Tai Lieu Chat Luong Modals and Conditionals Endorsements for Angelika Kratzer’s Modals and Conditionals ‘Angelika Kratzer’s classic work on modality and conditionals is one of the major achievements of contemporary formal semantics This collection of six of her path-breaking papers on the topic is invaluable But what is most gratifying is that Kratzer substantially revised the papers, updating them and providing a wealth of retrospective comments An indispensible resource for anyone interested in semantics or the philosophy of language.’ Franc¸ois Recanati, Institut Jean Nicod ‘This book collects and revises two decades of the work that has shaped the modern view of the language of modals and conditionals: an invariant, univocal vocabulary that is variously understood with shifts in the conversational background, a syntax that identifies if-clauses as the relative clauses restricting modal operators, and a semantics that discerns in the conversational background what is given and what would be best, given what is given Just for the argument on which this foundation rests, the book deserves frequent and close study The chapters tell another compelling story in which rivals for the meaning of conditionals are reconciled in a wedding of situation and thought—facts, socalled One rival pleads that an if-clause is premise to reasoning of which the conditional is report The other, in a familiar metaphysical turn, has suppressed mention of reasoning in favour of an assertion about ordering relations among possible worlds Although it has been said (Lewis 1981) that formally there is nothing to choose between them, Angelika Kratzer demonstrates that only a semantics that includes premises gains a purchase on how and why the words chosen to express a conditional affect judgments about its truth So, in representing the foundations for the modern view, the author also offers a radical program to reform it This book is a treasure of the puzzles, illustrations and parables that have informed the subject It defines the standard against which all theorizing on modals and conditionals is to be measured.’ Barry Schein, University of Southern California ‘Modals and conditionals lie at the center of philosophical inquiry In work beginning in the 1970s, Kratzer proposes a vantage point from which it can be seen that modals and conditionals share a common logical structure, that of quantification generally This work collects and dramatically expands upon Angelika Kratzer’s now classic papers There is scarcely an area of philosophy that remains or will remain untouched by their influence.’ Jason Stanley, Rutgers University OX F O R D S T U D I E S I N T H E O R E T I C A L L I N G U I S T I C S general editors David Adger, Queen Mary University of London; Hagit Borer, University of Southern California advisory editors Stephen Anderson, Yale University; Daniel Buăring, University of California, Los Angeles; Nomi Erteschik-Shir, Ben-Gurion University; Donka Farkas, University of California, Santa Cruz; Angelika Kratzer, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; Andrew Nevins, University College London; Christopher Potts, Stanford University, Amherst; Barry Schein, University of Southern California; Peter Svenonius, University of Tromsø; Moira Yip, University College London Recent titles 20 Adjectives and Adverbs Syntax, Semantics, and Discourse edited by Louise McNally and Christopher Kennedy 21 InterPhases Phase-Theoretic Investigations of Linguistic Interfaces edited by Kleanthes Grohmann 22 Negation in Gapping by Sophie Repp 23 A Derivational Syntax for Information Structure by Luis