populations, public health, and the law POPULATIONS, PUBLIC HEALTH, and the LAW W E N D Y E PA R M E T Georgetown University Press Washington, D.C Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C www.press.georgetown.edu ᭧ 2009 by Georgetown University Press All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Parmet, Wendy E Populations, public health, and the law / Wendy E Parmet p ; cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978–1-58901–261–5 (pbk : alk paper) Public health laws—United States I Title [DNLM: Public Health—legislation & jurisprudence—United States Delivery of Health Care—legislation & jurisprudence—United States Health Policy—legislation & jurisprudence—United States Health Status—United States Population—United States WA 33 AA1 P254p 2008] KF3775.P35 2008 344.73’04—dc22 2008034759 ⅜ This book is printed on acid-free paper meeting the requirements of the ϱ American National Standard for Permanence in Paper for Printed Library Materials 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 First printing Printed in the United States of America To Herbert and Joan Parmet CONTENTS Acknowledgments ix Abbreviations and Acronyms xi Introduction 1 Public Health and the Population Perspective Public Health and American Law 28 Toward a Population-Based Legal Analysis: The Supreme Beef Case 51 Population Health and Federalism: Whose Job Is It? 78 Individual Rights, Population Health, and Due Process 109 A Right to Die? Further Reflections on Due Process Rights 141 The First Amendment and the Obesity Epidemic 166 A Population-Based Health Law 191 Tort Law: A Population Approach to Private Law 219 10 Globalizing Population-Based Legal Analysis 244 11 The Future of Population-Based Legal Analysis 267 Table of U.S Cases 277 Index 283 vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS M any people have helped make this book possible I especially want to thank George J and Kathleen Waters Matthews, whose support for scholarship at Northeastern University has made this book possible I also want to thank my dean, Emily Spieler, for generous research support and a schedule conducive to writing Many thanks are also owed to my wonderful colleagues at Northeastern University School of Law In particular, I am grateful to Roger Abrams for insisting that I finally write the book, to Hope Lewis for showing me the connections between population-based legal analysis and human rights, and to Mary O’Connell for always providing encouragement and an open door Over the years I have had the great honor to work with and learn from many eminent scholars in public health and law Among those with whom I have collaborated on projects that have informed this book are George Annas, Christopher Banthin, Richard Daynard, Richard Goodman, Patricia Illingworth, Peter Jacobson, Wendy Mariner, Anthony Robbins, and Jason Smith Without their inspiration and insight this book could not have been written I am also very grateful to those who have read all or part of the various drafts of the manuscript: Patricia Illingworth, Peter Jacobson, Hope Lewis, Wendy Mariner, Mary O’Connell, and Jason Smith Any errors and misunderstandings in this work are my own and not reflect on my collaborators and reviewers As always, Jan McNew provided unsurpassed secretarial support The reference librarians at Northeastern University School of Law, especially Susan Zago and Kyle Courtney, helped me track down both readily accessible and obscure materials Many students and former students at Northeastern University School of Law assisted me with research Among them are Robin Ackerman, Tanya Booth, Marc Catalono, Julie Ciollo, Jeremy Cohen, Lisa Conley, Erik Heath, Dara Hefler, Sarah Klosner, Matthew McHugh, Siddhartha Mukherjee, Dan Perlman, Audrey Perlow, Golda ix 278 table of u.s cases Charles C Steward Mach Co v Davis, 301 U.S 548 (1937) Chevron U.S.A., Inc v Natural Res Def Council, Inc., 467 U.S 837 (1984) City of Newark v J S., 652 A.2d 265 (N.J Super Ct Law Div 1993) City of New York v Antoinette R., 630 N.Y.S.2d 1008 (N.Y Sup Ct 1995) City of New York v Doe, 614 N.Y.S.2d (N.Y App Div 1994) City of Philadelphia v New Jersey, 437 U.S 617 (1978) Cobbs v Grant, 502 P (Cal 1972) .2d Commonwealth v Alger, 61 Mass (7 Cush.) 53 (1851) Conroy, In re 486 A.2d 1209 (N.J 1985) Consolidated Cigar Corp v Reilly, 218 F.3d 30 (1st Cir 2000), aff’d in part and rev’d in part sub nom Lorillard Tobacco