Driving and the Built Environment The Eects of Compact Development on Motorized Travel, Energy Use, and CO 2 Emissions Suburbanization is a long-standing trend reflecting the preference of many Americans for living in detached single-family homes and made possible through the mobility provided by the automobile and an extensive highway network. is study examines the relation- ship between land development patterns and vehicle miles traveled (VMT) in the United States to assess whether petroleum use, and by extension greenhouse gas emissions, could be reduced by changes in the design of development patterns. e committee that produced the report estimated that the reduction in VMT, energy use, and CO 2 emissions resulting from more compact, mixed-use development would be in the range of less than 1 percent to 11 percent by 2050, although committee members disagreed about whether the changes in development patterns and public policies neces- sary to achieve the high end of these estimates are plausible. Also of Interest Potential Impacts of Climate Change on U.S. Transportation TRB Special Report 290, ISBN 978-0-309-11306-9 280 pages, 6 × 9, paperback, 2008, $37.00 Transitions to Alternative Transportation Technologies—A Focus on Hydrogen National Academies Press, ISBN 978-0-309-12100-2 142 pages, 8.5 × 11, paperback, 2008, $39.00 Eects of TOD on Housing, Parking, and Travel Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 128, ISBN 978-0-309-11748-7 58 pages, 8.5 × 11, paperback, 2008, $42.00 Does the Built Environment Inuence Physical Activity? Examining the Evidence TRB Special Report 282, ISBN 0-309-09498-4 248 pages, 6 × 9, paperback, 2005, $27.00 Costs of Sprawl—2000 TCRP Report 74, ISBN 0-309-06719-7 605 pages, 8.5 × 11, paperback, 2002, $35.00 Transportation Research Board | SPECIAL REPORT 298 SPECIAL REPORT 298 Driving and the Built Environment The Eects of Compact Development on Motorized Travel, Energy Use, and CO2 Emissions Driving and the Built Environment ISBN 978-0-309-14255-7 Transportation Research Board | SPECIAL REPORT 298 Driving and the Built Environment The Eects of Compact Development on Motorized Travel, Energy Use, and CO Emissions Committee for the Study on the Relationships Among Development Patterns, Vehicle Miles Traveled, and Energy Consumption Transportation Research Board Board on Energy and Environmental Systems Transportation Research Board Washington, D.C. 2009 www.TRB.org Transportation Research Board Special Report 298 Subscriber Category IB energy and environment Transportation Research Board publications are available by ordering individual publications directly from the TRB Business O ce, through the Internet at www.TRB.org or national-academies. org/trb, or by annual subscription through organizational or individual a liation with TRB. 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NOTICE:  e project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.  e members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.  is report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to the procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.  is study was sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy. Typesetting by Circle Graphics. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data National Research Council (U.S.). Committee for the Study on the Relationships Among Development Patterns, Vehicle Miles Traveled, and Energy Consumption. Driving and the built environment : the e ects of compact development on motorized travel, energy use, and CO2 emissions / Committee for the Study on the Relationships Among Development Patterns, Vehicle Miles Traveled, and Energy Consumption. p. cm.—(Transportation Research Board special report ; 298) 1. Urban transportation— Environmental aspects—United States. 2. City planning—Environmental aspects—United States. 3. Motor vehicle driving—Environmental aspects—United States. I. National Research Council (U.S.). Transportation Research Board. II. National Research Council (U.S.). Board on Energy and Environmental Systems. III. Title. HE308.N365 2009 363.738'74—dc22 2009041235 ISBN 978-0-309-14255-7  e National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonpro t, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scienti c and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. On the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scienti c and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.  e National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government.  e National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. 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Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scienti c and engineering communities.  e Council is administered jointly by both the Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.  e Transportation Research Board is one of six major divisions of the National Research Council.  e mission of the Transportation Research Board is to provide leadership in transportation innovation and progress through research and information exchange, conducted within a setting that is objective, interdisciplinary, and multimodal.  e Board’s varied activities annually engage about 7,000 engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest.  e program is supported by state transportation departments, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation. www.TRB.org www.national-academies.org Transportation Research Board 2009 Executive Committee* Chair: Adib K. Kanafani, Cahill Professor of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley Vice Chair: Michael R. Morris, Director of Transportation, North Central Texas Council of Governments, Arlington Executive Director: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board J. Barry Barker, Executive Director, Transit Authority of River City, Louisville, Kentucky Allen D. Biehler, Secretary, Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, Harrisburg Larry L. Brown, Sr., Executive Director, Mississippi Department of Transportation, Jackson Deborah H. Butler, Executive Vice President, Planning, and CIO, Norfolk