Lo´pez 24 Quantification, Definiteness, and Nominalization edited by Anastasia Giannakidou and Monika Rathert 25 The Syntax of Sentential Stress by Arsalan Kahnemuyipour 26 Tense, Aspect, and Indexicality by James Higginbotham 27 Lexical Semantics, Syntax, and Event Structure edited by Malka Rappaport Hovav, Edit Doron, and Ivy Sichel 28 About the Speaker Towards a Syntax of Indexicality by Alessandra Giorgi 29 The Sound Patterns of Syntax edited by Nomi Erteschik-Shir and Lisa Rochman 30 The Complementizer Phase edited by E Phoevos Panagiotidis 31 Interfaces in Linguistics New Research Perspectives edited by Raffaella Folli and Christiane Ulbrich 32 Negative Indefinites by Doris Penka 33 Events, Phrases, and Questions by Robert Truswell 34 Dissolving Binding Theory by Johan Rooryck and Guido Vanden Wyngaerd 35 The Logic of Pronominal Resumption by Ash Asudeh 36 Modals and Conditionals by Angelika Kratzer 37 The Theta System Argument Structure at the Interface edited by Martin Everaert, Marijana Marelj, and Tal Siloni 38 Sluicing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective edited by Jason Merchant and Andrew Simpson 39 Telicity, Change, and State A Cross-Categorial View of Event Structure edited by Violeta Demonte and Louise McNally 40 Ways of Structure Building edited by Myriam Uribe-Etxebarria and Vidal Valmala For a complete list of titles published and in preparation for the series, see pp 204–5 Modals and Conditionals A N G E L I K A K R AT Z E R Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With oYces in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York q Angelika Kratzer 2012 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2012 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by the MPG Books Group, Bodmin and King’s Lynn ISBN 978–0–19–923468–4 (Hbk.) 978–0–19–923469–1 (Pbk.) 10 Contents Detailed contents General preface Preface and acknowledgments Introducing Chapter Chapter What Must and Can Must and Can Mean vii ix x Introducing Chapter Chapter The Notional Category of Modality 21 27 Introducing Chapter Chapter Partition and Revision: The Semantics of Counterfactuals 70 Introducing Chapter Chapter Conditionals 85 86 72 Introducing Chapter Chapter An Investigation of the Lumps of Thought 109 111 Introducing Chapter Chapter Facts: Particulars or Information Units? 160 161 References Index 184 197 This page intentionally left blank Detailed Contents General Preface Preface and acknowledgments ix x Introducing Chapter 1 What Must and Can Must and Can Mean 4 12 16 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Must and can are relational Must and can in a premise semantics Inconsistent premise sets Structuring premise sets Introducing Chapter 2 The Notional Category of Modality 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Expressing modality in German 2.3 Basic notions 2.4 Grades of possibility 2.5 Modals without duals 2.6 Root versus epistemic modals 2.7 Approaching norms and ideals with root modals 2.8 Practical reasoning 2.9 Conditionals 2.10 Conclusion Introducing Chapter 3 Partition and Revision: The Semantics of Counterfactuals 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 A straightforward analysis seems to fail Escaping through atomism Counterexamples and amendments Back to the original analysis Conclusion Introducing Chapter 4 Conditionals 4.1 Grice 4.2 Gibbard’s proof 4.3 The decline of material implication 21 27 27 28 30 38 43 49 55 62 64 68 70 72 72 74 76 80 84 85 86 86 87 88 viii 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Detailed Contents Probability conditionals Epistemic conditionals