“fm” — 2003/3/11 — pagei—#1 Aircraft Design Projects Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com “fm” — 2003/3/11 — page ii — #2 Dedications To Jessica, Maria, Edward, Robert and Jonothan – in their hands rests the future. To my father, J. F. Marchman, Jr, for passing on to me his love of airplanes and to my teacher, Dr Jim Williams, whose example inspired me to pursue a career in education. Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com “fm” — 2003/3/11 — page iii — #3 Aircraft Design Projects for engineering students Lloyd R. Jenkinson James F. Marchman III OXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON LONDON NEW YORK PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com “fm” — 2003/3/10 — pagev—#5 Contents Preface xiii xvi xvii Acknowledgements Introduction 1 Design methodology 1 2 Preliminary design 6 2.1 Problem definition 6 7 8 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 Understanding the problem 8 2.1.4 Innovation 9 2.1.5 Organising the design process 10 2.1.6 Summary 11 The customers Aircraft viability 2.2 Information retrieval 11 2.2.1 Existing and competitive aircraft 11 2.2.2 Technical reports 12 2.2.3 Operational experience 12 2.3 Aircraft requirements 12 2.3.1 Market and mission issues 13 2.3.2 Airworthiness and other standards 13 2.3.3 Environmental and social issues 13 2.3.4 Commercial and manufacturing considerations 14 2.3.5 Systems and equipment requirements 14 2.4 Configuration options 14 2.5 Initial baseline sizing 15 2.5.1 Initial mass (weight) estimation 16 2.5.2 Initial layout drawing 19 2.6 Baseline evaluation 19 2.6.1 Mass statement 19 2.6.2 Aircraft balance 21 2.6.3 Aerodynamic analysis 22 2.6.4 Engine data 24 2.6.5 Aircraft performance 25 2.6.6 Initial technical report 25 2.7 Refining the initial layout 25 2.7.1 Constraint analysis 26 2.7.2 Trade-off studies 29 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com “fm” — 2003/3/10 — page vi — #6 vi Contents 2.8 Refined baseline design 31 2.9 Parametric and trade studies 32 2.9.1 Example aircraft used to illustrate trade-off and parametric studies 33 2.10 Final baseline configuration 39 2.10.1 Additional technical considerations 39 2.10.2 Broader-based considerations 39 2.11 Type specification 40 2.11.1 Report format 40 2.11.2 Illustrations, drawings and diagrams 41 References 41 3 Introduction to the project studies 43 4 Project study: scheduled long-range business jet 46 4.1 Introduction 47 4.2 Project brief 49 4.2.1 Project requirements 50 4.3 Project analysis 50 4.3.1 Payload/range 50 4.3.2 Passenger comfort 51 4.3.3 Field requirements 51 4.3.4 Technology assessments 52 4.3.5 Marketing 53 4.3.6 Alternative roles 54 4.3.7 Aircraft developments 54 4.3.8 Commercial analysis 55 4.4 Information retrieval 56 4.5 Design concepts 57 4.5.1 Conventional layout(s) 57 4.5.2 Braced wing/canard layout 58 4.5.3 Three-surface layout 59 4.5.4 Blended body layout 60 4.5.5 Configuration selection 61 4.6 Initial sizing and layout 62 4.6.1 Mass estimation 62 4.6.2 Engine size and selection 63 4.6.3 Wing geometry 63 4.6.4 Fuselage geometry 67 4.6.5 Initial ‘baseline aircraft’ general arrangement drawing 68 4.7 Initial estimates 70 4.7.1 Mass and balance analysis 70 4.7.2 Aerodynamic estimations 75 4.7.3 Initial performance estimates 76 4.7.4 Constraint analysis 78 4.7.5 Revised performance estimates 79 4.7.6 Cost estimations 80 4.8 Trade-off studies 82 4.8.1 Alternative roles and layout 82 4.8.2 Payload/range studies 85 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com “fm” — 2003/3/10 — page vii — #7 Contents vii 4.8.3 Field performance studies 86 4.8.4 Wing geometry studies 87 4.8.5 Economic analysis 91 4.9 Initial ‘type specification’ 96 4.9.1 General aircraft description 96 4.9.2 Aircraft geometry 97 4.9.3 Mass (weight) and performance statements 97 4.9.4 Economic and operational issues 98 4.10 Study review 99 References 100 5 Project study: military training system 101 