CHAPTER 3  LANGUAGE AND DYNAMIC CHANGES 57 public class TestClass { public void Method1() { } } } Compile the application and examine the IL using ILDASM. You will find something similar to the following: .method private hidebysig static void Main(string[] args) cil managed { .entrypoint // Code size 15 (0xf) .maxstack 1 .locals init ([0] class Chapter3.DynamicComplex.TestClass t) IL_0000: nop IL_0001: newobj instance void Chapter3.DynamicComplex.TestClass::.ctor() IL_0006: stloc.0 IL_0007: ldloc.0 IL_0008: callvirt instance void Chapter3.DynamicComplex.TestClass::Method1() IL_000d: nop IL_000e: ret } // end of method Program::Main However, if we alter our t variable to the following: dynamic t = new TestClass(); t.Method1(); then the IL will look very different (I have removed some of the IL to save some trees): class [mscorlib]System.Collections.Generic.IEnumerable`1<class [Microsoft.CSharp]Microsoft.CSharp.RuntimeBinder.CSharpArgumentInfo>) IL_003a: call class [System.Core] System.Runtime.CompilerServices.CallSite`1<!0> class [System.Core]System.Runtime.CompilerServices.CallSite`1 <class [mscorlib]System.Action`2<class [System.Core]System.Runtime.CompilerServices.CallSite,object>>::Create(class [System.Core]System.Runtime.CompilerServices.CallSiteBinder) IL_003f: stsfld class [System.Core]System.Runtime.CompilerServices .CallSite`1<class [mscorlib]System.Action`2<class [System.Core]System.Runtime.CompilerServices.CallSite,object>> Chapter3.DynamicComplex.Program/'<Main>o__SiteContainer0'::'<>p__Site1' IL_0056: callvirt instance void class [mscorlib]System.Action`2<class [System.Core]System.Runtime.CompilerServices.CallSite,object>::Invoke(!0, !1) Whoa, what is happening here? Well the short answer is that calls to dynamic methods are sent to the Dynamic Language Runtime for resolution. It is time to take a look into how the DLR works. CHAPTER 3  LANGUAGE AND DYNAMIC CHANGES 58 Dynamic Language Runtime (DLR) The Dynamic Language Runtime (DLR) is behind all the cool dynamic functionality and sits just above the core .NET framework. The DLR’s job is basically to resolve calls to dynamic objects, cache dynamic calls making them as quick as possible, and enable interaction between languages by using a common format. The DLR has actually been around a while, and was included in earlier versions of Silverlight. You can even view the source code behind the DLR at: http://dlr.codeplex.com. Note that this version contains a number of features not present in the framework version. When discussing the DLR we need to understand five main concepts: • Expression trees/Abstract Syntax Trees (AST) • Dynamic Dispatch • Binders • IDynamicObject • Call Site Caching Expression/Abstract Syntax Trees (AST) Expression trees are a way of representing code in a tree structure (if you have done any work with LINQ, you may have come across this before with the Expression class). All languages that work with the DLR represent code in the same structure allowing interoperability. Dynamic Dispatch Dynamic Dispatch is the air traffic control center of the DLR, and is responsible for working out what to do with dynamic objects and operations and sending them to the appropriate binder that takes care of the details. Binders Binders resolve classes from dynamic dispatch. .NET 4.0 currently supports the following binder types: • Object Binder .NET (uses Reflection and resolved our earlier example to type string) • JavaScript binder (IDynamicObject) • IronPython binder (IDynamicObject) • IronRuby binder (IDynamicObject) • COM binder (IDispatch) Note that dynamic objects can resolve calls themselves without the DLR’s assistance (if they implement IDynamicObject), and this method will always be used first over the DLR’s dynamic dispatch mechanism. CHAPTER 3  LANGUAGE AND DYNAMIC CHANGES 59 IDynamicObject Sometimes you will want objects to carry out resolution themselves, and it is for this purpose the IDynamicObject exists. Normally dynamic objects are processed according to type, but if they implement the IDynamicObject interface then the object will resolve calls itself. IDynamicObject is used in IronRuby and IronPython. Callsite Caching Resolving objects is an expensive operation, so the DLR caches dynamic operations. When a dynamic function or operation is performed, the DLR checks to see if it has been called already (Level 0 cache). If it hasn’t, then the 10 most recently used dynamic methods for this callsite will be checked (Level 1 cache). A cache is also maintained across all target sites with the same binder object (Level 2 cache). IronPython A similar process to this is used when languages such as IronPython interact with .NET. What follows is a high-level version of how the DLR processes an IronPython file: 1. The IronPython file is first compiled into intermediary IronPython AST. (Not all languages will necessarily create an intermediary AST, but IronPython’s developers decided this would be a useful step for creating language-specific tools.) 