Technical Architecture OD practitioners who recognize the enormous impact that collaborative tech- nologies can offer to their work with clients are faced with two opportunities: the first is to move existing processes online by utilizing combinations of these new communication and collaboration tools; the second is to define entirely new interventions and approaches based on the creative possibilities that these tools present. Yet sorting through the growing body of available technology tools can be a daunting task, especially because many of these tools were not designed to facilitate specific group processes per se, but rather serve as platforms for gen- eral communication, collaboration, learning, and knowledge management. Table 24.2 lists a number of websites where additional resources and infor- mation about collaborative tools and technologies can be found. To simplify the discussion of potentially useful technology and provide an orientation to these tools as they might serve the needs of OD practitioners, we have divided these tools into two categories: synchronous and asynchronous. TECHNOLOGY AND ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT 571 Table 24.2. Online Resources* Website Description URL BRINT Business technology portal www.brint.com Center for Directory of websites www.workteams.unt.edu/links.htm Collaborative focused on virtual teams, Organizations online facilitation, and OD CIO Magazine Business technology www.cio.com magazine Gilgordon.com Directory of collaboration www.gilgordon.com/resources/ software and tool providers products1.htm HR-Software.net HR software directory www.hr-software.net KM.Gov Knowledge management resources including www.km.gov information on communities of practice Kolabora Collaboration www.kolabora.com technology portal Learning Circuits e-Zine focused on www.learningcircuits.org online learning Survey Monkey Directory of online www.surveymonkey.com/Pricing.asp survey tools *To obtain access to an online demonstration site that provides examples of tools for team decision sup- port and other group processes, contact the author at soren@icohere.com. 32_962384 ch24.qxd 2/3/05 12:23 AM Page 571 Synchronous Tools Synchronous tools enable real-time communication and collaboration at the same point in time. The major benefit of synchronous tools is that they are “high touch”—they provide the highest degree of interaction outside of face-to- face meetings. The primary drawback of synchronous tools is that, by defini- tion, they require same-time participation—different time zones and conflicting schedules can create communication challenges. Table 24.3 outlines the most common synchronous tools and technologies. Asynchronous Tools Table 24.4 outlines some of the asynchronous tools that are available and that enable communication and collaboration over an extended period of time. These tools allow people to connect together at each person’s own convenience and schedule. Asynchronous tools are useful for sustaining dialogue and collabora- tion over a period of time and providing people with resources and information 572 PRACTICING ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT, 2ND EDITION Table 24.3. Synchronous Tools Tool Useful for Drawbacks Audio Conferencing Discussions and dialogue Time zones, especially when international participation is involved; inability to read body language Web Conferencing Sharing presentations and Bandwidth; may also require information audio conferencing to be useful Video Conferencing In-depth discussions with Cost; current limited availability higher-touch interactions of video conferencing systems Chat Information sharing of Usually requires typing; can feel low-complexity issues “slow” to participants Instant Messaging Ad hoc quick All users must use compatible communications system; can feel intrusive White Boarding Co-development of ideas Bandwidth; may also require audio conferencing to be useful Application Sharing Co-development of Bandwidth; may also require documents audio conferencing to be useful 32_962384 ch24.qxd 2/3/05 12:23 AM Page 572 TECHNOLOGY AND ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT 573 Table 24.4. Asynchronous Tools Tool Useful for Limitations Discussion Boards Dialogue that takes place May take longer to arrive at over a period of time decisions or conclusions Web Logs (Blogs) Sharing ideas and May take longer to arrive at comments decisions or conclusions Messaging (email) One-to-one or one-to-many May be misused as a communications “collaboration tool” and become overwhelming Streaming Audio Communicating or Static and typically does not teaching provide the option to answer questions or expand on ideas Streaming Video Communicating or Static and typically does not teaching provide the option to answer questions or expand on ideas Narrated Slide Shows Communicating or Static and typically do not teaching provide the option to answer questions or expand on ideas “Learning Objects” Teaching and training Typically does not provide the (web-based training) option to answer questions or expand on ideas in detail Document Libraries Managing resources Version control can be an issue unless check-in/ check-out functionality is enabled Databases Managing information Requires clear definition and and knowledge skillful administration Web Books Teaching and training Not dynamic and may lose interest of readers Surveys and Polls Capturing data and Requires clear definition and information ongoing coordination Shared Calendars Coordinating activities System compatibility Website Links Providing resources May become outdated and references and “broken” 32_962384 ch24.qxd 2/3/05 12:23 AM Page 573 that are instantly accessible, day or night. Asynchronous tools possess the advan- tage of being able to involve people from multiple time zones. In addition, asyn- chronous tools are helpful in capturing the history of the interactions of a group, allowing for collective knowledge to be more easily shared and distributed. The primary drawback of asynchronous technologies is that they require some dis- cipline to use for ongoing communities of practice (for example, people typically must take the initiative to “log in” to participate) and they may feel “impersonal” to those who prefer higher-touch synchronous technologies. While real-time communication can help foster bursts of intense participa- tion, asynchronous technologies provide the best medium for sustaining col- laboration over time (Figallo, 1998). Members