ENERGY STORAGE IN THE EMERGING ERA OF SMART GRIDS Edited by Rosario Carbone Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids Edited by Rosario Carbone Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access articles distributed under the Creative Commons Non Commercial Share Alike Attribution 3.0 license, which permits to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt the work in any medium, so long as the original work is properly cited. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Sandra Bakic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer Jan Hyrat Image Copyright design56, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com First published September, 2011 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids, Edited by Rosario Carbone p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-269-2 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface IX Part 1 Energy Storage Systems 1 Chapter 1 Electrochemical Energy Storage 3 Pier Luigi Antonucci and Vincenzo Antonucci Chapter 2 Supercapacitor-Based Electrical Energy Storage System 21 Masatoshi Uno Chapter 3 Rotor Design for High-Speed Flywheel Energy Storage Systems 41 Malte Krack, Marc Secanell and Pierre Mertiny Chapter 4 An Application of Genetic Fuzzy Systems to the Operation Planning of Hydrothermal Systems 69 Ricardo de A. L. Rabêlo, Fábbio A. S. Borges, Ricardo A. S. Fernandes, Adriano A. F. M. Carneiro and Rosana T. V. Braga Chapter 5 Lightning Energy: A Lab Scale System 89 Mohd Farriz Basar, Musa Yusop Lada and Norhaslinda Hasim Chapter 6 Fabrication and Characterization of MicroPCMs 111 Jun-Feng Su Chapter 7 Energy Storage and Transduction in Mitochondria 139 Bahareh Golfar, Mohsen Nosrati and Seyed Abbas Shojaosadati Part 2 Technologies for Improving Energy Storage Systems 159 Chapter 8 Bidirectional DC - DC Converters for Energy Storage Systems 161 Hamid R. Karshenas, Hamid Daneshpajooh, Alireza Safaee, Praveen Jain and Alireza Bakhshai VI Contents Chapter 9 Bi-Directional DC - DC Converters for Battery Buffers with Supercapacitor 179 Jan Leuchter Chapter 10 Bio-Inspired Synthesis of Electrode Materials for Lithium Rechargeable Batteries 207 Kisuk Kang and Sung-Wook Kim Chapter 11 Thioether Bond Containing Polymers as Novel Cathode Active Materials for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries 237 Zhang J.Y., Zhan H., Tang J., Zhan L.Z., Song Z.P., Zhou Y.H. and Zhan C.M. Chapter 12 Nanostructured MnO 2 for Electrochemical Capacitor 251 Mao-wen Xu and Shu-Juan Bao Chapter 13 High Temperature PEM Fuel Cells Based on Nafion ® /SiO 2 Composite Membrane 279 XiaoJin Li, ChangChun Ke, ShuGuo Qu, Jin Li, ZhiGang Shao and BaoLian Yi Part 3 Practical Applications of Energy Storage 299 Chapter 14 Energy Storage for Balancing a Local Distribution Network Area 301 I. Grau Unda, P. Papadopoulos, S. Skarvelis-Kazakos, L. M. Cipcigan and N. Jenkins Chapter 15 Sizing and Management of Energy Atorage for a 100% Renewable Supply in Large Electric Systems 321 Oscar Alonso, Santiago Galbete and Miriam Sotés Chapter 16 Complementary Control of Intermittently Operating Renewable Sources with Short- and Long-Term Storage Plants 349 E. F. Fuchs and W. L. Fuchs Chapter 17 Practical Application of Electrical Energy Storage System in Industry 379 Drabek, Streit and Blahnik Chapter 18 Predictive Optimal Matrix Converter Control for a Dynamic Voltage Restorer with Flywheel Energy Storage 401 Paulo Gambôa, J. Fernando Silva, S. Ferreira Pinto and Elmano Margato Contents VII Chapter 19 Unified Power Flow Controllers Without Energy Storage: Designing Power Controllers for the Matrix Converter Solution 425 Joaquim Monteiro, J. Fernando Silva, Sónia Pinto and João Palma Chapter 20 The Benefits of Device Level Short Term Energy Storage in Ocean Wave Energy Converters 439 D. O’Sullivan, D. Murray, J. Hayes, M. G. Egan and A. W. Lewis Chapter 21 A New On-Board Energy Storage System for the Rolling Stock 463 Masao Yano Preface Traditional electrical power systems were essentially based on centralized and fuel consuming power generation plants, where end-users were supplied via unidirectional transmission and distribution grids. The increasing demand for electrical energy and, at the same time, the need for reducing CO2 emissions are now changing these strongholds, and power systems are more and more integrated by “distributed generation” (DG), that is to say small and medium size generator plants managed by end-users (now called “prosumers”, to underline that they are both consumers and producers) and essentially based on renewables. In order not