Gibbard’s proof reconsidered: silent operators Conditional propositions after all? Introducing Chapter 5 An Investigation of the Lumps of Thought 5.1 What lumps of thought are 5.2 How lumps of thought can be characterized in terms of situations 5.3 A semantics based on situations 5.3.1 A metaphysics for situations 5.3.2 Ingredients for a situation semantics 5.3.3 The logical properties and relations 5.3.4 Persistence 5.3.5 Sentence denotations 5.4 Counterfactual reasoning 5.4.1 Some facts about counterfactuals 5.4.2 Truth-conditions for counterfactuals 5.4.3 We forgot about lumps 5.4.4 The formal deWnitions 5.5 Representing non-accidental generalizations 5.5.1 Non-accidental generalizations: a Wrst proposal 5.5.2 Hempel’s Paradox and Goodman’s Puzzle 5.6 Negation 5.6.1 In search of an accidental interpretation 5.6.2 Negation and restrictive clauses 5.6.3 Negation and counterfactual reasoning 5.7 Conclusion Introducing Chapter 6 Facts: Particulars or Information Units? 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Worldly facts Facts and the semantics of the verb to know Facts that exemplify propositions Reliability in knowledge ascriptions Facts and counterfactuals Propositional facts and natural propositions References Index 91 97 105 107 109 111 111 114 115 115 117 117 118 120 125 125 127 129 131 135 135 138 152 152 154 156 159 160 161 161 162 165 173 179 181 184 197 General preface The theoretical focus of this series is on the interfaces between subcomponents of the human grammatical system and the closely related area of the interfaces between the diVerent subdisciplines of linguistics The notion of ‘interface’ has become central in grammatical theory (for instance, in Chomsky’s recent Minimalist Program) and in linguistic practice: work on the interfaces between syntax and semantics, syntax and morphology, phonology and phonetics, etc., has led to a deeper understanding of particular linguistic phenomena and of the architecture of the linguistic component of the mind/brain The series covers interfaces between core components of grammar, including syntax/morphology, syntax/semantics, syntax/phonology, syntax/pragmatics, morphology/phonology, phonology/phonetics, phonetics/speech processing, semantics/pragmatics, intonation/discourse structure, as well as issues in the way that the systems of grammar involving these interface areas are acquired and deployed in use (including language acquisition, language dysfunction, and language processing) It demonstrates, we hope, that proper understandings of particular linguistic phenomena, languages, language groups, or inter-language variations all require reference to interfaces The series is open to work by linguists of all theoretical persuasions and schools of thought A main requirement is that authors should write so as to be understood by colleagues in related subWelds of linguistics and by scholars in cognate disciplines The present volume collects a number of Angelika Kratzer’s fundamental contributions to the linked phenomena of modality and conditionality over the last thirty years or so Each paper is prefaced with an introduction setting it in its larger context and linking it to current concerns, and most of the papers have been extensively re-edited so as to clarify how they connect to current work, while preserving the original line of argumentation The intellectual narrative of the resulting volume takes the reader from empirical issues in the semantics of modals, through logical questions about how semantic theory should be set up, to philosophical concerns in the semantics of knowledge and belief David Adger