presents the complete description, in reference manual format, of the UML. Stroustrup, Bjarne. The C++ Programming Language. Third Edition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997. Stroustrup created C++, so this is the definitive text. However, it is most easily digested if you already have some knowledge of C++. It not only describes the language, it also provides many examples of how to use it, as well as discussions of OOP methodology. Successive editions of this book have grown with the language, and this edition includes a discussion of standard library elements such as the STL and strings. Stroustrup, Bjarne. The Design and Evolution of C++. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1994. If you're interested in learning how C++ evolved and why it is the way it is, read this book. This document was created by an unregistered ChmMagic, please go to http://www.bisenter.com to register it. Thanks. The ISO/ANSI standard (ISO/IEC 14882:1998): A printed version of the standard is available for $231 from Global Engineering Documents, Inc. 15 Inverness Way East Englewood, CO 80122-5704 You can order from its Web site: http://global.ihs.com A downloadable electronic version (pdf format) is available for $18 from the American National Standards Institute Web site: http://www.ansi.org Internet Resources: The C++ FAQ Lite site for frequently asked questions (in English, Chinese, French, Russian, and Portuguese) is a slimmed down version of the book by Cline, et al. Currently it has the following URL: http://www.parashift.com/c++-faq-lite/ You can find a moderated discussion of C++ questions in the following newsgroup: comp.lang.c++.moderated CONTENTS This document was created by an unregistered ChmMagic, please go to http://www.bisenter.com to register it. Thanks. CONTENTS Appendix I. CONVERTING TO ANSI/ISO STANDARD C++ Preprocessor Directives Use Function Prototypes Type Casts Become Familiar with C++ Features Use the New Header Organization Use Namespaces Use the autoptr Template Use the string Class Use the STL You might have programs (or programming habits) developed in C or in older versions of C++ that you want to convert to Standard C++. This appendix provides some guidelines. Some pertain to moving from C to C++, others from older C++ to Standard C++. Preprocessor Directives The C/C++ preprocessor provides an array of directives. In general, C++ practice is to use those directives designed to manage the compilation process and to avoid using directives as a substitute for code. For example, the #include directive is an essential component for managing program files. Other directives, such as #ifndef and #endif, let you control whether particular blocks of code get compiled. The #pragma directive lets you control compiler-specific compilation options. These all are useful, sometimes necessary, tools. You should exert caution, however, when it comes to the #define directive. Use const Instead of #define to Define Constants This document was created by an unregistered ChmMagic, please go to http://www.bisenter.com to register it. Thanks. Symbolic constants make code more readable and maintainable. The constant's name indicates its meaning, and if you need to change the value, you just have to change the value once, in the definition, then recompile. C used the preprocessor for this purpose: #define MAX_LENGTH 100 The preprocessor then does a text substitution in your source code, replacing occurrences of MAX_LENGTH with 100 prior to compilation. The C++ approach is to apply the const modifier to a variable declaration: const int MAX_LENGTH = 100; This treats MAX_LENGTH as a read-only int. There are several advantages to the const approach. First, the declaration explicitly names the type. For #define, you must use various suffixes to a number to indicate types other than char, int, or double; for example, using 100L to indicate a long type or 3.14F to indicate a float type. More importantly, the const approach can just as easily be used with derived types: const int base_vals[5] = {1000, 2000, 3500, 6000, 10000}; const string ans[3] = {"yes", "no", "maybe"}; Finally, const identifiers obey the same scope rules as variables. Thus, you can create constants with global scope, named namespace scope, and block scope. If, say, you define a constant in a particular function, you don't have to worry about the definition conflicting with a global constant used elsewhere in a program. For example, consider the following: #define n 5 const int dz = 12; void fizzle() { int n; int dz; This document was created by an unregistered ChmMagic, please go to http://www.bisenter.com to register it. Thanks. [...]... however, will be a local variable Also, fizzle(), if necessary, can use the scope resolution operator and access the constant as ::dz C has borrowed the const keyword from C++, but the C++ version is more useful For example, the C++ version has internal linkage for external const values rather than the default external linkage used by variables and by the C const This means that each file in a program... as using values like z++ The C++ approach of using the keyword inline to identify inline functions is much more dependable because it uses true argument passing Furthermore, C++ inline functions can be regular functions or class methods One positive feature of the #define macro is that it is typeless so it can be used with any type for which the operation makes sense In C++ you can create inline templates... just that C++, by making static the default, requires one less thing for you to remember This document was created by an unregistered ChmMagic, please go to http://www.bisenter.com to register it Thanks Incidentally, the revised C standard (C99) does allow you to use a const as an array size, but the array is treated as a new form of array, called a variable array, that is not part of the C++ standard... In C++ you can create inline templates to achieve type-independent functions while retaining argument passing In short, use C++ inlining instead of C #define macros Use Function Prototypes Actually, you don't have a choice Although prototyping is optional in C, it is mandatory in C++ Note that a function that is defined before its first use, such as an inline function, serves as its own prototype Do... more limited, structured versions of goto to handle the most common tasks for which goto was needed This was the genesis of language elements such as for and while loops and if else statements Standard C++ provides a similar solution for the problem of the undisciplined type cast, namely, restricted type casts to handle the most common situations requiring type casts These are the type cast operators... a type cast involving pointers, use one of these operators if possible Doing so both documents the intent of the cast and provides checking that the cast is being used as intended Become Familiar with C++ Features If you've been using malloc() and free(), switch to using new and delete instead If you've been using setjmp() and longjmp() for error handling, use try, throw , and catch instead Try using... document was created by an unregistered ChmMagic, please go to http://www.bisenter.com to register it Thanks The Standard specifies new names for the header files, as described in Chapter 2, "Setting Out to C++. " If you've been using the old-style header files, you should change over to using the new-style names This is not just a cosmetic change because the new versions might add new features For example,... Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 2 1: What are the modules of C++ programs called? A: They are called functions .2: What does the following preprocessor directive do? #include A: It causes the contents of the iostream file to be substituted for this directive . older versions of C++ that you want to convert to Standard C++. This appendix provides some guidelines. Some pertain to moving from C to C++, others from older C++ to Standard C++. Preprocessor. the following URL: http://www.parashift.com /c++- faq-lite/ You can find a moderated discussion of C++ questions in the following newsgroup: comp.lang .c++. moderated CONTENTS This document was created. access the constant as ::dz. C has borrowed the const keyword from C++, but the C++ version is more useful. For example, the C++ version has internal linkage for external const values rather than