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Môn ngữ Âm 2023, To speak we need air, which is pushed out of our lungs. Different sounds are made by obstructing this airstream in different ways. We use our vocal organs to make these obstructions. The airstream from our lungs moves up first through the windpipe and next through the larynx.
Selected and Compiled English Phonetics and Phonology March, 2023 For Internal Use Only Contents Chapter 1: The Production of Speech A The Larynx B The Articulators above the Larynx Chapter 2: English Vowel Sounds A B C D E Vowel Sounds Vowel Classification Monophthongs Diphthongs Triphthongs Exercises Chapter 3: English Consonant Sounds A B C D E F G H 1 6 11 13 14 17 Consonant Sounds Consonant Classification The Plosive Consonants The Fricative Consonants The Affricate Consonants The Nasal Consonants The Lateral Consonants The Approximant Consonants Exercises 17 17 20 23 25 25 27 27 30 Chapter 4: Phonetics and Phonology Basic Terminology 34 A Phoneme vs Allophone B Phonetic vs Phonemic Transcription Exercises Chapter 5: The Syllable A The Nature of the Syllable B The Structure of English Syllable 34 35 37 38 38 38 Chapter 6: Strong and Weak Syllables A B C D Strong and Weak Syllables The Vowel /ə/ [i] and [u] as a result of neutralization Syllabic consonants Exercises Chapter 7: Stress A The Nature of Stress B Level of Stress C The Placement of Stress Exercises 40 40 40 41 41 44 45 45 45 46 54 Chapter 8: Weak Forms 55 Chapter 9: Aspects of Connected Speech 61 A Rhythm B Assimilation 61 62 Chapter 10: Intonation 71 Chapter 11: Intonation 72 A The Tone Unit B Pitch Possibilities in the Simple Tone-unit C Pitch Possibilities in the Complex Tone-unit Chapter 12: Functions of Intonation A B C D E Attitudinal Function of Intonation Accentual Function of Intonation Grammatical Function of Intonation Discourse Function of Intonation Regulation of Conversational Behavior 72 73 74 77 77 78 78 79 79 Chapter English Phonetics and Phonology The Production of Sounds A The Larynx To speak we need air, which is pushed out of our lungs Different sounds are made by obstructing this airstream in different ways We use our vocal organs to make these obstructions The airstream from our lungs moves up first through the windpipe and next through the larynx Figure 1: Major anatomical structures involved in the production of speech sounds The larynxis a box-like structure made of muscle and cartilage1 and is situated at the upper end of the windpipe At the front of the neck, the larynx comes to a point known as the Adam’s Apple cartilage: is a soft kind of bone Chapter 1:The Production of Speech Sounds1 Thyroid cartilage Cricoid cartilage Tracheal rings Figure 2: The larynx Inside the larynx are the vocal folds2, two bands of muscular tissue that stretch from the front to the back within the larynx Arytenoid cartilages Figure 3: The inside of the larynx seen from above At the back of the larynx the vocal folds are attached to a pair of small cartilages When these cartilages move, the vocal folds move with them and so the opening between the two vocal folds, called the glottis, with vary accordingly Figure 4: Arytenoid cartilages causing closing and opening of the glottis vocal folds: “vocal cords” (an older name for vocal folds) Chapter 1:The Production of Speech Sounds2 There are four basic states of the vocal folds that are important for speech: Wide apart: The airstream is not obstructed by the vocal folds, so it passes freely through the glottis Voiceless consonants are made with the vocal folds wide apart wide apart Narrow glottis: The air escapes through the narrow glottis with some difficulty and you hear the friction of the air against the vocal folds The result is the sound /h/ narrow glottis touchedor nearly touched Position for vocal fold vibration: When the edges of the vocal folds are touching each other, or nearly touching, air passing through the glottis will usually cause vibration Air is pressed up from the lungs and this air pushes the vocal folds apart so that a little air escapes As the air flows quickly past the edges of the vocal folds, the folds are brought back together again This opening and closing happens very rapidly and is repeated regularly The result is voiced sounds, i.e vowels and voiced consonants Vocal folds tightly closed: The vocal folds are firmly pressed together and air cannot escape between them The speech