can engage with others at the time and place most convenient for them. New members can join the group and quickly understand the context of where the group has been and where it is going. Knowledge is naturally captured and can be shared with others. There are benefits to, and challenges with, both synchronous and asynchro- nous tools. The most comprehensive approaches blend tools to create a seam- less flow among in-person, synchronous, and asynchronous online processes (for example, periodic face-to-face gatherings followed by regular virtual meetings supported with real-time conferencing tools and an always-accessible collaborative workspace). A significant step beyond this smorgasbord of individual tools are web-based platforms that aim to provide some or most of the functionality of these stand- alone tools, but do so within a single integrated collaborative environment. The integration and synthesis of these tools creates a container that turns out to be far greater than the sum of its parts and can become the single portal for all activities of a group or change process. Going beyond the hodgepodge of individual tools can elevate the value of technology by encouraging ongoing collaborative learning and knowledge sharing. The following features and capabilities tend to be shared among integrated, collaborative platforms and distinguish them from mere collections of side-by- side communication and collaboration tools: Integrated Collaborative Environments • Integrated Functionality. Whereas a wide variety of tools exist and may be used independently, online collaborative environments that integrate functionality serve to streamline communication and collaboration. For example, when creating a shared calendar listing for an upcoming event, one might at the same time also send an announcement to those who are invited to attend, provide a clickable button to RSVP, and attach a map and agenda for the event. • Consistency in the User Interface (UI). Rather than presenting people with a potpourri of tools and user interfaces, integrated online environments 574 PRACTICING ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT, 2ND EDITION 32_962384 ch24.qxd 2/3/05 12:23 AM Page 574 offer rich functionality and a consistent “user experience.” This consis- tency reduces the learning curve and allows people to communicate quickly and seamlessly using the modes that are appropriate to the issue or task at hand. This is especially important for those individuals less comfortable with using computers and related collaboration tools since one isolated, frustrating experience can lead to a general dismissal of the utility of technology itself. • Scalability and Configurability. Being able to enable or disable features at any time provides the ability to roll out new capabilities as a group’s needs change. By providing a scaled rollout of functionality, people can be led through a process that allows them to learn about new features over time and subsequently receive the necessary training to use them in ways that support the activities of the community. • Customization. Allowing for a high degree of customization, not just in design but also in the terminology used to describe the various adminis- trative and leadership roles, including specific activities and processes, reinforces a distinct sense of identity and purpose. • Roles and Identity. Providing a structure that defines roles and gives a distinct identity to individuals, groups, group leaders, administrators, and so on, allows people to understand how the community will be developed and managed and what their role is in driving success. This includes customizable personal profiles that incorporate photographs, website links, etc. • Self-Organization. Determining and finding a balance between “facilitat- ing” or “managing” the community versus establishing a context in which the community itself takes responsibility for its ongoing organization is one of the more challenging tasks facing the social architect of a commu- nity. Since online communities exist to serve their members and will only survive to the extent that the membership finds itself engaged in ways that have obvious value, creating mechanisms for self-organization where appropriate is essential for long-term success. Collaborative platforms typ- ically can be configured to provide designated spaces for self-registration into special-interest groups and topic areas. • Activity Tracking. By providing administrators or other community facilitators with information about who is participating in what ways, it becomes possible to encourage certain people to become more involved, just as in a face-to-face meeting in which a facilitator “draws out” those who may be reserved or “holding back.” • Persistence. Because communications, documents, and the overall expe- rience and knowledge of the group are archived and persist over time, TECHNOLOGY AND ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT 575 32_962384 ch24.qxd 2/3/05 12:23 AM Page 575 the group maintains a sense of shared history. Persistence allows people to obtain context for current decisions, helps newcomers assimilate rapidly, and essentially serves as the memory of the community. • Training and Support. Depending on the needs of the community, there is typically a range of training and support options available. Self-service training and support includes streaming media tutorials and online help. Higher-touch training and support is available from certain providers who understand their role not simply to be software vendors, but to serve as consultants to organizations on how technology can be used and how the technical architecture can change to reflect the growth and evolution of the “social architecture” over time. Integrated collaborative environments are essential for providing that “sense of place” that provides people with a feeling of belonging to a “home base” online. But while connecting within an integrated collaborative environment provides a strong foundation for engaging with others online, facilitating pro- ductive online interactions takes a lot more than simply turning on software. It requires a deep understanding of the needs and motivations of members, sen- sitivity to the appropriate social architecture that will drive participation, and awareness of the connection of measurable results to a group’s goals. Social Architecture As previously noted, social architecture includes the norms, roles, values, and group processes that support the use of and interaction with a given technol- ogy. Just as any good consultant will facilitate introductions, set expectations, and ensure equal participation, these same approaches can and should be applied in the online world. While differences between online and in-person facilitation definitely exist, many practitioners unnecessarily discount their skills when it comes to facilitating online meetings and building web-based commu- nities for project collaboration, learning, or knowledge sharing. In describing approaches for defining and managing social architecture, we make the dis- tinction between design principles and facilitation strategies. For example: Design Principles • Clearly define roles—Describe the relationship between the different roles in the community (including the sponsor, facilitator, subgroups, group leaders/facilitators, and individual participants) and outline their responsibilities and interdependencies. • Create subgroups—Create subgroupings of participants who have their own online space for small group learning activities and project collaboration. 576 PRACTICING ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT, 2ND EDITION 32_962384 ch24.qxd 2/3/05 12:23 AM Page 576 • Support individuality—Provide a way for participants to create personal profiles that contain their photos and salient information about their backgrounds. • Identify technical constraints and enablers—Every community possesses unique attributes and aspirations. For some, using technology comes second nature, while for others, connecting online may be a significant challenge. Understanding the technical abilities, including available computing resources, bandwidth, and related knowledge is essential to creating a community-building approach that optimizes technology without overextending its utility. • Create a technology roadmap that links short-term objectives to long-term goals—Rather than wait until the “perfect” technical solution is avail- able, practitioners who understand the core technical features necessary for short-term success can start small and move gradually or quickly as the results invite. As time passes, new tools and capabilities may be introduced that further elevate the cooperative potential of the group. • Define a roll-out strategy that starts with the core and expands outward— While a compelling purpose may inspire the desire to “start big,” start- ing with the “core” and involving selected insiders and key stakeholders may mean the difference between slow versus rapid adoption of the technology. By engaging the opinion leaders, key stakeholders, and sponsors before the rest of the community, it is possible to create “seeds” within a collaborative online environment (for example, infor- mation, communications, and other content) that create excitement and immediate interest when introduced to the larger group. • Establish roles and processes that support both structured and organic collaboration—Establishing specific roles to facilitate and promote both formal and informal collaboration creates focused momentum for an online community. However, the trick lies in assessing participants’ motivations and needs to find the right balance between managing and facilitating collaborative processes versus simply creating a context for collaboration to emerge organically. • Link participation to measures and rewards—Establishing measures of success and reward systems tied to reaching goals that must be achieved by using technology can motivate people to try, and then continue to work with various tools. • Build feedback loops for continuous learning and adaptation—Building in communication mechanisms with sponsors, group leaders, and the users of a technology is essential for ongoing success. Feedback loops allow facilitators to do more of what works and less of what does not. TECHNOLOGY AND ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT 577 32_962384 ch24.qxd 2/3/05 12:23 AM Page 577 Facilitation Strategies • Articulate a cohesive purpose—A purpose that aspires to transformative results will inspire people to collaborate in ways consistent with the expressed intent and objectives of the community. Enlist the sponsor to clearly articulate the purpose of the community or initiative and how technology supports this purpose. • Define compelling benefits at the individual, organizational, and global levels—Grounding the technology’s purpose in practical reality is essen- tial for ensuring that all members’ needs are met, short- and long-term. Being conscious to deliver specific benefits to the key stakeholders of the community over time ensures that the group stays true to purpose and focused on tangible results for all. • Directly involve formal and informal leaders—Engaging sponsors, team leaders, and other influencers early in the process demonstrates support for and the value of the technology. When formal and informal leaders directly experience the benefits of the technology, and are then coached to communicate these benefits to others, participation becomes infec- tious and resistance is replaced by adoption. • Establish common values—Establishing and aligning expectations to shared objectives, including how individuals’ online contributions con- tribute to the greater purpose of the group, helps create an environment characterized by sharing and openness. Collaboratively defining the common values and behavior that will contribute to the overall success of the group also supports operating norms. • Establish operating norms—Provide guidelines for online (and offline) etiquette and obtain agreement on the behavior that will lead to suc- cessful group and individual results (for example, everyone logs in three times a week, everyone posts one question and one response on the discussion board). • Define standards of conduct to create trust—While common values will often, themselves, guide collaboration, the sponsor may establish formal boundaries for desired behavior. Espousing copyright adherence for doc- uments, confidentiality of discussions, and other standards of conduct will help set a formal context for trust. • Ensure privacy—People should be ensured that their communications and contributions will be used in the service of the larger group—not provided to or viewed by others for reasons outside the common pur- pose that bonds the group together. • Use events to drive participation—Providing people with a reason to come together, especially in the beginning, can be critical to the development of 578 PRACTICING ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT, 2ND EDITION 32_962384 ch24.qxd 2/3/05 12:23 AM Page 578 the online community. Online events, either synchronous or asynchro- nous, give people the impetus to connect together and experience the pos- sibilities of communicating and collaborating through technology. If the experience engages them, they will come back for more. • Keep content fresh—Content, including articles, presentations, white papers, online learning tools, audio, and video clips, can be used as the impetus for greater collaboration. Providing and announcing new infor- mation and resources at regular intervals contributes to the overall value of participation. • Recognize exemplary members and encourage those who are less active— Like any reward system, recognition of exemplary behavior sets the standard for the rest of the community. Highlight examples of exemplary collaboration. Summarize the dialogue of the more active participants. And for those less-active members, provide them with a personal mes- sage and offer them special support. THE FUTURE OF TECHNOLOGY AND OD The future of technology and OD is a bright one. Never before have we had so many options for expanding the impact of our work and enabling the quality of connections that can lead to true learning organizations. And emerging technologies will continue to provide new ways for individuals, groups, and organizations, unconstrained by time zones or geographical dispersion, to com- municate, collaborate, learn together, and build new knowledge. As the Internet, web-based communication and collaboration tools, online learning, and collaborative knowledge-sharing take hold within organizations of all types and sizes, practitioners will face new opportunities and challenges. Church, Gilbert, Oliver, Paquet, and Surface (2002) suggest: “It is critical that OD professionals are given the appropriate training in IT and technology-related areas to be able to fully understand the implications involved in their implementation and to help apply and communicate to others the importance of this direction for the future of the field (Church, Waclawski, & Berr, 2002; McDonah & Coghlan, 1999). This is one of the many reasons why various practitioners over the past few years have called for change in the very fundamentals of how they train, legitimatize, and professionalize OD practition- ers as certified for practice. Although the contribution of technology to OD efforts is clearly evident, the opportunities to ensure that these new methodolo- gies and applications are applied in an appropriate and professional manner may well be the next major hurdle for the field.” (p. 507) TECHNOLOGY AND ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT 579 32_962384 ch24.qxd 2/3/05 12:23 AM Page 579 Beyond learning to use technology and apply such tools in a professional way, practitioners have the opportunity to establish new approaches at the inter- section of technology and process. Increasingly, practitioners will be presented with opportunities to evaluate the utility of technology for supporting existing practices, replacing these practices with more effective models that incorporate technology, or creating entirely new approaches that expand stakeholder involvement and elevate the impact of the intervention through unique combi- nations of tools. At the center of any of these approaches remains the need to consider how the values of OD can stay a constant in our work. If ever we as practitioners have needed to transfer our skills and capabilities to our client systems, it is now. Communication tools and technologies are used every day by virtually every function of every organization. As organizations adopt new technologies, many do not consider the social architecture that must be designed into these tools to support effective group processes and organiza- tional learning. As practitioners become more versed in using technology, and as they introduce new tools into their client organizations, there will be a press- ing need to transfer new capabilities—to give our clients the experiences, insights, and skills for using technology in ways that honor the importance of and the role of the social systems and processes that ultimately make technology work in the first place. More and more technologies are designed and supported by people who understand behavioral science and the approaches that support healthy, pur- poseful group and organizational transformation. Web-based tools for conduct- ing surveys, 360-degree feedback, mind mapping, and brainstorming are already available today. New technologies will emerge in the future that take today’s technology-enabled interventions to the next level. Integrated collaborative environments will support a wider range of group processes, data gathering, mentoring, collaboration, and knowledge-sharing activities. These technologies will seamlessly integrate with the individual tools of today while offering broader communications and collaboration capabilities. Practitioners will have the opportunity to customize and morph these tools and their interventions to fit the unique lifecycles of the groups and organizations that they serve. References Allee, V. (2002). The future of knowledge: Increasing prosperity through value networks. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. American Productivity & Quality Center. (2001). Building and sustaining communities of practice: Continuing success in knowledge management. Houston, TX: American Productivity & Quality Center. Ashkenas, R., Ulrich, D., Jick, T., & Kerr, S. (1995). The boundaryless organization: Breaking the chains of organizational structure. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 580 PRACTICING ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT, 2ND EDITION 32_962384 ch24.qxd 2/3/05 12:23 AM Page 580 . creating mechanisms for self -organization where appropriate is essential for long-term success. Collaborative platforms typ- ically can be configured to provide designated spaces for self-registration into. science and the approaches that support healthy, pur- poseful group and organizational transformation. Web-based tools for conduct- ing surveys, 360-degree feedback, mind mapping, and brainstorming. asynchro- nous tools. The most comprehensive approaches blend tools to create a seam- less flow among in-person, synchronous, and asynchronous online processes (for example, periodic face-to-face