2. The IronPython AST is then mapped to the generic DLR specific AST. 3. The DLR then works with the generic AST. For a detailed look at how this works with Iron Python please refer to: http://msdn.microsoft.com/ en-us/magazine/cc163344.aspx. As all languages end up being compiled into the same common AST structure, it is then possible for interaction between them. Embedding Dynamic Languages One use of dynamic languages that really excites me is the ability to embed them within your C# and VB.NET applications. One possible use would be to use them to define complex business rules and logic. Dynamic languages are often utilized in computer game construction to script scenarios and logic (such as how Civilization IV utilizes Python). Let’s take a look at how to work with IronPython in a C# application. Calling IronPython from .NET The following example passes a value into a simple IronPython script from C#. Note that you should have installed IronPython from http://ironpython.codeplex.com/. Now add a reference to IronPython.dll and Microsoft.Scripting.dll (at the time of writing these don’t show up on the main Add Reference window but are located at C:\Program Files (x86)\IronPython 2.6). CHAPTER 3  LANGUAGE AND DYNAMIC CHANGES 60 using Microsoft.Scripting; using Microsoft.Scripting.Hosting; using IronPython.Hosting; namespace Chapter3.PythonExample { class Program { static void Main(string[] args) { ScriptEngine pythonEngine = Python.CreateEngine(); ScriptScope scope = pythonEngine.CreateScope(); string script = @"print ""Hello "" + message"; scope.SetVariable("message", "world!"); ScriptSource source = scope.Engine.CreateScriptSourceFromString(script, SourceCodeKind.Statements); source.Execute(scope); Console.ReadKey(); } } } IronPython is already in use in two real-world applications, so let’s take a look at these now. Red Gate Reflector Add-In Many of you will be familiar with the tool Reflector (www.red-gate.com/products/reflector/). Reflector allows you to explore an assembly and view the IL code within it. C# MVP Ben Hall developed an add-in (Methodist) to Reflector that allows you to actually call the classes and methods within the type you are exploring using Iron Python. For more information please consult: http://mail.simple-talk.com/ dotnet/.net-tools/methodist-make net-reflector-come-alive-with-ironpython/. ResolverOne One of the best know uses of IronPython is for ResolverOne (http://www.resolversystems.com). ResolverOne is an application that allows you to work with Excel’s objects using IronPython. See Figure 3-3. CHAPTER 3  LANGUAGE AND DYNAMIC CHANGES 61 Figure 3-3. ResolverOne application One of the developers on ResolverOne was Michael Foord, who is author of IronPython in Action (Manning Publications, 2009). I spoke to Michael about his experiences with working with embedding dynamic languages and IronPython. Michael Foord Why should VB.NET/C# developers be interested in IronPython? Much of the discussion here applies to other dynamic languages, including IronRuby, but Python is my particular area of expertise. IronPython is a .NET implementation of the popular open source programming language Python. Python is an expressive language that is easy to learn and supports several different programming styles, including interactive, scripting, procedural, functional, object-oriented, and metaprogramming. But what can you do with IronPython that isn’t already easy with your existing tools? The first entry in the list of programming styles is “interactive.” The IronPython distribution includes ipy.exe, the executable for running scripts or programs that also doubles as an interactive interpreter. When you run ipy.exe, you can enter Python code that is evaluated immediately and the result returned. It is a powerful tool for exploring assemblies and learning how to use new frameworks and classes by working with live objects. The second reason to use IronPython is also the second programming style in the list: scripting. Python makes an excellent tool for generating XML from templates, automating build tasks, and a host of other everyday operations. Because scripts can be executed without compilation, experimentation is simple and fast. Python often creeps into businesses as a scripting language, but beware it spreads. CHAPTER 3  LANGUAGE AND DYNAMIC CHANGES 62 One of the big use cases for IronPython is for embedding in applications. Potential uses include user scripting, adding a live console for debugging, creating domain-specific languages (DSLs) where rules can be added or modified at runtime, or even building hybrid applications using several languages. Python has several features, such as the ability to customize attribute access, that make it particularly suited to the creation of lightweight DSLs. IronPython has been designed with these uses in mind and has a straightforward hosting API. There are many areas where dynamic languages are fundamentally different from statically typed languages, a topic that rouses strong opinions. Here are a few features of IronPython that make it easy to develop with: • No type declarations • First class and higher order functions • No need for generics; it uses flexible container types instead • Protocols and duck-typing instead of compiler enforced interfaces • First class types and namespaces that can be modified at runtime • Easier to test than statically typed languages • Easy introspection (reflection without the pain) • Problems like covariance, contravariance and casting just disappear The best way to learn how to get the best from IronPython is my book IronPython in Action. I've also written a series of articles aimed at .NET developers to help get you started, including • Introduction to IronPython (http://www.voidspace.org.uk/ironpython/ introduction-to-ironpython.shtml) • Python for .NET Programmers (http://www.voidspace.org.uk/ironpython/python- for-programmers.shtml) • Tools and IDEs for IronPython (http://www.voidspace.org.uk/ironpython/tools- and-ides.shtml) Happy experimenting. What does Resolver One’s Python interface provide that VBA couldn’t? The calculation model for Resolver One is very different from Excel. The data and formulae you enter in the grid is translated into an interpreted language and you put your own code into the flow of the spreadsheet, working on the exact same object model that your formulae do. Having the programming model at the heart of Resolver One was always the core idea. When development started, the two developers (a few months before I joined Resolver Systems) evaluated interpreted languages available for .NET. When they tried IronPython they made three important discoveries: • Although neither of them was familiar with Python, it was an elegant and expressive language that was easy to learn. • The .NET integration of IronPython was superb. In fact, it seemed that everything they needed to develop Resolver One was accessible from IronPython. • As a dynamic language, Python was orders of magnitude easier to test than languages they had worked with previously. This particularly suited the test-driven approach they were using. CHAPTER 3  LANGUAGE AND DYNAMIC CHANGES 63 So the main advantage of Resolver One is that programmability is right at the heart of the spreadsheet model. IronPython is generally regarded as being a much “nicer” language than VBA. Python is a dynamically typed, cross-platform, open source, object-oriented, high-level programming language. Python was first released publicly in 1991, making it older than C#, and is widely used in many different fields. What do you think of the new dynamic features in .NET? They’re great, particularly for interoperating between C# and DLR-based languages. The dynamic features make this much easier. The dynamic keyword also makes creating fluent APIs possible (like the way you access the DOM using the document object in Javascript). This is particularly useful for DSLs. Duck typing is one of the features of dynamic languages that simplify architecture. I doubt that the dynamic keyword, will be used much for this however, as it doesn’t gel well with the way most .NET developers use traditional .NET languages. Apart from your book (obviously), any recommended reading on Python or dynamic languages? The Python tutorial and documentation is pretty good. Unsurprisingly they can be found from the Python website at http://www.python.org/. There is an interactive online version of the Python tutorial created with IronPython and Silverlight at: http://www.trypython.org/. For learning IronPython there is an excellent community resource called the IronPython Cookbook: http://www.ironpython.info/. For more general Python resources I recommend Dive into Python and the Python Essential Reference. F# F# is a functional programming language for the .NET framework that was previously available as a separate download to Visual Studio but now comes included in VS2010. Some developers feel that functional languages such as F# can enable you to work in a more intuitive way (particularly for those with a mathematical background), and are very good at manipulating sets of data and for solving mathematical and scientific problems. Interest in functional languages is increasing due to their absence of side effects (where an application modifies state as well as returning a value). The lack of side effects is vital in multithreaded and parallelized applications (see Chapter 5). Note that F# is not as strict as some functional languages and allows the creation of non-functional constructs, such as local variables. So should you rush out and learn F#? Well it’s not going to take over C# or VB.NET for developing line of business applications, but it is worth noting that functional languages have been influencing the development of C# and VB. An example is the recent addition of traditionally functional features, such as lambda expressions. However, I do believe that looking at other languages can help make you a better programmer (I’m currently looking into Python). At a DevEvening user group presentation, Jon Skeet suggested to us