Hagit Borer References 191 Kratzer, Angelika 2007 ‘Situations in Natural Language Semantics’ In E N Zalta (ed.), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Stanford, Calif.: Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University —— Forthcoming Modality in Context Oxford: Oxford University Press —— and Elisabeth Selkirk 2007 ‘Default Phrase Stress, Prosodic Phrasing and the Spellout Edge’ The Linguistic Review 24: 93–135 —— —— In preparation ‘Representing 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Robert R 1998 ‘Information and Intonation in Natural Language Modality’ Ph.D dissertation Indiana University, Bloomington Willett, Thomas 1988 ‘A Cross-Linguistic Survey of the Grammaticization of Evidentiality’ Studies in Language 12: 51–97 Wright, Georg Henrik von 1963 ‘Practical Inference’ The Philosophical Review 72: 159–79 —— 1972 ‘On So-called Practical Inference’ Acta Sociologica 15: 39–53 Yablo, Stephen 2006 ‘Non-Catastrophic Presupposition Failure’ In A Byrne and J J Thompson (eds.), Content and Modality: Themes from the Philosophy of Robert Stalnaker Oxford: Oxford University Press, 164–90 Yalcin, Seth 2008 ‘Modality and Inquiry’ Ph.D dissertation MIT, Cambridge, Mass —— 2010 ‘Probability Operators’ Philosophy Compass 5: 916–37 Zvolenszky, Zso´Wa 2002 ‘Is a Possible Worlds Semantics for Modality Possible?’ Paper presented at Semantics and Linguistic Theory 12, University of California, San Diego, and San Diego State University This page intentionally left blank Index Abrusa´n, M Abusch, D 26, 50 Adams, E W 104 Aikhenvald, A 23 Alchourro`n, C Alexander, C 47 Alonso-Ovalle, L Anscombe, G E M 62 Armstrong, D M 115 Arregui, A 26 assertability conditions versus truth-conditions 100–4 Bach, E 111 Barwise, J 89, 111, 115, 119, 162 Base Sets for counterfactuals 131–151, 157, 1804 Baăuerle, R 107 Baylis, C A 1623, 184 Beaver, D 97, 154 Bech, G 59 belief ascriptions de re 160, 164–6, 173–9 The Butler and the Judge 177–9 Belnap, N D 20 Bennett, J 84 Berman, S 111 Bhatt, R 26, 91, 95 Bierwisch, M 69 Bigelow, J 4, 111 Bittner, M 26 Blau, U 84 Boole, G 120 bouletic modals 57, 37, 5564 Brennan, V 26 Bruănner, G 69 Burgess, J 40, 83 Buăring, D 97 Butler, J 26 Cara, F 142 Carlson, G 106, 112 Casati, R 169–70, 173 Chemla, E 132 Chierchia, G 3, 111, 116, 169, 171 Chomsky, N 2, 120 Chung, K.-S 23 circumstantial modals, see root modals Clark, B 97, 154 cognitive viability 132–3, 145 Cohen, S 112 compactness 12; see also limit assumption conditionals, see indicative conditionals or counterfactuals Condoravdi, C 26, 50 ConWrming Proposition Constraint (CPC) for Base Sets 151 for Crucial Sets 144 conXict resolution inside and outside of grammar 1–3 contextual underspeciWcation of counterfactual assertions 28, 66, 71, 80–3, 125–6, 133–4, 137–8, 149–50, 184 of knowledge ascriptions 176–7 of modal assertions 8–9, 28, 32, 44–5, 99–104 contextual underspeciWcation: examples Lewis’ Elected OYcial 101 Professor Schielrecht 8–9 Harriet and the Judge, see epistemic modals: examples Gibbard’s Riverboat, see epistemic modals: examples contingency of modal propositions 12, 20, 99, 136 198 Index conversational background 20, 21–4, 31–84, 94–107 as modal base 39–68, 94–107 as ordering source 39–68 projection from events or situations 24, 55 conversational backgrounds: Xavors bouletic, see bouletic modals circumstantial, see root modals deontic, see deontic modals empty 33, 49, 55, 66 epistemic, see epistemic modals informational 33–6 normative 55–64 realistic 32–9, 49–62, 98 stereotypical 37–39, 61 teleological 37 totally realistic 32–3, 65–6, 98 Cooper, R 89 counterfactuals 1, 66, 70–84, 