to compromise reliability and quality of the supply, modern power systems now have to become “smarter”, for properly managing power, received both from centralized and distributed sources; of course, this could be accomplished by means of sophisticated control and communication technologies but, in our opinion, energy-storage systems can also have a central role. In fact, electricity generated from renewables by distributed plants, unlike to that generated by fuel consuming centralized plants, is highly “intermittent” and this worsens the problem of optimally matching electricity availability with electricity demand of end-users. Without solving this problem, reliability, quality and stability of modern power system are seriously compromised. Reliable, high-efficient and cost-effective energy storage systems - undoubtedly – can play a crucial role for a large-scale integration on power systems of DG and for enabling the starting and the consolidation of the new era of so called smart-grids. A non exhaustive list of benefits of the energy storage properly located on modern power systems with DG could be as follows: it can increase voltage control, frequency control and stability of power systems, it can reduce outages, it can allow the reduction of spinning reserves to meet peak power demands, it can reduce congestion on the transmission and distributions grids, it can release the stored energy when energy is most needed and expensive, it can improve power quality or service reliability for customers with high value processes or critical operations and so on. X Preface At this moment, a large number of energy storage technologies and systems are available and effectively viable; nevertheless, existing storage technologies can be complimented with innovative researches in order to find new, more reliable and cost- effective solutions. The main goal of the book is to give a date overview on: (i) basic and well proven energy storage systems, (ii) recent advances on technologies for improving the effectiveness of energy storage devices, (iii) practical applications of energy storage, in the emerging era of smart grids. The book is organized into three sections. In the first section (chapters from 1 to 7), the basic and well proven technologies for making up an energy storage system are reviewed. In Chapter 1, electrochemical energy storage technologies are reviewed, also showing how batteries, electrochemical flow cell systems, hydrogen based systems and capacitors can be effectively used on modern distribution grids for integrating renewable energy sources (RES), in order to improve their availability, reliability and power quality. In Chapter 2, specific reference is made to supercapacitors. It is shown that they can be used as an effective alternative to traditional secondary batteries, especially in applications where batteries have to be cycled with shallow depth of discharges, in order to achieve long cycle lives. High-efficiency power electronic converters suitable for overcoming some specific problems related to practical utilization of supercapacitors (voltage imbalance in series connections and terminal voltage variations during charging/discharging process) are also introduced and discussed. In Chapter 3, the state of art of high-speed flywheels is overviewed. Particular attention is dedicated to the problem of the optimization of the rotor design process and well proven approaches for solving it are introduced and discussed, with specific reference to a hybrid composite flywheel rotor. In Chapter 4, the operation planning of hydrothermal systems is analysed, with the main aim to optimize the reservoirs of the hydroelectric systems so that thermoelectric generation can be profitably replaced, whenever possible, by hydroelectric generation. The specification of reservoir operation rules by means of Genetic Fuzzy Systems is investigated and the Mamdani fuzzy inference systems is efficiently used to estimate the operating volume of each hydroelectric plant based on the value of the energy stored in the hydroelectric system. In Chapter 5, a lab scale system is experimented to demonstrate the real possibility to capture the energy from lightning return strokes, as that can also be considered a clean energy sources. The capacitor is used as energy storage device while a high-frequency switching is used to isolate it (and its stored energy), once it has been supplied by means of a lab-generated lightning impulse voltage. [...]