that functional languages may help you become a better developer by getting you to think about a problem in a different way. For a great introduction to F# view the presentation at: http://mschnlnine.vo.llnwd.net/d1/ pdc08/WMV-HQ/TL11.wmv. And then take a look at the official site at: http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/cambridge/ projects/fsharp/default.aspx CHAPTER 3  LANGUAGE AND DYNAMIC CHANGES 64 Jon Skeet For those developers who really want to delve into the details of a language, I don’t think you can do much better than read Jon Skeet’s C# In Depth (Manning Publications, 2008). A revised version for .NET 4.0 is currently on its way (http://csharpindepth.com/). I spoke to Jon about his thoughts on C# 2010. What Do You See as the Top Feature(s) in C#2010, and Why? Named arguments and optional parameters, without a doubt. (That sounds like two features, but they naturally come together.) It's a small feature, but it’s likely to be the most widely used one. Two of the others (better COM support and dynamic typing) are only likely to be used by a minority of developers, and while generic variance is useful and interesting, it’s more of a matter of removing a previous inconvenience than really introducing something new. Admittedly, to fully take advantage of optional parameters, you have to be confident that all your callers will be using a language supporting them. For example, suppose you wanted to write a method with five parameters, three of them optional. Previously you may have used several overloads to avoid forcing callers to specify arguments for parameters where they’re happy with the default. Now, if you don't care about (say) C#2008 callers, you can just provide a single method. But that would force any C#2008 callers to specify all the arguments explicitly. The biggest potential use I see for the feature is immutability. C#2008 made it easy to create instances of mutable types using object initializers, but provided no extra support for immutable types. Now with named arguments and optional parameters, it’s a lot easier. For example, take the initialization of a mutable type: Person p = new Person { Name = "Jon", Occupation = "Software Engineer", Location = "UK" }; This can be converted into initialization of an immutable type without losing the benefits of optional data and explicitly specifying which value means what: Person p = new Person ( name: "Jon", occupation: "Software Engineer", location: "UK" ); Are There any New Features in C#2010 That You Would Avoid Using or That Have the Potential to Encourage Bad Programming? Well, dynamic typing is going to be really useful when you need it, but should generally be avoided otherwise, in my view. It’s great for interoperability with dynamic languages via the DLR, some additional COM support, and occasional cases where you would otherwise use Reflection. But C# is basically a statically typed language. It isn’t designed for dynamic typing. If you want to use dynamic typing widely throughout a program, write it in a dynamic language to start with. You can always use the DLR to work with C# code as well, of course. CHAPTER 3  LANGUAGE AND DYNAMIC CHANGES 65 What Would You Like to See in the Next Version of C#? More support for immutability. For example, readonly automatic properties would be a simple but really helpful feature: public string Name { get; readonly set; } That would be backed by a readonly field behind the scenes, and the property could only be set in the constructor (where the assignment would be converted into simple field assignment). Beyond that, the ability to declare that a type is meant to be immutable, with additional compiler support and checking, would be great. But that's a bigger request. If Code Contracts takes off, it would also be nice to embed the simplest contract, non-nullity, into the language, in the way that Spec# did. For example, instead of: public string Convert(string input) { Contract.Requires(input != null); Contract.Ensures(Contract.Result<string>() != null); // Do processing here } you could just write: public string! Convert(string! input) { // Do processing here } The handling of non-nullable local variables could be tricky, but there are smart people at Microsoft. I'm sure they could figure something out. Admittedly I’m wary of anything that links the language too closely to specific libraries, but this would be a really nice win in terms of readability. These may all sound like I’m lacking in ambition. After all, there are bigger ideas on the table such as metaprogramming. But I’m really keen on small, simple changes that make a big difference. I generally need to be persuaded more when it comes to large changes. The ones we’ve already had in C# have been very well designed, and I’m pleased with them. But the language is getting really pretty big now, and I think we need to make sure it doesn't become simply too hard to learn from scratch. Future of C# At the 2008 PDC Anders Hejlsberg noted that many developers were creating programs that created programs (meta programming). Anders considered it would be useful to expose compiler methods to developers to give them complete control over compilation. In a future version of .NET the compiler will be written in managed code and certain functions made accessible to the developer. Anders then demonstrated an example of this by showing a REPL (Read Evaluate Print Loop) C# application. [...]