109–10, 125–52, 156–9, 180–4 in a premise semantics 70–84, 125–34, 180–4 in a similarity theory 2, 37, 110, 125–6, 130–1, 140, 150, 158 in Pollock’s theory 74–6 and valid inference patterns 68, 83–4 and conditional modality 66 and lawlike generalizations, see lawlike generalizations and lumping 129–34 and negation 156–9 Goodman’s Puzzle 140–152 Hegel’s counterfactual 82 counterfactuals: examples Bush Walk with Regina 76–7 Dretske’s Bertha and Clyde 156–7 Going to a Restaurant with Hans and Babette 76–7 Goodman’s Match 140 Hoisting the Flag 151–2 Jones with a Ford (counterfactual variant) 181–2 King Ludwig 140–47 Lewis’ Barometer 148–50 Lewis’ Clothesline 158 Lewis’ Penny The Escaped Zebra 126, 130–1 The Holist’s Argument 82–3 The Prime Minister’s Name (counterfactual variant) 181 Tichy´’s Man with a Hat 150–1 Veltman’s Three Sisters 147–8 Wander’s Dancing School 76, 79 counting and distinctness: 112–3, 116, 169–70, 173 Cover, R 26 Cozic, M 93 Cresswell, M 4, 84, 111, 120, 154, 155–6, 187 Crucial Set for counterfactuals 133, 144, 151 Culicover, P 88 Cushing, S 89, 121 Dahl, O 137 Davis, H 25, 26, 45, 47 Davis, S 164, 165, 174 de Haan, F 23 Deal, A R 26, 45, 69 Deggau, G 53 degree modals 46–49, 59 denotations in situation semantics atomic sentences 121 conjunction 121 disjunction: accidental 121 non-accidental 137 exactly two: accidental 124 existential quantiWcation: accidental 121, non-accidental 137 negation: accidental 155 non-accidental 153 non-persistent 153 proper names 121 sentences about implicit spatiotemporal locations 172, 174 Index 199 universal quantiWcation: accidental 122, 124 non-accidental 122, 139 non-persistent 122 radical 122 variables 121 whenever conditionals: non-accidental 142 deontic conditionals, see indicative conditionals with deontic operators deontic modals 5–7, 55–64, 66–68, 106–7 desirability: comparative and quantitative notions 25, 40–1 discourse topic and partitions of modal alternative sets 43, 95–7 and question under discussion 97 domain restriction 85, 94–5, 108 and persistence 119–20 with if-clauses, see indicative conditionals: restrictor view Dretske, F 156 Drubig, H B 23, 99 facts: particular versus propositional 160–84 and attitude ascriptions 163–6, 174–80 and counterfactuals 180–4 and exempliWcation 166–74 and natural propositions 182–4 Faller, M 22, 23 Farkas, D 106 Fine, K 46, 150, 182 focus 153–9 Fox, D 2, Frank, A 94, 106 Frank, B 47 Frege, G 86 Edgington, D 104 Egan, A 99, 187 Egli, U 4, 107 E´gre´, P 93 Ehrich, V 25, 26 epistemic conditionals, see indicative conditionals with epistemic operators epistemic modals 5–7, 21–4, 30–6, 49–55, 97–106 and evidentials, see evidentiality epistemic modals: examples Approaching Man 100–1 Gibbard’s Riverboat 102–4 Harriet and the Judge 102 Locked Cabinet 98 evidence of things (Hacking) 33–36, 1756 Gajewski, J Gaărdenfors, P Garrett, E 23 Gazdar, G 2, 69 Geach, P 169 Geis, M 91, 189 Gettier puzzles 160–6, 177–82 Gettier, E 111, 160, 163–6, 177, 179–80 Geurts, B 94 Gibbard, A 87–8, 102–6 Gillies, A 22, 23, 32, 99, 100, 101 Ginet, C 174 Girotto, V 142 Goodman, N 109, 110, 125, 128, 132, 138, 140–1, 143, 147 Grabski, M Graf, O M 27, 50, 51, 56, 57, 58 Grice, H P 86–7, 88, 91–97 evidentiality 22–3, 34–6, 99 direct, indirect, hearsay evidentials 23 expressed with tense or epistemic modals 23 realistic (strong) evidentials 22, 34–6 informational (weak) evidentials 22, 34–6 exempliWcation of propositions, see under situation semantics 200 Index Groenendijk, J 97 Grove, A Hacking, I 33, 61 Hackl, M 24, 26 Hacquard, V 24, 26, 55, 69 Haegeman, L 92 Hajicˇova´, E 154 Halpern, J Y 40 Hamblin, C 25 Hansson, B 67 Hansson, S O 1, 19 Hawthorne, J 99 Heim, I 4, 16, 89, 90, 109, 111, 162 Hempel, C G 138 Hintikka, J 20 Horgan, T 52 Huitink, J 108 Iatridou, S 26, 91 implicatures 2–3, 37, 86–7 indeterminacy, see contextual underspeciWcation indicative conditionals: limiting cases material implication 65–6, 86–91, 105–6 material implication: strengthened with Gricean implicatures 86–7 material implication: Gibbard’s Proof 87–8, 105–6 strict implication 66 indicative conditionals: restrictor view 64–8, 85–108, 140–152 with adverb of quantiWcation 89–91 with deontic operator 66–68, 106–7 with epistemic operator 97–104 with epistemic operator: Gibbard’s Riverboat Example 102–4 with generic operator 106 with probability operator (Grice’s Paradox) 91–97 with unpronounced restriction (modal subordination) 94, 108 with whenever 140–152 indicative conditionals: syntax 91–95 Ippolito, M 26 Izvorski, R 22, 23, 26 JackendoV, R 153, 154 Jacobs, J 154 Jaăger, Gerhard 174 Kadmon, N 106, 111, 154 Kamp, H 103 Kanazawa, M 134 Kaplan, D 120, 164, 165 Kaufmann, S 26, 134 Kiefer, F 53 Klein, W 81 knowledge ascriptions 162–6, 174–80 and de re belief ascriptions, see belief ascriptions de re and contextual underspeciWcation, see contextual underspeciWcation and other content ascriptions 180 and reliability of evidence 174–7; see also evidentiality: realistic (strong) evidentials knowledge ascriptions: examples Fake Barns (Ginet, Goldman) 175 Jones with a Ford (Gettier) 165 Surveillance Camera 180 The Prime Minister’s Name (Russell) 164 Krifka, M 116 Kripke, S 115, 153 L-analytic Ladusaw, W 174 Landman, F 98, 111, 115, 119 Lang, E 69 Lassiter, D 40 lawlike generalizations 74–5, 135–152 and counterfactuals 135–52 and conWrmation sets 138–51 Index and conWrming propositions 139 and natural categories 144–6 and Nicod’s Criterion 109–10, 138 and the Raven Paradox (Hempel’s Paradox) 138–40 and Wason’s Selection Task 141–2 Lee, J 23 Lewis, C I 184 Lewis, D K 1, 2, 4, 9, 10, 32, 36, 39, 40, 42, 44, 52, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 73, 74, 84, 85, 89, 90, 93, 99, 101, 110, 111, 115, 116, 117, 120, 125, 126, 134, 137, 148–50, 158, 165, 166, 167, 175–6 limit assumption 40, 44 logical compatibility, consequence, consistency 10, 31, 118 lumping relation 111–13, 118 and closure under lumping 133, 184 and counterfactual reasoning 129–34 and negative propositions 156–9 strong versus poor lumpers 134, 136 lumping relation: examples A Roomful of Painters 128–30 Paula Buying Apples 127–9 The Lunatic and the Apple Tree 123–4 The Lunatic and the Still Life 112 MacFarlane, J 176 Makinson, D Matthewson, L 22, 25, 26, 45, 69 McCawley, J 89, 121 modality 1–20, 21–69 bouletic, see bouletic modals circumstantial, see root modals conditional 64–68, 94 deontic, see deontic modals epistemic, see epistemic modals graded notions 38–49, 60–62 interaction with tense and aspect 25–6 (non)duality of modals 12, 25, 43–49, 59 201 relational, relative 4–20 Montague, R 155 Mosteller, F 46 Murphy, G L 131, 145 Murray, S 23 Nauze, F D 24 necessity 9–20, 21–69 in a premise semantics 9–20, 31–2 in an ordering semantics 40 weak necessity modals 45, 57–60 Ned, G 47 negation 152–9 Nickerson, R S 141 Nicod, J 109–10, 138 non-accidental generalizations, see lawlike generalizations Optimality Theory ordering semantics 38–68 grounding in premise semantics 39–40 Pancheva, R 91, 95 Partee, B H 26, 111, 154, 178 Paul, H 28 Peirce, C S Pelletier, J 106 Perry, J 115, 119, 162 Peters, D 47 Peters, S 134 Peterson, T 45 Pinkal, M 32, 65 Pollock, J L 74–84 Portner, P 26, 42 possibility 9–20, 21–69 comparative notions of possibility 41–2 