5.1 Introduction 102 5.2 Project brief 102 5.2.1 Aircraft requirements 103 5.2.2 Mission profiles 104 5.3 Problem definition 105 5.4 Information retrieval 106 5.4.1 Technical analysis 108 5.4.2 Aircraft configurations 110 5.4.3 Engine data 110 5.5 Design concepts 110 5.6 Initial sizing 112 5.6.1 Initial baseline layout 113 5.7 Initial estimates 115 5.7.1 Mass estimates 115 5.7.2 Aerodynamic estimates 117 5.7.3 Performance estimates 119 5.8 Constraint analysis 129 5.8.1 Take-off distance 129 5.8.2 Approach speed 129 5.8.3 Landing distance 130 5.8.4 Fundamental flight analysis 130 5.8.5 Combat turns at SL 130 5.8.6 Combat turn at 25 000 ft 131 5.8.7 Climb rate 131 5.8.8 Constraint diagram 131 5.9 Revised baseline layout 132 5.9.1 Wing fuel volume 133 5.10 Further work 134 5.11 Study review 137 5.11.1 Strengths 137 5.11.2 Weaknesses 137 5.11.3 Opportunities 139 5.11.4 Threats 139 5.11.5 Revised aircraft layout 140 5.12 Postscript 141 References 141 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com “fm” — 2003/3/10 — page viii — #8 viii Contents 6 Project study: electric-powered racing aircraft 143 6.1 Introduction 144 6.2 Project brief 144 6.2.1 The racecourse and procedures 144 6.2.2 History of Formula 1 racing 145 6.2.3 Comments from a racing pilot 146 6.2.4 Official Formula 1 rules 147 6.3 Problem definition 149 6.4 Information retrieval 150 6.4.1 Existing aircraft 150 6.4.2 Configurational analysis 152 6.4.3 Electrical propulsion system 154 6.5 Design concepts 157 6.6 Initial sizing 158 6.6.1 Initial mass estimations 159 6.6.2 Initial aerodynamic considerations 162 6.6.3 Propeller analysis 165 6.7 Initial performance estimation 166 6.7.1 Maximum level speed 166 6.7.2 Climb performance 169 6.7.3 Turn performance 171 6.7.4 Field performance 173 6.8 Study review 173 References 174 7 Project study: a dual-mode (road/air) vehicle 175 7.1 Introduction 176 7.2 Project brief (flying car or roadable aircraft?) 176 7.3 Initial design considerations 177 7.4 Design concepts and options 179 7.5 Initial layout 181 7.6 Initial estimates 186 7.6.1 Aerodynamic estimates 186 7.6.2 Powerplant selection 189 7.6.3 Weight and balance predictions 190 7.6.4 Flight performance estimates 190 7.6.5 Structural details 193 7.6.6 Stability, control and ‘roadability’ assessment 196 7.6.7 Systems 197 7.6.8 Vehicle cost assessment 198 7.7 Wind tunnel testing 199 7.8 Study review 200 References 201 8 Project study: advanced deep interdiction aircraft 202 8.1 Introduction 203 8.2 Project brief 203 8.2.1 Threat analysis 203 8.2.2 Stealth considerations 204 8.2.3 Aerodynamic efficiency 206 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com “fm” — 2003/3/10 — page ix — #9 Contents ix 8.3 Problem definition 208 8.4 Design concepts and selection 210 8.5 Initial sizing and layout 213 8.6 Initial estimates 215 8.6.1 Initial mass estimations 216 8.6.2 Initial aerodynamic estimations 217 8.7 Constraint analysis 221 8.7.1 Conclusion 227 8.8 Revised baseline layout 228 8.8.1 General arrangement 228 8.8.2 Mass evaluation 233 8.8.3 Aircraft balance 233 8.8.4 Aerodynamic analysis 234 8.8.5 Propulsion 241 8.9 Performance estimations 242 8.9.1 Manoeuvre performance 242 8.9.2 Mission analysis 250 8.9.3 Field performance 254 8.10 Cost estimations 259 8.11 Trade-off studies 261 8.12 Design review 263 8.12.1 Final baseline aircraft description 263 8.12.2 Future considerations 267 8.13 Study review 268 References 268 9 Project study: high-altitude, long-endurance (HALE) uninhabited aerial surveillance vehicle (UASV) 270 9.1 Introduction 271 9.2 Project brief 271 9.2.1 Aircraft requirements 272 9.3 Problem definition 272 9.4 Initial design considerations 275 9.5 Information retrieval 275 9.5.1 Lockheed Martin U-2S 276 9.5.2 Grob Strato 2C 276 9.5.3 Northrop Grumman RQ-4A Global Hawk 277 9.5.4 Grob G520 Strato 1 277 9.5.5 Stemme S10VC 277 9.6 Design concepts 278 9.6.1 Conventional layout 279 9.6.2 Joined wing layout 280 9.6.3 