... CHANGES NET 4.0 however has a new version of the CLR! So you can happily install NET 4.0 without fear that it will affect your existing NET applications running on previous versions of the framework ASP .NET When using IIS7, the CLR version is determined by the application pool settings Thus you should be able to run NET 4.0 ASP .NET applications side by side without fear of affecting existing ASP .NET sites... to download the version of the framework the application was built with or whether to run using the latest version Prior to NET 4.0, the user wouldn’t be given this choice with the application using the latest version available Specifying the Framework to Use Since almost the beginning of NET (well, NET Framework 1.1), you can specify the version your application needs to use in the App.config file... version of NET used in an application upgraded to NET 4.0 will run using NET 4.0 This might not be the case for unmanaged code, however Garbage Collection Garbage collection is something you rarely have to worry about in our nice managed world, so before you look at what has changed in NET 4.0, let’s quickly recap how GC currently works to put the new changes in context Garbage Collection Prior to NET 4.0... client profile, please consult http://blogs.msdn.com/jgoldb/archive/ 2009/05/27 /net- framework-4-client-profile-introduction.aspx 69 CHAPTER 4 CLR AND BCL CHANGES Figure 4-3 Selecting client profile option In-Process Side-by-Side Execution Prior to NET 4.0, COM components would always run using the latest version of the NET Framework installed by the user This could cause some issues, for example at... Prior to NET 4.0, COM components would run using the latest version of the NET Framework installed You can now force COM components to use a specific framework version by adding the supportedRuntime section to App.config: 70 CHAPTER 4 CLR AND BCL CHANGES You can also force components to use the latest version... the framework VB .NET Command-Line Compiler The compiler has a new /langversion switch option that allows you to tell the compiler to use a particular framework version It currently accepts parameters 9, 9.0, 10, and 10.0 vbc /langversion:9.0 skynet.vb Improved Client Profile Client profile is a lean, reduced-functionality version of the full NET Framework that was first introduced in NET 3.5SP1 Functionality... Windows Server 2008 will still use the localized NET 4.0 store Globalization Changes in NET 4.0 There have been a huge number of globalization changes; many of them will affect only a minority of users For a full list, please refer to http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/netframework/dd890508.aspx I do want to draw your attention to some of the changes in NET 4.0: • Neutral culture properties will return... Changes There are a number of security changes: • Applications that are run from Windows Explorer or network shares run in full trust This avoids some tediousness because prior to NET 4.0 local and network applications would run with different permission sets • Applications that run in a host (for example, ASP .NET, ClickOnce, Silverlight, and SQL CLR) run with the permissions the host grants You thus need... section Monitoring and Profiling NET 4.0 introduces a number of enhancements that enable you to monitor, debug, and handle exceptions: • NET 4.0 allows you to obtain CPU and memory usage per application domain, which is particularly useful for ASP .NET applications (see Chapter 10) • It is now possible to access ETW logs (no information available at time of writing) from NET • A number of APIs have been... msdn.com/blogfiles/ncl/WindowsLiveWriter/NewNCLFeaturesin .NET4 .0Beta2_78A0/image_2.png 86 CHAPTER 4 CLR AND BCL CHANGES Windows 7 Only NET 4.0 has some new features that are available only for Windows 7 machines System.Device.Location NET 4.0 contains a new API for querying Windows 7’s location functionality The Location class supports multiple devices such as GPS and wireless wide area network (WWAN wireless by cellular . (framework version 3.5) • v2.0.50727 (framework version 2.0) • v1 .1. 4322 (framework version 1. 1) • v1.0.3705 (framework version 1. 0) If this setting is left out, the version of the framework. .entrypoint // Code size 15 (0xf) .maxstack 1 .locals init ([0] class Chapter3.DynamicComplex.TestClass t) IL_0000: nop IL_00 01: newobj instance void Chapter3.DynamicComplex.TestClass::.ctor(). 9.0, 10 , and 10 .0. vbc /langversion:9.0 skynet.vb Improved Client Profile Client profile is a lean, reduced-functionality version of the full .NET Framework that was first introduced in .NET