degrees of possibility 38–49, 60–62 in a premise semantics 9–20, 31–2 in an ordering semantics 40 quantitative notions of possibility 25, 42–3 202 Index practical inference 62–64 premise semantics 2, 9–20, 70–84, 125–61, 180–4 premise sets for counterfactuals, see Base Set, Crucial Set, ConWrming Proposition Constraint (CPC) premises, splitting and lumping of 16–20, 66, 70, 74–84, 151 presuppositions 2–3, 155 Prince, A probability and comparative possibility 25, 42–3 conditional, see indicative conditionals with probability operators epistemic 38–43, 61, 91–97 probability measures and partitions of modal alternative sets 43, 95–7 propensity or aleatory probability 61 proposition in possible worlds semantics 10, 31 in situation semantics 117, 167 question under discussion 97 Quine, W v O 145 Rabinowicz, W 182 rational belief change 1, 19 Raynaud, F 39 Recanati, F 99 Redder, A 69 relative sentence: free relative 10–11 Rescher, N 9, 12, 20, 77 Roberts, C 94, 97, 154 root modals 23–4, 33, 47, 49–62 Rooth, M 154 Rothschild, D 108 Rothstein, S 108 Rott, H 19, 20 Rubinstein, A 26, 42, 69, 84, 111 Rullmann, H 22, 25, 26, 34–5, 45, 47–8 Russell, B 164–5, 177, 181, 183 Sauerland, U Schein, B 4, 69, 111, 114 Schlenker, P 94 Schulz, K 26, 69, 146–7 Schwarzschild 111 Selkirk, E O 111, 154, 174 Sgall, P 154 Shields, C 47 Sider, T 115 Simons, M 97 situation semantics denotations, see denotations in situation semantics exempliWcation of propositions 167–74 logical properties and relations 118, 167 metaphysics of situations 115–17, 166 part relation among world mates 117, 166–7 persistence 118–24, 132, 153, 167, 183 quantiWcation over situations 116 thin and thick particulars 115 Smolensky, P Speas, M 23 Spector, B Spelke, E 169 Sperber, D 142 Spohn, W 84 Stalnaker, R 25, 44, 45, 120, 125, 126, 134, 150 Stanley, J 177 Staudacher, P 111 Stokhof, M 97 Stone, M 94 Stowell, T 26 Sugioka, Y 106 ter Meulen, Alice 111 Thomason, R 84 Tichy´, P 150–1 Index tripartite operator structures conditionals 88–108; see also indicative conditionals: restrictor view determiner quantiWcation 88–9 focus 153–9 modal constructions 7–11 negation 153–9 truth-conditions versus assertability conditions 101–4 truthmaker, see situation semantics: exempliWcation of propositions upper end degree modals, see degree modals van Fraassen, B 67, 103 Varzi, A 169–70, 173 Veltman, F 1, 9, 72, 84, 98, 110, 115, 119, 147 Villalta, E 26 von Fintel, K 22, 23, 26, 32, 91, 94, 97, 99, 100, 101, 108, 154 von Kutschera, F 84 von Mises, R 61 von Stechow, A 4, 85, 111, 154, von Wright, G H 62 Wason, P 141–2 Weatherson, B 99 Weinreich 27 Werner, T 23, 26 Westmoreland, R R 23, 99 Whitley R A 47 Wilkinson, K 111 Willett, T 23 Wunderlich, D 69 Yablo, S 114, 116 Yalcin, S 25, 37, 40–1, 97, 132 Youtz, C 46 Zimmermann, T E 84, 162, 182 Zvolenszky, Z 106–7 203 OX F O R D S T U D I E S I N T H E O R E T I C A L L I N G U I S T I C S published The Syntax of Silence Sluicing, Islands, and the Theory of Ellipsis by Jason Merchant Questions and Answers in Embedded Contexts by Utpal Lahiri Phonetics, Phonology, and Cognition edited by Jacques Durand and Bernard Laks At the Syntax-Pragmatics Interface Concept Formation and Verbal Underspecification in Dynamic Syntax by Lutz Marten The Unaccusativity Puzzle Explorations of the Syntax-Lexicon Interface edited by Artemis Alexiadou, Elena Anagnostopoulou, and Martin Everaert Beyond Morphology Interface Conditions on Word Formation by Peter Ackema and Ad Neeleman The Logic of Conventional Implicatures by Christopher Potts Paradigms of Phonological Theory 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