Southern Corporation, Norfolk, Virginia William A. V. Clark, Professor, Department of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles David S. Ekern, Commissioner, Virginia Department of Transportation, Richmond Nicholas J. Garber, Henry L. Kinnier Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville Je rey W. Hamiel, Executive Director, Metropolitan Airports Commission, Minneapolis, Minnesota Edward A. (Ned) Helme, President, Center for Clean Air Policy, Washington, D.C. Randell H. Iwasaki, Director, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento Susan Martinovich, Director, Nevada Department of Transportation, Carson City Debra L. Miller, Secretary, Kansas Department of Transportation, Topeka (Past Chair, 2008) Neil J. Pedersen, Administrator, Maryland State Highway Administration, Baltimore Pete K. Rahn, Director, Missouri Department of Transportation, Je erson City Sandra Rosenbloom, Professor of Planning, University of Arizona, Tucson Tracy L. Rosser, Vice President, Regional General Manager, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., Mandeville, Louisiana Rosa Clausell Rountree, CEO–General Manager, Transroute International Canada Services, Inc., Pitt Meadows, British Columbia, Canada Steven T. Scalzo, Chief Operating O cer, Marine Resources Group, Seattle, Washington Henry G. (Gerry) Schwartz, Jr., Chairman (retired), Jacobs/Sverdrup Civil, Inc., St. Louis, Missouri * Membership as of December 2009. C. Michael Walton, Ernest H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering, University of Texas, Austin (Past Chair, 1991) Linda S. Watson, CEO, LYNX–Central Florida Regional Transportation Authority, Orlando (Past Chair, 2007) Steve Williams, Chairman and CEO, Maverick Transportation, Inc., Little Rock, Arkansas  ad Allen (Adm., U.S. Coast Guard), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. (ex o cio) Peter H. Appel, Administrator, Research and Innovative Technology Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex o cio) J. Randolph Babbitt, Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex o cio) Rebecca M. Brewster, President and COO, American Transportation Research Institute, Smyrna, Georgia (ex o cio) George Bugliarello, President Emeritus and University Professor, Polytechnic Institute of New York University, Brooklyn; Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. (ex o cio) Anne S. Ferro, Administrator, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex o cio) LeRoy Gishi, Chief, Division of Transportation, Bureau of Indian A airs, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. (ex o cio) Edward R. Hamberger, President and CEO, Association of American Railroads, Washington, D.C. (ex o cio) John C. Horsley, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation O cials, Washington, D.C. (ex o cio) David Matsuda, Deputy Administrator, Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex o cio) Ronald Medford, Acting Deputy Administrator, National Highway Tra c Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex o cio) Victor M. Mendez, Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex o cio) William W. Millar, President, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, D.C. (ex o cio) (Past Chair, 1992) Cynthia L. Quarterman, Administrator, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C. (ex o cio) Peter M. Rogo , Administrator, Federal Transit Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex o cio) Joseph C. Szabo, Administrator, Federal Railroad Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex o cio) Polly Trottenberg, Assistant Secretary for Transportation Policy, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex o cio) Robert L. Van Antwerp (Lt. General, U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commanding General, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C. (ex o cio) Board on Energy and Environmental Systems Douglas M. Chapin, MPR Associates, Inc., Chair Robert W. Fri, Resources for the Future, Vice Chair Rakesh Agrawal, School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University William F. Banholzer, Dow Chemical Company Allen J. Bard, University of Texas Andrew Brown, Jr., Delphi Corporation Marilyn Brown, Georgia Institute of Technology Michael L. Corradini, Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin, Madison Paul A. DeCotis, Long Island Power Authority E. Linn Draper, Jr., American Electric Power, Inc. Charles H. Goodman, Research and Environmental Policy, Southern Company Sherri Goodman, CNA Narain Hingorani, Consultant James J. Markowsky, American Electric Power Service Corporation William F. Powers, Ford Motor Company Michael P. Ramage, ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Company Dan Reicher, Google.org Maxine L. Savitz, Honeywell Mark H.  iemens, University of California, San Diego Scott W. Tinker, University of Texas, Austin Committee for the Study on the Relationships Among Development Patterns, Vehicle Miles Traveled, and Energy Consumption José A. Gómez-Ibáñez, Chair, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts Marlon G. Boarnet, University of California, Irvine Dianne R. Brake, PlanSmart NJ, Trenton Robert B. Cervero, University of California, Berkeley Andrew Cotugno, Metro, Portland, Oregon Anthony Downs, Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C. Susan Hanson, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts Kara M. Kockelman, University of Texas at Austin Patricia L. Mokhtarian, University of California, Davis Rolf J. Pendall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York Danilo J. Santini, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois Frank Southworth, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee, and Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta National Research Council Sta Stephen R. Godwin, Director, Studies and Special Programs, Transportation Research Board James Zucchetto, Director, Board on Energy and Environmental Systems, Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences Nancy P. Humphrey, Study Director, Transportation Research Board Laurie Geller, Senior Program O cer, Division on Earth and Life Studies* * Dr. Geller was a member of the Transportation Research Board sta when she performed the work on this study. Preface In September 2008, the California state legislature passed the  rst state law (Senate Bill 375) to include land use policies directed at curbing urban sprawl and reducing automobile travel as part of the state’s ambitious strategy to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.  