sound which is made like this is called a glottal plosive /ʔ/ tightly closed B The Articulators above the Larynx Once the air has passed through the glottis, it continues through the vocal tract The vocal tract is the whole of the air passage above the larynx; viz the pharynx, the oral cavity and the nasal cavity The oral cavity is the air passage within the mouth The air passage within the nose is called the nasal cavity What sound is made depends not only on the state of the vocal folds, Chapter 1:The Production of Speech Sounds3 but also on the shape of the vocal tract The shape of the vocal tract can be altered by changing the shape and position of your articulators The Articulators are the vocal organs which are involved in the production of sounds Figure 5: Articulators above the larynx The following are the articulators situated above the larynx The pharynx: is a tube which begins just above the larynx and at the top, it is divided into two parts: one part is at the back of the mouth and the other is the beginning of the way through the nasal cavity The lips:bilabial consonants are made when the lips are in contact with each other, while those with lip-to-teeth contact are labiodental consonants The shape of the lips is also important in the production of vowels The teeth: Dental sounds are produced with the tongue touch the front teeth The tongue:modifies the shape of the oral cavity by moving into different places and assuming different shapes It can be divided into different parts: tip, blade, front, center, back and root Figure 6: Parts of the tongue Chapter 1:The Production of Speech Sounds4 The alveolar ridge:is situated between the top front teeth and the hard palate Alveolar consonants are made with the tongue touching or approaching the alveolar ridge The hard palate:is the arched bony area immediately behind the alveolar ridge It is often called the “roof” of the mouth When the front upper surface of the lounge (nearly) touches the hard palate palatal consonants result The soft palate (= the velum):is the muscular flap at the back of the mouth behind the hard palate It is raised for the production of all oral sounds, closing the upper part of the pharynx and thus preventing air from moving through the nasal cavity For the articulation of nasal sounds, air escapes through the nose the velum is lowered to keep the air passage to the nose open Velar consonants are made when the back of the tongue touches the velum velum lowered velum raised Figure 7: The two basic positions of the velum Chapter 1:The Production of Speech Sounds5 Chapter English Vowel Sounds A Vowel Sounds We can define speech sounds in two ways The phonetic definitionclassifies speech sounds by the way we produce them The phonological definitionconsiders their distribution, i.e in what positions in a word they can occur, and their context next to what other sounds they occur Vowels Phonetic characteristics Vocal fold vibration Absence of obstruction in the vocal tract (the air flows freely) Phonological characteristics Occurs at the center of syllable – a group of phonemes that are pronounced together English vowels are also divided into three types depending on the number of vowel sounds they consist of: Monophthongs are single vowel sounds that may be long and short Diphthongsare double vowel sounds formed by gliding (moving) from one vowel position to another Triphthongs are triple vowel sounds made by gliding from one vowel position to a second and then to a third B Vowel Classification The quality of a vowel depends on the tongue height,tongue shape, and the lip shape Tongue height: Tongue height is the vertical distance between the upper surface of the tongue and the palate Chapter 2:English Vowel Sounds6 Manner When a word-initial /ð/ follows a plosive or nasal at the end of the preceding word, /ð/ often assimilates in manner to the preceding consonant, but both consonants have a dental place of articulation For example: in the /ɪnðə/ [ɪn̪ n̪ ə] cut through /kʌtθruː/ [kʌt̪ t̪ruː] read these /riːdðiːz/ [riːd̪ d̪ iːz] Voice This is an established and regular feature of the ending -s of verbs and nouns, which normally is a voiced sound /z/ (or after /s/ or /z/) but after voiceless consonants (except /s/) is pronounced /s/ e.g cats /kæts/, bags /bægz/ Similarly, the past tense -ed ending is /d/ after voiced sounds (excepts /d/) and /t/ after a voiceless consonant (except /t/) e.g begged /begd/, packed /pækt/ Reciprocal assimilation Two neighboring sounds influence each other so that a third sound replaces both Across word boundaries, in RP, it mainly affects phrases involving ‘you’ or ‘your’ For example: ‘could you?’ [kʊʤu] ‘get your bags!’ [geʧəbægz] Within words, where the following vowel is strong (/u:/ or /ʊə/) reciprocal assimilation can frequently be heard in British English accents, although it is not considered standard For example: ‘tune’ /tjuːn/ [ʧu:n] ‘endure’ /ɪnˈdjʊə/ [ɪnˈʤʊə] Where the vowel is weak, assimilation is usually optional For example: ‘factual’ /ˈfæktjuəl/ or /ˈfækʧʊəl/ ‘educate’ /ˈedjʊkeɪt/ or /ˈeʤʊkeɪt/ Some words have alternative pronunciations without or with reciprocal assimilation For example: ‘intuition’ /ˌɪntjuˈɪʃn/ or /ˌɪnʧuˈɪʃn/ Chapter 9: Aspects of Connected Speech 70 Elision Elision is the omission of a sound that would otherwise be present19 It is particularly characteristic of rapid or casual speech Elision does not happen at random, but follows certain rules Elision is normally optional This means that for learners of English, it is not really necessary to imitate elision; but it is good to be aware of the fact that sometimes sounds which you expect to hear are not pronounced, causing perception problems In English, elision mainly affects the consonants /t/ and /d/ and the vowel schwa The following are the main cases where elision happens: a) Avoidance of complex consonant clusters: When /t/ stands between two voiceless consonants For example: ‘next week’ [neks(t) wiːk] ‘at first sight’ [ətfɜːs(t) saɪt] ‘texts’ [teks(t)s] ‘scripts’ [skrɪp(t)s] When /d/ stands between any two consonants For example: ‘stand fast’ [stæn(d) fɑːst] ‘old man’ [əʊl(d) mæn] ‘kindness’ [ˈkaɪn(d)nəs] b) When schwa is between consonants in an unstressed and non-final syllable (If the following consonant is /r/, /l/ or /n/ that consonant sometimes becomes syllabic For example: ‘today’ [thˈdeɪ] ‘contraction’ [kn̩ ˈtrækʃn̩ ] ‘murderer’ [ˈmɜːdr̩ə] ‘national’ [ˈnæʃn̩ l ̩] ‘terrific’ [ˈtr̩ɪfɪk] ‘colossal’ [kl ̩ɒsl ̩] There are many cases where assimilation and elision are both possible, singly or together Thus, ‘soft cloth’ may be /sɒftklɒθ/ (full form), [sɒfkklɒθ] (/t/ assimilated to /k/ before /k/), or [sɒfklɒθ] (/t/ elided) And ‘handbag’ may be / ˈhændbæg/ (full form), [ˈhænbæg] (elision), [ˈhæmbbæg] (assimilation) or [ˈhæmbæg] (elision and assimilation) 19 It is difficult to decide if contractions of grammatical words (e.g ‘ve, ‘ll, n’t) should be regarded as instances of elision or not However, the fact that they are regularly represented with a special spelling makes them different from the examples we are studying here Chapter 9: Aspects of Connected Speech 71 You need to be on guard against being misled by the archaic spelling of English into restoring any of the numerous historical elisions which are to be seen in ‘blackguard’ /ˈblægɑːd/, ‘calm’ /kɑːm/, ‘soften’ /ˈsɒfn/ The elisions in words like these have become fixed and are obligatory Linking In spoken English, words are seldom spoken as individual items Most often words are linked to each other The boundaries between individual words easily disappear, as words are joined together to form phrases and sentences The end of one word links with the beginning of the next one, with no significant pause until the end of the phrase Here are the main cases of linking: Consonant linking When one word ends in a consonant and the next word begins in a consonant, linking happens as follows: a) Same consonants:In places where the same consonant is at the end of one word and at the beginning of the next word, the sound is not pronounced twice: the final consonant is pronounced only once but it may be lengthened a little (the symbol ( : ) shows lengthening here e.g fresh:shrimp, bus:stop, five:vans, call:Larry, one:night b) Different continuant consonants20:In places where different continuants end one word and begin the next, lengthen the first sound slightly; then blend it closely into the following consonant e.g call:me, one:reason, fresh:fish, class:movie, some:work c) Two plosives:In places where one words ends in a plosive and the next begins in a plosive, the plosive in the first word is formed but not release (unreleased plosive, symbol ()) It is held and only the word-initial plosive is released e.g big:gun, ̚ ripe̚:peach, lab:book, red:dress, sick:cat, right:time, right:day, cheap:car, bad̚:boy, ̚ ̚ ̚ ̚ ̚ ̚ cab:driver, dark̚:blue, big:car ̚ ̚ d) Fricative and plosive:Articulate the fricative and lengthen it slightly and blend it into the plosive e.g less:time, one:dollar, half:done, some:coffee, open:door, all:day 20 The following sounds are sometimes grouped together as continuants (consonants made with partial closure: fricatives, approximants, /l/ and /r/, and nasals Chapter 9: Aspects of Connected Speech 72 e) Plosive and fricative:Release the plosive together with the fricative in a very closely blended articulation e.g hot‿soup, cab‿fare, help‿me, big‿load, bad‿week, make‿sure Vowel linking When a word ends in a vowel and the following word begins in a vowel, linking can happen as follows: a) Linking /r/ Linking /r/ is the pronunciation of written word-final as /r/ when the next word begins with a vowel In RP, words in isolation never end in /r/ here /hɪə/ but here are /hɪərɑ:/ four /fɔ:/ but four aces /fɔ:r ˈeɪsɪz/ b) Intrusive /r/ Instructive /r/ is the pronunciation of an /r/-sound between two words or syllables in sequence, where the first ends with a vowel and the second begins with one, and where there is not r in the spelling Instructive /r/ occurs only after the vowels /ə/, /ɜ:/, /ɑ:/, /ɔ:/ media event /ˈmiːdiərɪˈvent/ law and order /lɔːrənd ˈɔːdə/ drawing /ˈdrɔːrɪŋ/ c) [w] and [j] Where no /r/ is available for linking, speakers use another consonantal sound which is very close to the first of the two vowels: if the first word ends in a [u]-type vowel, [w] is inserted; if the first word ends in an [i]-type vowel, [j] is inserted As neither is articulated fully, there are transcribed small and raised how often /haʊw ˈɒfən/ they are /ðeɪj ɑː/ Linking and intrusive /r/ are special cases of juncture This term refers to the relationship between one sound and the sounds that immediately precede and follow it Illustration: my turn /maɪtɜːn/ The relationship between /m/ and /aɪ/, between /t/ and /ɜː/ and between /ɜː/ and /n/ is one of close juncture /m/ is preceded by silence and /n/ is followed by silence, and so /m/ and /n/ are said to be in a position of external open juncture English speakers will usually hear the difference between my turn and might earn In both pairs Chapter 9: Aspects of Connected Speech 73 what is different is the relationship between /aɪ/ and /t/ In quick speech, there is no silence (of external open juncture) to indicate where we can split up the sequence of sounds into words How can we then hear the difference between /maɪtɜːn/ and /maɪtɜːn/? The answer is that in turn, the /t/ is aspirated, whereas in might, it is not Also /aɪ/ is shorter in might than my Many pairs show the significance of juncture: Pair 1: might rain (/aɪ/ is shortened, /r/ is voiced when initial in rain) my train (/r/ is voiceless following t in train) Pair 2: all that ’m after today (/t/ unaspirated when final in that) all the time after today (/t/ aspirated when in initial position in time) Chapter 9: Aspects of Connected Speech 74 Chapter 10 English Phonetics and Phonology Intonation 1 Intonation - Tone Intonation is a term used in the study of suprasegmental phonology It refers the distinctive use of patterns of pitch (high or low) Tone is the overall behavior of the pitch Tone in non-tonal language (English) and tone in tonal language (Chinese and Vietnamese) Tone in non-tonal language does not change the meaning of a word Tone in tonal language determines the meaning of a word Kinds of tone Simple tones: level tone ( –– ), falling tone ( \ ), and rising tone ( ∕) Complex tones: fall-rise ( V ), and rise-fall ( Ʌ ) Pitch height Each person has his or her own normal pitch range (within the lower part of the pitch range) Extra pitch height is used where strong feelings are to be expressed Some functions of English tones in the context of “yes” and “no” said in isolation Fall: \ Rise: ∕ Fall-rise: v Rise-fall: ʌ Level: –– Neutral There is no more to be said What you want? Invitation to continue Limited agreement/Response with reservation or hesitation Strong feelings of approval or disapproval or surprise Feelings of something routine, uninteresting or boring Chapter 10: Intonation 75 Chapter 11 English Phonetics and Phonology Intonation A The Tone Unit Position of the tone-unit The position of the tone unit in the hierarchical relationships between phonological units (from the largest to the smallest unit): utterance - tone unit - foot - syllable - phoneme Definition of tone unit An information unit used for analyzing intonation it consists of a tonic syllable (i.e a syllable which carries a tone) + a tone + other less prominent syllables e.g Is it you?is a tone unit which consists of - a tonic syllable (you) a tone (rising) two less prominent syllables (is it) (Intonation and stress are the vocal equivalents or written punctuation: so, in example illustrating intonation transcription, no punctuation will be used.) Structure of the tone-unit The head:It is all that part of a tone-unit that extends from the first stressed syllable up to (but not including) the tonic syllable e.g ‘Bill ˈcalled to ˈgive me those - First stressed syllable: Bill - Tonic syllable: those - Head: The first five syllables (Bill called to give me) The pre-head:It is composed of all the unstressed syllable in a tone-unit that precedes the first stressed syllable Chapter 11: Intonation 76 e.g in an hour (1) - The pre-head in utterance (1) is “in an”; - There is no head e.g in a ‘little’ less than an hour (2) - The pre-head consists of “in a” - The head consists of “little less than an” - The tonic syllable is hour The tail:it consists of any syllable between the tonic syllable and the end of the tone-unit e.g ∕What did you say? - Tail: did you say - Stressed syllable in the tail: say (marked by a raised dot ( )) Boundaries between tone-units and within a tone-unit Boundaries between tone-units are marked by a double vertical line‖ or │ Boundaries between different elements within a tone-unit are marked by a broken vertical line Kinds of tone-unit Simple tone-unit:it contains a tonic syllable that carries a simple tone (fall or rise) Complex tone-unit:it contains a tonic syllable that carries a complex tone (fall-rise or rise-fall) B Pitch Possibilities in the Simple Tone-unit If the tonic syllable is not followed by a tail, the tone (fall or rise) will be completed on the tonic syllable e.g ˈShall we ˈsit ∕here? If the tonic syllable is followed by a tail, the tone begun on the tonic syllable will be continued and completed by this tail e.g \Why did he go? Chapter 11: Intonation 77 C Pitch Possibilities in the ComplexTone-unit If the fall-rise of rise-fall is not followed by a tail, the tone will be completed on the tonic syllable Fall-rise followed by a tail:The tone falls on the tonic syllable, remains low until the last stressed syllable in the tail and rises from that point up to the end of that toneunit I V might have thought of buying it The tone falls on “might”, remains low until “buy” and then rises up to “it” If there is no stressed syllable in the tail, the rise happens on the final syllable most of them The tone falls on “most” and begins to rise on “them” Rise-fall followed by a tail:The tone rises on the tonic syllable, continues to rise on the syllable immediately following the tonic syllable, then falls on the order following syllables V all of them went The tone rises on “all”, continues to rise on “of”, then falls on “them went” D High and Low Head Chapter 11: Intonation 78 High head:The stressed syllable which begins the high head is higher than pitch than the beginning pitch of the tone the ˈbus was \ late is ˈthat the ∕end Low head:The stressed syllable which begins the low head is lower than the beginning pitch of the tone the ˌbus was \ late is ˌthat the ∕ end It is usual for unstressed syllables to continue the pitch of the stressed syllable that precedes them we ˈasked if it had \ come The stressed syllable is “asked”, the unstressed syllables “if it had” continues at the same pitch as “asked” If there is more than one stressed syllable in the head, there is usually a slight change in pitch from the level of one stressed syllable to that of the next, the change being in the direction of the beginning pitch of the tone on the tonic syllable The ˈrain was ˈcoming ˈdown ˈfairly \ hard - Low head + rising tone (which starts low):no upward movement in the head ˌThat’s ˌnot the ˌstory ˌhe told in ∕ court Chapter 11: Intonation 79 - Low head + falling tone (which starts high):upward movement of successive stressed syllables toward the beginning pitch of the tone ˌI could have ˌbought it for ˌless pound than a \ - High head + rising tone (which starts low):downward movement toward the beginning pitch of the tone ˈWill there be aˈnother ˈtrain ∕ later? Chapter 11: Intonation 80 Chapter 12 