Flying wing layout 280 9.6.4 Braced wing layout 281 9.6.5 Configuration selection 282 9.7 Initial sizing and layout 283 9.7.1 Aircraft mass estimation 283 9.7.2 Fuel volume assessment 285 9.7.3 Wing loading analysis 285 9.7.4 Aircraft speed considerations 286 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com “fm” — 2003/3/10 — pagex—#10 x Contents 9.7.5 Wing planform geometry 288 9.7.6 Engine sizing 290 9.7.7 Initial aircraft layout 292 9.7.8 Aircraft data summary 293 9.8 Initial estimates 294 9.8.1 Component mass estimations 294 9.8.2 Aircraft mass statement and balance 297 9.8.3 Aircraft drag estimations 298 9.8.4 Aircraft lift estimations 299 9.8.5 Aircraft propulsion 300 9.8.6 Aircraft performance estimations 300 9.9 Trade-off studies 305 9.10 Revised baseline layout 305 9.11 Aircraft specification 307 9.11.1 Aircraft description 307 9.11.2 Aircraft data 307 9.12 Study review 308 References 309 10 Project study: a general aviation amphibian aircraft 310 10.1 Introduction 311 10.2 Project brief 311 10.2.1 Aircraft requirements 312 10.3 Initial design considerations 312 10.4 Design concepts 312 10.5 Initial layout and sizing 313 10.5.1 Wing selection 313 10.5.2 Engine selection 314 10.5.3 Hull design 314 10.5.4 Sponson design 316 10.5.5 Other water operation considerations 317 10.5.6 Other design factors 318 10.6 Initial estimates 318 10.6.1 Aerodynamic estimates 318 10.6.2 Mass and balance 318 10.6.3 Performance estimations 321 10.6.4 Stability and control 323 10.6.5 Structural details 323 10.7 Baseline layout 324 10.8 Revised baseline layout 325 10.9 Further work 325 10.10 Study review 328 References 329 11 Design organisation and presentation 331 11.1 Student’s checklist 332 11.1.1 Initial questions 332 11.1.2 Technical tasks 332 11.2 Teamworking 333 11.2.1 Team development 335 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com “fm” — 2003/3/10 — page xi — #11 Contents xi 11.2.2 Team member responsibilities 336 11.2.3 Team leadership requirements 336 11.2.4 Team operating principles 337 11.2.5 Brainstorming 337 11.3 Managing design meetings 338 11.3.1 Prior to the meeting 339 11.3.2 Minutes of the meeting 339 11.3.3 Dispersed meetings 341 11.4 Writing technical reports 341 11.4.1 Planning the report 342 11.4.2 Organising the report 342 11.4.3 Writing the report 343 11.4.4 Referencing 344 11.4.5 Use of figures, tables and appendices 345 11.4.6 Group reports 346 11.4.7 Review of the report 347 11.5 Making a technical presentation 348 11.5.1 Planning the presentation 349 11.5.2 Organising the presentation 349 11.5.3 Use of equipment 350 11.5.4 Management of the presentation 351 11.5.5 Review of the presentation 352 11.6 Design course structure and student assessment 353 11.6.1 Course aims 353 11.6.2 Course objectives 354 11.6.3 Course structure 354 11.6.4 Assessment criteria 355 11.6.5 Peer review 356 11.7 Naming your aircraft 356 Footnote 357 Appendix A: Units and conversion factors 359 Derived units 360 Funny units 360 Conversions (exact conversions can be found in British Standards BS350/2856) 361 Some useful constants (standard values) 362 Appendix B: Design data sources 363 Technical books (in alphabetical order) 363 Reference books 365 Research papers 365 Journals and articles 366 The Internet 366 Index 367 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com [...]... accurate prediction of the aircraft maximum (take-off ) mass/weight (Note: if SI units are used for all calculations it is appropriate to consider aircraft mass (kilograms) in place of aircraft weight (Newtons).) “chap02” — 2003/3/10 — page 16 — #11 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Preliminary design Aircraft design textbooks4,5,6 show that the aircraft take-off mass... itself Each design problem, regardless of how similar it may appear to an earlier aircraft design, is unique and requires a thorough and systematic investigation The project studies presented in this book merely