Co v Reilly, 533 U.S 525 (2001) Cooley v Board of Wardens, 53 U.S (12 How.) 299 (1851) Craig v Boren, 429 U.S 190 (1976) Cruzan v Director, Missouri Dep’t of Health, 497 U.S 261 (1990) Cruzan v Harmon, 760 S.W.2d 408 (Mo 1988), aff’d sub nom Cruzan v Director, Missouri Dep’t of Health, 497 U.S 261 (1990) CTS Corp v Dynamics Corp of Am., 481 U.S 69 (1987) Daubert v Merrell Dow Pharms., Inc., 509 U.S 579 (1993) Dean Milk Co v City of Madison, 340 U.S 349 (1951) Dent v West Virginia, 129 U.S 114 (1889) DeShaney v Winnebago Cty Dep’t Soc Servs., 489 U.S 189 (1989) Eastern and Southern Dists Asbestos Litigation, In re 772 F Supp 1380 (E.D.N.Y 1991) Edgar v Mite Corp., 457 U.S 624 (1982) Estelle v Gamble, 429 U.S 97 (1976) Florida Bar v Went For It, 515 U.S 618 (1995) Frye v United States, 293 F 1013 (D.C Cir 1923) Geier v Am Honda Motor Co., Inc., 529 U.S 861 (2000) General Elec Co v Joiner, 522 U.S 136 (1997) Gibbons v Ogden, 22 U.S (9 Wheat.) (1824) Gideon v Wainwright, 372 U.S 335 (1963) Goldman v Johns-Manville Sales Corp., 514 N.E.2d 691 (Ohio 1987) Gonzales v Carhart, 550 U.S 124 (2007) Gonzales v Raich, 545 U.S (2005) Greene v Edwards, 263 S.E.2d 661 (W Va 1980) Griswold v Connecticut, 381 U.S 479 (1965) table of u.s cases 279 Hamdan v Rumsfeld, 548 U.S 557 (2006) Hamilton v Beretta U.S.A Corp., 750 N.E.2d 1055 (N.Y 2001) Hancock v Comm’r of Educ., 822 N.E.2d 1134 (Mass 2005) Harris v MacCrae, 448 U.S 297 (1980) Haverty v Bass, 66 Me 71 (1876) Hawkins v Pizarro, 713 So 2d 1036 (Fla Dist Ct App 1998) Head v New Mexico Bd of Exam’rs in Optometry, 374 U.S 424 (1963) Healy v The Beer Inst., 491 U.S 324 (1989) Heart of Atlanta Hotel, Inc v United States, 379 U.S 241 (1964) Helling v Carey, 519 P 981 (Wash 1974) .2d Hollander v Sandoz Pharms Corp., 289 F.3d 1193 (10th Cir 2002) Horton v American Tobacco Co., 667 So.2d 1289 (Miss 1995) H.P Hood & Sons, Inc v Du Mond, 336 U.S 525 (1949) Hymowitz v Eli Lilly & Co., 539 N.E.2d 1069 (N.Y 1989) Industrial Union Dep’t, AFL-CIO v American Petroleum Inst 448 U.S 607 (1980) Jacobson v Massachusetts, 197 U.S 11 (1905) Jobes, In re 529 A.2d 434 (N.J 1987) Johanns v Livestock Marketing Ass’n, 544 U.S 550 (2005) Kassel v Consolidated Freighways Corp., 450 U.S 662 (1981) Korematsu v United States, 323 U.S 214 (1944) Kumho Tire Co v Carmichael, 526 U.S 137 (1999) Lawrence v Texas, 539 U.S 558 (2003) Lochner v New York, 198 U.S 45 (1905) Lorillard Tobacco Co v Reilly, 533 U.S 525 (2001) Love v Bell, 465 P.2d 118 (Colo 1970) Lujan v Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S 555 (1992) MacPherson v Buick Motor Co., 111 N.E 1050 (N.Y 1916) Maher v Roe, 432 U.S 464 (1977) Martin, In re 538 N.W.2d 399 (Mich 1995) Massachusetts v EPA, 549 U.S 497, 127 S.Ct 1438 (2007) M’Culloch v Maryland, 17 U.S (4 Wheat.) 316 (1819) McDuffy v Sec Executive Office of Educ., 615 N.E.2d 526 (Mass 1993) Medtronic, Inc v Lohr, 518 U.S 470 (1996) Memorial Hosp v Maricopa County, 415 U.S 250 (1974) Morgan’s S.S Co v Louisiana Bd of Health, 118 U.S 455 (1886) 280 table of u.s cases Motor Vehicle Mfrs Ass’n v State Farm Mut Auto Ins Co., 463 U.S 29 (1983) Muller v Oregon, 208 U.S 412 (1908) NLRB v Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U.S (1937) New State Ice Co v Liebmann, 285 U.S 262 (1932) New York v United States, 505 U.S 144 (1992) New York State Restaurant Ass’n v New York City Bd of Health, 2008 U.S Dist LEXIS 31451 (S.D.N.Y April 16, 2008) Norris v Baxter Healthcare Corp., 397 F.3d 878 (10th Cir 2005) Northern Dist Cal ‘‘Dalkon Shield’’ IUD Prods Liability Litigation, In re 521 F Supp 1188 (N.D Cal 1981) Norwood Hosp v Munoz, 564 N.E.2d 1017 (Mass 1991) O’Connor v Donaldson, 422 U.S 563 (1975) Pegram v Herdrich, 530 U.S 211 (2000) Pharmaceutical Research & Mfrs of Am v Walsh, 538 U.S 644 (2003) Pike v Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U.S 137 (1970) Planned Parenthood v Casey, 505 U.S 833 (1992) Pokora v Wabash Ry Co., 292 U.S 98 (1934) Posadas de Puerto Rico Assocs v Tourism Co of Puerto Rico, 478 U.S 328 (1986) Printz v United States, 521 U.S 898 (1997) Quinlin, In re 355 A.2d 647 (N.J 1976) Railway Co v Husen, 95 U.S 465 (1878) Railway Co v Stevens, 95 U.S 655 (1878) Railroad Co v Varnell, 98 U.S 479 (1879) Reisner v Regents of the Univ of Cal., 37 Cal Rptr 2d 518 (Cal Ct App 1995) Riegel v Medtronic, Inc., 552 U.S _ , 128 S.Ct 999 (2008) Riley v National Fed’n of the Blind of N.C., Inc., 487 U.S 781 (1988) