an end to poverty ? GARETH STEDMAN JO N E S A N E N D TO P O V E RT Y ? A H I S TO R I C A L D E B AT E C O LU M B I A U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S N E W YO R K Columbia University Press Publishers Since 1893 New York Chichester, West Sussex Copyright © Gareth Stedman Jones,  First published by Profile Books Ltd, London All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A complete CIP record is available from the Library of Congress ISBN ‒‒‒ (cloth : alk paper) Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper Printed in the United States of America            To my mother C O N T E N TS Acknowledgements I II III IV V VI ix Introduction The French Revolution The Reaction in Britain The Reaction in France Globalisation: the ‘Proletariat’ and the ‘Industrial Revolution’ The Wealth of Midas Resolving ‘The Social Problem’ Conclusion 16 64 110 Notes Index 236 271 133 163 199 224 ACKNOW L E D G E M E N TS This book has been written to accompany the AngloAmerican Conference of the Institute of Historical Research, whose theme in  was ‘Wealth and Poverty’ I wish to thank the Director of the Institute, David Bates, for encouraging me to undertake this assignment I would also like to thank Peter Carson, Penny Daniel, Maggie Hanbury, Sally Holloway and Tim Penton for the part they have played in the publication of this book The thinking which shaped it is to a large extent the result of discussions and seminars which have taken place at the Centre for History and Economics at King’s College, Cambridge since  I wish to thank the John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation which has so generously supported the activities of the Centre I have learnt from many who have participated in the intellectual life of the Centre, but especially from Emma Rothschild who provided constant inspiration and encouragement, while I was writing this book Those who have helped to manage the Centre have also been of invaluable assistance, in particular Acknowledgements Inga Huld Markan, Jo Maybin, Rachel Coffey and Justine Crump There are many others who have provided important suggestions, insights or help as this book was being prepared I would particularly like to mention Robert Tombs, Daniel Pick, Tristram Hunt, Michael Sonenscher, Istvan Hont, David Feldman, Barry Supple, Sally Alexander and Daniel Stedman Jones Finally, a special thanks to Miri Rubin who persuaded me that it was possible to write this book and did so much to help it towards its completion ix An End to Poverty? 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 264 Introductory Discourse’, in J R McCulloch (ed.), Adam Smith, An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (London, ), pp liii–liv Edinburgh Review  (June–October ), p  As above, pp – H Martineau, The History of England during the Thirty Years’ Peace, –,  vols., London (–), vol , p  – – G R Porter, The Progress of the Nation in Its Various Social and Economic Relations from the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century (London, ), p  See N F R Crafts, ‘British Economic Growth, –: A Review of the Evidence’, Economic History Review  (), pp –; Crafts, ‘The New Economic History and the  Industrial Revolution’, in P Mathias & J A Davis (eds.), The First Industrial Revolutions (Oxford, ); C K Harley, ‘British Industrialisation before : Evidence of Slow Growth during the Industrial Revolution’, Journal of Economic History,  (); Harley, ‘Re-assessing the Industrial Revolution: A Macro View’, in J Mokyr (ed.), The British Industrial Revolution: An Economic Perspective (Boulder, Co., ); N F R Crafts & C K Harley, ‘Output Growth and the British Industrial Revolution: A Restatement of the Crafts–Harley View’, Economic History Review  () See E Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain (London, ); P Gaskell, The Manufacturing Population of England (London, ); A Ure, The Philosophy of Manufactures (London, ); Porter, The Progress of the Nation Nassau W Senior, An Outline of the Science of Political Economy (London, ), p  For an account, see M Berg, The Machinery Question and the Making of Political Economy – (London, ), pt II – – As above, pp – Ure, The Philosophy of Manufactures, pp –  ‘ Notes 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 As above, p ; and see K Marx, Capital, Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, Collected Works, vol  (London, ), ch , p  E A Wrigley, Continuity, Chance and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England (Cambridge, ); N von Tunzelmann, Steam Power and British Industrialisation to  (Oxford, ) Berg, The Machinery Question, p  B Hilton, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought – (Oxford, ), p  – – W Huskisson, The Speeches of the Right Honourable William Huskisson with a Biographical Memoir,  vols (London, ), vol , pp – As above, pp – Porter, The Progress of the Nation, pp – Blanqui, Histoire de l’économie politique, pp – As above, p ; see also Marx’s reference to ‘the cynical Ricardo’ in K Marx, ‘Critical Marginal Notes on the Article, the King of Prussia and Social Reform, by a “Prussian”’, Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, Collected Works, vol , p  Blanqui, Histoire de l’économie politique, pp – J R McCulloch, A Treatise on the Principles and Practical Influence of Taxation and the Funding System (London, ), p  On McCulloch’s attitude to child labour, see D P O’Brien, J R McCulloch: A Study in Classical Economics (London, ), p  Martineau, The History of England, vol , p  R Owen, ‘An Address to the Working Classes, April  ’, in R Owen, A New View of Society and Other Writings, G D H Cole (ed.) (London, ), p  R Owen, ‘Observations on the Effect of the Manufacturing System’, in G Claeys (ed.), Robert Owen, A New View of Society and Other Writings (Harmondsworth, ), p  W Hazlitt, Political Essays (London, ), p  265 An End to Poverty? 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 266 Edinburgh Review  (October ), pp – As above, pp –  As above, p  As above, p  As above, p  Sismondi, Nouveaux principes, nd edn, vol , p  Edinburgh Review  (March–July ), p  M Agulhon, , ou l’apprentissage de la république – – – (Paris, ), p  J Stillinger (ed.), John Stuart Mill, Autobiography (Oxford, ), pp , –, , –   Richard Cobden to Joseph Sturge,  July , cited in W Hinde, Richard Cobden: A Victorian Outsider (Yale, ), p  Mill, Autobiography, p  J S Mill, Principles of Political Economy with Some of Their Applications to Social Philosophy,  vols., rd edn (London, ), vol , pp – T Carlyle, Past and Present (London, ), ch , ‘Midas’, pp – Blanqui, Histoire de l’économie politique, p  R Carlile, The Life of Thomas Paine Written Purposely to Bind with His Writings, nd edn (London, ), p  G Stedman Jones, ‘The Labours of Henry Mayhew, Metropolitan Correspondent’, London Journal vol , no  (), p ; H Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor,  vols.,  edn, vol , p ; vol , p  J M Baernreither, English Associations of Working Men (London, ), p  See also J Thompson, ‘A nearly related people: German views of the British Labour Market, – , in D Winch and P K O’Brien, The Political Economy of British Historical Experience, – (Oxford ) For an excellent account of the difficulties of friendly societies, see P Gosden, The Friendly Societies in England – – – (Manchester, ), ch  & passim See also Barry Supple Notes 63 (), ‘Legislation and Virtue: An Essay on Working Class Self-Help and the State in the Early Nineteenth Century’ In Neil McKendrick, ed., Historical Perspectives: Studies in English Thought and Society (London: Europa, ), pp – Gosden, Friendly Societies, p  Chapter VI Cited in A Gueslin, L’Invention de l’économie sociale: le XIXe siècle franỗais (Paris, ), p See F Burdeau, Histoire de ladministration franỗaise: du e au e siốcle, nd edn (Paris, ), pp – See Gueslin, L’Invention de l’économie sociale, pp –; see also P Schöttler, Naissance des Bourses du Travail (Paris, ); C Topalov, Naissance du Chômeur – (Paris, ) J M Mayeur and Madeleine Rebérioux, The Third Republic from Its Origins to the Great War – (Cambridge, ), – – p  Cited in R D Anderson, France –: Politics and Society – – (London, ), p  S Webb, Socialism in England (London, ); The History of Trade Unionism (London, ), p ; and see also J Saville, ‘Henry George and the British Labour Movement’, Bulletin of the Society for the Study of Labour History  (Autumn ), pp – H George, Progress and Poverty: An Inquiry into the Cause of Industrial Depressions and of Increase of Want with the Increase of Wealth … The Remedy () (New York, ), p ; the impact of Henry George on late nineteenth-century radicalism was worldwide from Tolstoy to John Dewey It is generally forgotten how important a part his ideas played on the prehistory of the Labour Party and of New Liberalism in Britain See, for example, the testimony of Keir Hardie, who wrote in  that his reading of Progress and Poverty 267 An End to Poverty? 10 11 12 268 and George’s visit to Scotland in – ‘unlocked many of the industrial and economic difficulties which then beset the worker trying to take an intelligent interest in his own affairs’ (‘Character Sketches  The Labour Party and the Books that Have Helped to Make It’, The Review of Reviews (June ), p ) Or Bernard Shaw, who later wrote to George’s daughter, ‘Your father found me a literary dilettante and militant rationalist in religion, and a barren rascal at that By turning my mind to economics he made a man of me’ (cited in Agnes George de Mille, ‘Preface’, Progress and Poverty, p xiii) George, Progress and Poverty, pp , ; on its impact upon discussion of the housing crisis in London in the s, see G Stedman Jones, Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship between Classes in Victorian Society (Oxford, ), ch  Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, Charles Bradlaugh: A Record of His Life and Work by His Daughter (), th edn (London, ), pp , ; H M Hyndman & Charles Bradlaugh, Will Socialism Benefit the English People? (London, ), p  See G Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency (Oxford, ); Stedman Jones, Outcast London, pt III W E Blackley, ‘National Insurance: A Cheap, Practical, and Popular Means of Abolishing Poor Rates’, The Nineteenth Century  (July–Nov ), pp – On the origins of the welfare legislation of the Liberal governments of –, see B R Gilbert, The Evolution of National Insurance in Great Britain: The Origins of the Welfare State (London, ); P Thane, ‘Contributory vs Non-contributory Old Age Pensions, –, in P Thane (ed.), The Origins of British Social Policy (London, ); ‘The Working Class and State “Welfare” in Britain, –’, Historical Journal  () pp –; P Thane, ‘Government and Society in England and Wales, –’, in F M L Thompson (ed.), Cambridge Social History of Britain Notes 13 14 15 16 17 –, vol , Social Agencies and Institutions (Cambridge, – – ), pp –; J Harris, ‘From Poor Law to Welfare State? A European Perspective’, in D Winch & P O’Brien (eds.), The Political Economy of British Historical Experience, – – – (Oxford, ), pp – See W J Mommsen (ed.), The Emergence of the Welfare State in Britain and Germany – (London, ); E P Hennock, – – British Social Reform and German Precedents: The Case of Social Insurance – (Oxford, ) – – On the Poor Law reforms of the late s and early s, see M E Rose, ‘The Crisis of Poor Relief in England –’, in Mommsen, The Emergence of the Welfare State, pp – Revd & Mrs Samuel A Barnett, Practicable Socialism: Essays on Social Reform (London, ), pp – On the intellectual and political character of turn-of-the-century social democracy, see P Clarke, Liberals and Social Democrats (Cambridge, ); S Collini, Liberalism and Sociology (Cambridge, ); E Bragini and A Reid, Currents of radicalism, poplar radicalism, organised labour and party politics – (Cambridge, ) A Toynbee, Lectures on the Industrial Revolution in England: Popular Addresses, Notes and Other Fragments (London, ), pp , , , , , , ,  On Toynbee, see Alon Kadish, Apostle Arnold: The Life and Death of Arnold Toynbee, – (Durham, NC, ) On the development of negative evaluations of industrialisation, see M J Wiener, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit – (Cambridge, ) Toynbee, Industrial Revolution, pp xv–xvi, , , , , , , ,  269 INDEX Page references in brackets indicate where a concept has been crucially implied but not named as such A Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques  Acland, John  actuary: status  agriculture: falling prices and ; and industrie ; Toynbee on  Agulhon, Maurice  Alembert, Jean d’  America, independent , ; feasibility as model for Europe , –, , – , , , ; France and , ; obsession with self-enrichment ; Price and , –, –, ; Thermidorian regime and  American Revolution , ; and concept of commerce ; effect on conventional view of poor –; Price, France and ; radicalisation as result of , –, ,  annuities , ,  aristocracy: bulwark against revolution ; cause of poverty , , –, , (); Paine’s hostility to –, ; political survival in Britain ; radical critiques (general, –) of ; undermining through falling prices  Arkwright, Richard , , , () artisan class  assignat –, ,  association: Thiers’ definition  Athens, ancient: and America  B Babeuf, F N ,  Baernreither, J M – Bank of England  Barère, Bertrand  Barnett, Samuel –, ,  Barruel, Augustin de, Abbé  Barton, John  Bastiat, Frederick  begging see mendicity Bentham, Jeremy ,  Bernstein, Eduard  Besant, Annie  bienfaisance – bills of mortality –,  birth control , , – Bismarck, Otto von ,  Blackley, W E –,  Blanc, Louis  Blanqui, Jérome Adolphe , , , ; on Condorcet ; on Index French Revolution ; Histoire de l’économie politique –; and Say –; and Sismondi –, – Bonner, Hypatia Bradlaugh  Booth, Charles  Botany Bay  Bourgeois, Léon –,  Bradlaugh, Charles –, ; Fruits of philosophy ; Jesus, Shelley and Malthus ; and Paine ,  Briavoinne, N de: De l’industrie en Belgique n Brissot, Jacques-Pierre , , , ; Burke quoted on  Buisson, Ferdinand: quoted on education – Buret, Eugène ,  Burke, Edmund ; on labouring poor –, ; Malthus and , ; Paine on ; quoted on Brissot ; Reflections on the revolution in France –, –; and Smith –; Thompson and  C Cabanis, P J G  Cambridge  capitalism, concept of ,  Carlile, Richard ,  Carlyle, Thomas –, , , , –; Past and present  ‘cash nexus’ , ,  casual labour (), ,  Chalmers, Thomas  Chamberlain, Joseph  Chaptal, Jean-Antoine (comte de Chanteloup) –n.; La chimie appliquée a l’agriculture n.; De l’industrie francaise – charity ; Paine’s alternative to ; Sismondi and  Charity Organisation Society –, , ,  Chartism , , , – children: economic burden of upbringing –, –, –; foundlings ; labour ,  Christianity: anti-revolutionary use made of , –; doctrinal value of poverty –, , , ; evangelicalism ; French Revolutionary sympathies resulting in apostasy from n.; and the market ; Smith and –; and social reform , ; theodicies , , –; Toynbee  Church of England: and social reform  citizenship, language of  civil society, concept of –, (); solidarism ; Turgot to Louis XVI on  Claeys, Greg ,  class, notion of  Clavière, Étienne , , – coal  Cobbett, William  Cobden, Richard ,  Coleman, Donald  Coleridge, Samuel Taylor , , , – commerce, concept of – Comité de Mendicité , , , , –,  Committee for Public Safety (France)  communism: Thiers’ definition  competition: and industrial revolution ; Thiers on loss of ; Toynbee on , ; and unemployment  Comte, Charles n Condorcet, Antoine-Nicolas –, ; on America , ; Blanqui on 271 An End to Poverty? ; and civil society in practice –, ; and commercial society –; Durkheim and ; and education –, , , , , ; Essai sur les assemblées provinciales n.; and French Revolution ; on luxury –; Malthus and , –; Paine and , ; political beliefs , , ; and population –; and public finance –; reactions to –, , , –n.; Sketch for a historical picture of the progress of the human mind –, –, , n.; and Smith , , –n.; and social insurance –, –, , , –, ; Vie de Monsieur Turgot , ; and welfare – Confédération Générale des Travailleurs  conservatism and political economy  contraception , , – Conway, Moncure  cooperation: Owen and , , - Corn Laws , , ; Anti-Corn Law League ,  cotton textile industry –, –, –, , – crime, poverty and  D Darwin, Charles: The Origin of Species , ,  Daston, Lorraine  death duties  Décade, La (journal)  deception as motivating force  dependence –; as social issue , –, , , –,  Destutt de Tracy, Antoine  Dewey, John n Dissenters ,  272 division of labour , , –, n., n Dodson, James  Droz, Joseph F -X n Dunoyer, Charles n Dupont