English Phonetics and Phonology Functions of Intonation A Attitudinal Function of Intonation Intonation is used for expressing attitudes and feelings.Elements of intonation used for expressing attitudes and feelings: - Linguistic elements: + Sequential: pre-head, heads, tonic syllables and tails - pauses - tone-unit boundaries + Prosodic: width of pitch range - key loudness - speed - voice quality - Paralinguistic elements: + Body language + Vocal effects Attitudes and feelings expressed by the main tones: a Fall Finality, definiteness: b Rise General question: Listening: “more to follow”: Encouraging: c Fall-rise Uncertainty, doubt: Requesting: d Rise-fall Surprised, being impressed: That is the end of the news Stop talking Can you help me? Red, brown, yellow, and blue I phoned them straight away (and they agreed to come) It won’t hurt You may be right It’s impossible Can I buy it? You were first All of them Chapter 12: Functions of Intonation81 B Accentual Function of Intonation Intonation is used for indicating the placement of the stress Element of intonation is used for indicating the placement of stress: the location of the tonic syllable - General rule: The tonic syllable tends to occur on the last lexical words in the toneunit e.g I want to know where he’s traveling to - Exceptions: Any syllable may become the tonic syllable if the speaker considers it as important e.g I don’t want to know where he’s traveling from, I want to know where he’s traveling to (“from” and “to” are considered important because the speaker is contrasting them.) e.g It was very boring (“very” is considered important because the speaker wants to emphasize it.) C Grammatical Function of Intonation Intonation is used for indicating the grammatical and syntactic structure of an utterance (e.g the boundaries between phrases, clauses, sentences, ) Elements of intonation used for indicating the grammatical and syntactic structure: - The placement of the tone-unit boundaries + It clarifies ambiguous sentences e.g Those who sold quickly// made a profit e.g Those who sold// quickly made a profit + It indicates grammatical structures e.g I won’t have any tea// I don’t like it (the tone-unit boundary is used for indicating the boundaries of two sentences.) - The choice of tone on tonic syllable: It indicates if the utterance is a statement or a question Chapter 12: Functions of Intonation82 e.g The price is going up (the falling tone indicates the utterance is a statement.) e.g The price is going up (the rising tone indicates the utterance is a question.) D Discourse Function of Intonation Intonation is used to make the interaction between two or more speakers become clear Elements of discourse indicated by intonation - Attention focusing e.g She went to Scotland (the speaker indicates to the listener that the interesting information is “Scotland”) e.g I’ve got to take the dog to the vet (the speaker indicates to the listener that the attention should be focused on “vet” because it is less predictable than “dog”.) - Intonational subordination: To indicate to the listener that a particular tone-unit is not important, the speaker usually: + drops to a lower key + increases speed + narrows the range of pitch + speaks less loudly e.g As I expect you’ve heard// they’re only admitting emergency cases (the first tone-unit is of comparatively importance; the second is consequently of greater importance) e.g Since the last time we met // when we had that huge dinner// I’ve been on a diet (the first tone-units present information which is relevant to what the speaker is saying, but which is not something new and unknown to the listener The final tone-unit, however, does present new information Writers on discourse intonation have proposed that the falling tone indicates new information while rising (including falling-rising) tone indicate shared or given information E Regulation of Conversational Behavior The speaker may use intonation to indicate what he is doing in speaking (challenging, encouraging, advising, ) Chapter 12: Functions of Intonation83 He can indicate what response he expects from the listener (e.g the rising tone in a question tag indicate a request for information while a falling tone indicate a request for agreement.) He can also use intonation to regulate turn-taking (e.g to indicate that he has finished speaking expects another person speak.) Chapter 12: Functions of Intonation84