... discussed in depth Finally, in Chapter 7, the energy storage process that characterises living organisms is introduced Energy transduction in animal living cells takes place on the mitochondrion and the energy is stored in the body in the form of high -energy molecules such as Adesonine Three-Phosphate (ATP), maintaining the body at a constant temperature of about 37°C; the investigation of this process... particles, including micropores (< 2 nm), mesopores (2-50 nm) and macropores (> 50 nm) The average pore 16 Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids dimension increases as the activation time or the temperature are increased The doublelayer capacity of active carbons reaches 10 0 -12 0 F g -1 with organic electrolytes and 15 0-300 F g -1 in aqueous electrolytes but at a lower cell voltage, because the voltage... requirements of the energy storage system is introduced and utilized referring to a case-study and, then, it is shown as the combined use of a backup generator with an energy storage system can be profitably used for supporting the islanding operation mode of a distribution network area In Chapter 15 , having in mind a future scenario where a power system could be made with 10 0% of renewable resources, the crucial... availability of electricity include: diffusion of RES, production from clean carbon technologies and others sources technical evolution of the transmission grid for the connection of these sources to the loads programs to meet power /energy demands and management of the loads The diffusion of storage technologies in the public grid include several benefits: the optimization of the grid for the fulfilment of base-load... for the three following goals: Power quality: stored energy to be delivered for seconds in order to guarantee the continuity of stabilized electricity supply Bridging power: energy furnished for minutes to guarantee the continuity of the service during the transition from an energy source to another one Energy management, for the time-lag between the production and the utilization of the produced energy. .. temperatures (over 10 0 °C), still maintaining a high proton conduction, is introduced and discussed; an effective solution is introduced and tested In the third section (chapters from 14 to 21) , a lot of practical applications of energy storage are considered and their effectiveness is evidenced In Chapter 14 , the role of an energy storage system in balancing a local distribution network area is introduced... developed, being different in the mechanism of accumulation charge or active materials used Their energy density (about 5 Wh kg -1) is lower than that of batteries but the supply or absorption of power is much higher (10 kW kg -1) even if for short times (few seconds) 14 Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids Fig 8 Carbon structures for double-layer capacitors: a) TEM image of a microporous... art of storage technologies (source: EPRI) Energy 5 kWh 25 kWh 10 -10 0 MWh 6 Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids At present, the most common electrochemical storage technology is represented by leadacid batteries In USA the current market of lead-acid batteries for commercial, industrial and automotive applications is about 3 billion dollars per year, with an annual rate of growth of 8.5%... is the optimization of the load level when the energy cost is low and utilization when the cost from the grid is high (Antonucci P.L., 2 010 , Antonucci V., 2 011 , Strbac G & Black M 2004, Stuntz L, 2004., Makansi J & Abboud J, 2002) Application Domestic Commercial Distribution grid Power 1 kW 10 -10 0 kW 10 -10 0 MW Table 3 Typical intervals and parameters of the different applications Fig 1 The state of the. .. discussed In particular, after concerning with the technical challenges that arise from intentional islanding of micro -grids that include micro-generation sources, a combination of an energy storage system and a backup generator is proposed as an effective solution for intentional islanding A micro-grid model is defined and studied by means of a simulation software A methodology for calculating the requirements . ENERGY STORAGE IN THE EMERGING ERA OF SMART GRIDS Edited by Rosario Carbone Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids Edited by Rosario. improving the effectiveness of energy storage devices, (iii) practical applications of energy storage, in the emerging era of smart grids. The book is organized into three sections. In the. integration on power systems of DG and for enabling the starting and the consolidation of the new era of so called smart- grids. A non exhaustive list of benefits of the energy storage properly located