de Nemours, Pierre , n Durkheim, Émile ; Bourgeois and –; The division of labour – Duvillard de Durand, EmmanuelÉtienne – E economic science: original understanding of term  Eden, Frederick ,  Edgeworth, Francis Y  education: Condorcet and –, , , , , ; Lancaster system ; Paine and , , ; Third Republic –; Turgot and , – revolution (France)  emigration of labour  empire, British (–), ,  employer welfare schemes: Germany  Enlightenment , ; economic n entail ,  entrepreneur, notion of the ; socialism and  equality: Condorcet’s understanding of ; Mandeville and ; Smith and – exchange economy: Smith on , ; Toynbee on Marx and  F Fabian Society – factory system: and children ; McCulloch on ; Toynbee on  famine ,  Fénelon, Francois: The adventures of Telemachus , ,  Index Ferry, Jules – Forrest, Alan  Fourier, Charles ,  Franklin, Benjamin , , , ; Poor Richard’s almanack –, (),  free trade , , , ; see also Say, Jean-Baptiste French Revolution , , ; Blanqui quoted on ; Burke and –; and concept of commerce ; effect on conventional view of poor –; philosophical context –; radicalisation as result of , , –, ; reactions to , –, , , –, –, ; Thermidorian regime , –, , ; see also Jacobins Frend, William , n friendly societies –, –, –, –, –; Royal Commission on  fuel costs, industrial  G ‘Gagging Acts’  George, Henry: Progress and poverty –, , ; Toynbee on  Girondins , , –,  glutting of markets , –, ,  Godwin, William , ; Enquiry concerning political justice ; on Fénelon ; Malthus and , –, –, ; and population  Gordon Riots  Graunt, John – Grouchy, Sophie de  H Harcourt, Sir William  Hardie, Keir n Hayek, F A  Hazlitt, William , , – Hegel, G W F – Helvetius, Claude Adrien n Hey, William  Hilton, Boyd  Himmelfarb, Gertrude , n Hobbes, Thomas , ,  Hovell, Mark  Hume, David ; and commerce ; Condorcet and ; Malthus and ; Smith and , , n Huskisson, William – hyperinflation: France –,  I Idéologues (group)  Illuminati ,  imperial expenditure (–) India , –, , , – industrial revolution, notion of , , –, , , – ‘industrious revolution’ – insurance –, , ; see also national insurance; social insurance J Jacobins , , , –, , ; English counterparts  Johnson, Joseph  Jowett, Benjamin , ,  K Keynes, J M , n L Labour Party (Britain) , n Lafayette, Marie Joseph du Motier, marquis de  laisser faire, principle of ,  Lancaster system (education)  land, consumption and industry: Wrigley quoted on – Lansdowne, William Petty, Marquis of  273 An End to Poverty? La Rochefoucauld (-d’Enville), LouisAlexandre, duc de ,  La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Francois, duc de , –,  Larocque, André de ,  Lassalle, Ferdinand ,  Lavoisier, Antoine ,  Law of Settlement (England)  Leibniz, G W  Liancourt, duc de see La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Francois, duc de ‘liberal Toryism’ , – Lloyd George, David  Local Government Board (England) , – Locke, John –,  London Constitutional Society  London Corresponding Society  Louis XVI, King of France , , n Louis Philippe, King of the French ,  luxury: political economists on –, () M McCulloch, J R –, – Mackintosh, James  Malthus, T R –, –; Bradlaugh and ; criticisms of ,; An essay on the principle of population –, –, –, , , –; and late thcentury radicalism ; Marx on Darwin and ; Mill (J.S.) and –; politics n.; Principles of political economy considered with a view to their practical application ; on savings banks n.; Sismondi and , ; and Smith , –; Toynbee and – Malthusian League  ‘management consultancy’, early  274 Mandeville, Bernard de ; The fable of the bees –,  market and labour ; Malthus on –,  Martineau, Harriet: The history of England during the Thirty Years’ Peace –, – Marx, Karl , , , , –; Capital –, , ,  Maséres, Francis  Mayeur, J M  Mayhew, Henry  mendicity –, , ; see also Comité de Mendicité; pauperism Michelet, Jules n Mill, James ; J S Mill on – Mill, John Stuart , –, –, ; Bradlaugh and ; Toynbee and , – Milner, Alfred  Mirabeau, Honoré-Gabriel de  Mirabeau, Victor de – mixed government (Britain) ; Burke and ; French opinion –; Paine on ; Price on  Moivre, Abraham de  monopoly: Thiers’ definition  Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de , , ,  Montvéran, Tournachon de – More, Hannah ,  More, Sir Thomas: Utopia  N Napoleon I, Emperor of the French , ; Concordat  Napoleon III, Emperor of the French: The extinction of pauperism  Napoleonic wars: steam and  national insurance –; Condorcet and ; National Insurance Act (Britain) , ; Paine and ,  natural theology: Malthus , ,  neoconservatism, th-century  Index New Liberalism (Britain) n Newton, Sir Isaac ,  O O’Connor, Fergus  ‘Opportunists’  overproduction see glutting of markets Owen, Robert , –, ,  P Paine, Thomas –, ; The age of reason , , ; Agrarian justice , , , –, , , ; and America , –, –, ; and aristocracy –, ; and civil society in practice –, ; and commercial society , –, , –; Common sense , ; The decline and fall of the English system of finance ; effigy hanged and burnt ; French connections –; and French Revolution ; on government , –, –, ; Himmelfarb and n.; Malthus and –, , ; and mendicity –, ; reactions to –, –, , –, , , ; Rights of man –, , , , –, –, , ; and Smith , , , ; and social insurance , –, , , –, ; tradition of ,  Pascal, Blaise  pauperism –, –; Blanqui and , , , ; Bradlaugh, Paine and ; and Christian anti-revolutionary reaction ; definition (Sismondi) n.; and economics of machinery as capital ; and free trade ; laisser faire and ; land returns and ; and Malthus ; Napoleon III and ; national insurance and ; New Poor Law and –; sponsored research into ; Toynbee and ; Villermé and – Peacock, Thomas Love  pensions, old age: Barère and –; Barnett and ; noncontributary schemes –; Old Age Pensions Act (Britain) , ; Paine’s proposal ; Thermidorian regime ; Third Republic  perfectibility of man ; Christian hostility to ; Godwin and ; Smith and ; Turgot and ; Wollstonecraft on – Peters, Hugh  Philosophes (party) –, ,  Philp, Mark  Physiocrats , –, , ,  Pitt, William, the Younger , –, , ,  political economy ; Church of England and ; divorce from progressive politics ; Say on –, –; Smith on , , – ‘polyarchy’ (Sieyès) ,  Poor Laws , , –, , , , n.; national insurance and –; New Poor Law , ; Paine quoted on ; Poor Law Amendment Act n.; Poor Law Commissioners  Poor Rate , ,  population theory , –, , ; see also Malthus, T R Porter, J R.: The progress of the nation –,  Pretyman-Tomline, George  Price, Richard: Burke and –, n.; Godwin and ; on morality and social insurance –, ; Observations on the importance of the American Revolution –, 275 An End to Poverty? –, ; political beliefs –; theology  Priestley, Joseph ,  primogeniture , , ,  ‘probabilities, calculus of ’ (Condorcet et al.) –, (), , , ,  proletariat ()–, –, , , –, , , n protection , (n.); Blanqui and ; Corn Laws and , –; implied by Fénelon (); liberal association with past oppression –, , , , ; Malthus and ; Say on (), (); tariffs , , ; Torrens on (–) Q Quakers  Quesnai (Quesnay), Francois  R Radical Party (France) , ,  Rebérioux, Madeleine  Reeves, John  Reform Bill (Britain) ,  relief, social: aspect of citizenship ; French Revolution, Catholic church and ; right to –; Thermidorian regime  rent: Edgeworth’s theory ; Ricardo’s theory , ,  Républicain, La (journal)  republican principle: Condorcet, Paine and , , ; Enlightenment and ; renewal of, after American Revolution ; Smith and  Ricardo, David: Blanqui and ; and land returns , ; later understanding of ; and rent , , ; Say and –, ; Sismondi and ; Torrens and ; Toynbee and ,  rights (autonomous principle) , , 276 ; ‘natural rights’ –, – Robespierre, Maximilien , –,  Robison, John  Rome, ancient –,  Rousseau, Jean-Jacques , , , , ; Say and  Ruggles, Thomas (jurist): quoted (–) S Saint-Simon, Claude-Henri de –,  savings banks , , , , , n savings funds ,  Say, Jean-Baptiste ; Cours complet d’économie pratique –; defence of capitalism (–); and emancipation of labour ; England and the English people –, –; and Franklin –, ; on industrie –, –, , ; on machinery and labour –n.; and Malthus –; Mill (J.S.) and , –, ; Olbie –, , ; and political economy –, –; and Sismondi –, n.; and Smith ; Traité d’économie politique –, –, –, –, , n.; Villermé and  scale, commercial: economies of  Second Empire (France)  Secularist movement (Britain)  Senior, Nassau W ,  Settlement, Law of (England) , ,  settlement movement, Victorian  sex, attitudes to: Malthus’ influence  Shaw, George Bernard n Shelburne, Earl of see Lansdowne, William Petty, Marquis of sickness benefits – Index Sieyès, Emmanuel, Abbé , –, , , ,  sin , ; see also perfectibility of man Sinclair, Sir John: The history of the [public] revenue [of the British Empire]  Sismondi, J C L Simonde de , ; Blanqui and –; Carlyle and ; Histoire des républiques italiennes du moyen âge –, and glutting of markets , ; Nouveaux principes d’économie politique , –, –, , , , n.; and Owen –; pauperism defined n.; and population –; and Ricardo ; and Say –, n.; Toynbee and  slavery – slum clearance  Smith, Adam –, –, , , n.; Burke and ; influence –, –, , –, –; and ‘industrial freedom’ –; and the labourer –, ; Marx quoted on ; and ‘natural liberty’ ; Paine, commercial society and , , –, , , ; and reactions to French Revolution ; Say and , , –, ; Sismondi and ; and slavery ; The theory of moral sentiments –, , –, –; Thompson and ; Toynbee and –, , ; Turgot, Condorcet and –n.; The wealth of nations –, , , , , , –,  social democracy – social insurance –, –; Bourgeois’ administration and ; Paine and , –, , ; see also national insurance ‘social mathematics’ (Condorcet) – social security see national insurance; social insurance socialism: Bourgeois’ administration ; Bradlaugh and ; British historians and –; and citizenship ; English variant ; origins of notion ; state ; Toynbee and , ,  Société Gallo-Américaine  Society for Equitable Insurance on Lives and Survivorships , n Society of   solidarism – Southey, Robert , , , , – speculation , () Speenhamland system (‘rate in aid of wages’) ,  Spencer, Herbert  starvation: France ; implied by Malthus () state, the: solidarism – statistics: control over chance (Condorcet, Paine) ; government interest in – steam power –; Blanqui and ; Chaptal on ; conservatives and –; Huskisson on –; Owen and ; Say and –, , –; ships ; Sismondi and ; and unemployment ; and war  Stedman Jones, Gareth: Languages of class  Stein, Lorenz von – Stewart, Dugald , –, , n Sumner, John Bird – T Tawney, R H  tax: George and –; Paine and , –, , , , , , ; Say and , ; solidarism –; and welfare (Condorcet, Paine) ,  277 An End to Poverty? telegraph  textile industry –; see also Arkwright, Richard; cotton textile industry Thatcher, Margaret  Thermidorian regime (France) , –, ,  Thiers, L A  Third Republic (France) –,  ‘third way’: Toynbee  Thomas, Keith  Thompson, Edward: The making of the English working class ,  Tocqueville, Alexis de  Tolstoy, L N n Torrens, Robert – Toynbee, Arnold –, –, –; Lectures on the industrial revolution in England , – trade unions , , ,  Trafalgar, Battle of  Treasonable Practices and Seditious Meetings Acts (Britain)  Trevelyan, G M  Tunzelmann, G W von  Turgot, A -R , , , –, , –n.; Mémoire sur les municipalités (ed Dupont de Nemours) ; and mendicity – Stewart on  U unemployment: machinery and –,  278 United States see America, independent Ure, Andrew , – utopia , ,  V ‘villages of industry/cooperation’ (Owen) , ,  Villeneuve-Bargemont, J -P A de n Villermé, L R –,  Voltaire, C -M A de ,  W Waterloo, Battle of  Waterman, A M C  Wakefield, Gilbert  Watt, James , –,  Webb, Sidney  welfare state  Whatmore, Richard  Whitbread, – Wilberforce, William ; quoted – will, human: George quoted on  Witt, Jan de ,  Wollstonecraft, Mary , ; quoted – women: national insurance and  working class(es), industrial see proletariat Wrigley, E A –,  Wyvill, Christopher: A defence of Dr Price  ... induced to ‘found cities and commonwealths, and to invent and improve all the sciences and arts, which ennoble and embellish human life’ – was difficult to integrate either into Christianity or into... were forced to continue to rely upon lotteries and life annuity contracts to cover the gap between expenditure and tax revenue The 33 An End to Poverty? pricing of such expedients demanded precise... impossibility of translating wealth into happiness, Smith concluded: An End to Poverty? Power and riches appear then to be, what they are, enormous and operous machines contrived to produce a few