e legislature recognized that cleaner fuels and more fuel-e cient vehicles would not be su cient to achieve the state’s goal of reducing GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2020.  e bill requires the state’s 18 metropolitan planning organizations to include the GHG emissions targets established by the state Air Resources Board (ARB) in regional transportation plans, and to o er incentives for local governments and developers to create more compact developments and provide transit and other opportunities for alternatives to automobile travel to help meet these targets. ARB currently estimates that reductions in vehicle miles traveled (VMT) resulting from these actions will contribute only about 3 percent of the 2020 targets—an estimate that re ects uncertainties in the state of knowledge about the impacts of more compact development patterns on travel and the short time horizon involved.  e present study, which was requested in the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (Section 1827) and funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, is aimed at establishing the scienti c basis for and making appropriate ix [...]...x Driving and the Built Environment judgments about the relationships among development patterns, VMT, and energy consumption (see Chapter 1 and Appendix A for a full discussion of the study charge) The statement of task was expanded to include the impacts of development patterns on GHG emissions To carry out the study charge, the Transportation Research Board (TRB) and the Board on Energy and Environmental... housing choices Given the uncertainties, it would be wise to proceed carefully, monitoring the results and taking into account new research as it adds to the understanding of the benefits and costs that various compact, mixed-use development policies generate at different places and times 12 Driving and the Built Environment But given that the full energy and emissions benefits of land use changes will... compact development projects and was briefed on the impacts of Portland’s urban growth boundary on regional land use patterns and travel Finally, the committee thanks the following federal agency staff for their help in launching the study and their continuing assistance throughout: Philip D Patterson, Jr., of the U.S Department of Energy; Megan Susman and John V Thomas of the U.S Environmental Protection... have the greatest effect 1 2 Driving and the Built Environment The adverse effects of suburbanization and automobile dependence have long been evident but are currently of particular concern for several reasons First, after decades of low energy prices, the cost of oil rose to record highs in 2008, reflecting the growth of China and India and the instability of many key suppliers in the Middle East and. .. perspective on the committee’s charge; Reid Ewing, professor in the College of Architecture and Planning, University of Utah, who provided an overview of the land use–transportation literature; John Holtzclaw, consultant to the Natural Resources Defense Council, who spoke about location efficiency models; and John Landis, Chair of the xii Driving and the Built Environment Department of City and Regional... published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge The contents of the review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process The committee thanks the following individuals for their participation in the review of this report: A Ray Chamberlain,... congestion pricing and market-based parking fees, 10 Driving and the Built Environment along with zoning requirements for maximum rather than minimum parking, can complement higher-density development patterns that encourage transit use and pedestrian travel The Portland, Oregon, and Arlington, Virginia, case studies described in this report demonstrate how the application of these policies has led the real... over time Moreover, the committee has not examined the other benefits and costs of compact, mixed-use development or how the trade-offs among these benefits and costs might vary by the specific types of compact development policies and the contexts in which they are applied Nevertheless, climate change is a problem that is likely to be more easily dealt with sooner rather than later, and more energy-efficient... undeveloped land; increasing the nation’s dependence on petroleum, particularly foreign imports; and increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that contribute to global warming The primary purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between land development patterns, often referred to as the built environment, and motor vehicle travel in the United States and to assess whether petroleum use, and by... evaluating the potential benefits of information and education programs was not feasible through a scientific assessment because the 3 This addition was approved by staff of the U.S Department of Energy, which funded the study 18 Driving and the Built Environment link between such programs and policy outcomes in this arena is too tenuous to be established reliably from the literature Nevertheless, the committee . REPORT 298 SPECIAL REPORT 298 Driving and the Built Environment The Eects of Compact Development on Motorized Travel, Energy Use, and CO2 Emissions Driving and the Built Environment ISBN 978-0-309-14255-7 Transportation. scienti c and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. On the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress. spoke about location e ciency models; and John Landis, Chair of the xii Driving and the Built Environment Department of City and Regional Planning at the University of Pennsylvania, who presented