serve as examples of how the design process has been followed in the past by other teams faced with the task of solving a unique problem in aircraft design It is impossible to design aircraft. .. investigated “chap01” — 2003/3/10 — page 1 — #1 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Design methodology % 100 Process II Co Process I st p ex en de d Cost Design flexibility II I 0 A B C D Region Task A B C D Timescale Defining requirements Conceptual design phase Project design phase Detail design phase Fig 1.2 Design flexibility layout are avoided or, at best, reduced... http://www.simpopdf.com 4 Aircraft Design Projects The interpersonal dynamics of working in a team requires extra effort However, this greatly enhances the design experience and adds team communications, management and interpersonnel interaction to the technical knowledge gained from the project work It is normal in team design projects to have all students conduct individual initial assessments of the design. .. intricacies involved in real aircraft design Reference 1 Mavris, D et al., ‘Methodology for examining the simultaneous impact of requirements, vehicle characteristics and technologies on military aircraft design , ICAS 2000, Harrogate UK, August 2000 “chap01” — 2003/3/10 — page 5 — #5 5 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com 2 Preliminary design Conceptual design is the organised... 2.1.4 Innovation The design and development of a new aircraft is an expensive business The people who invest in such an enterprise need to be confident that they will get a safe and profitable “chap02” — 2003/3/10 — page 9 — #4 9 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com 10 Aircraft Design Projects return on their outlay The basis for confidence in such projects lies in the... Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com 14 Aircraft Design Projects 2.3.4 Commercial and manufacturing considerations Political issues may affect the way in which the aircraft is to be manufactured Large aircraft projects will involve a consortium of companies and governments (e.g Airbus) This will directly dictate the location of design and manufacturing activity Such influence may... “chap02” — 2003/3/10 — page 14 — #9 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Preliminary design Number of seats (3 class) 380 340 300 260 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 Aircraft range (with reserves) (nm) Fig 2.2 Aircraft development programme (Boeing 777) engine manufacturers’ projected engine designs Using a rubber engine, the aircraft designer has the opportunity to scale... approach to the design process It is expected to appeal to both faculty and students It sets out the basics of the design thought process and the pathway one must travel in order to reach an aircraft design goal for any category of aircraft Then it presents a variety of design case studies These are intended to offer examples of the way the design process may be applied to conceptual design problems... — 2003/3/10 — page xviii — #18 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Introduction been undertaken for entry to design competitions Each study has been selected to illustrate a different aspect of preliminary design and to illustrate the varied nature of aircraft conceptual design The final chapter (11) offers guidance on student design work It presents a set of questions . of preliminary aircraft design. Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com “chap01” — 2003/3/10 — page1—#1 1 Design methodology The start of the design process. pursue a career in education. Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com “fm” — 2003/3/11 — page iii — #3 Aircraft Design Projects for engineering students Lloyd. estimations 294 9.8.2 Aircraft mass statement and balance 297 9.8.3 Aircraft drag estimations 298 9.8.4 Aircraft lift estimations 299 9.8.5 Aircraft propulsion 300 9.8.6 Aircraft performance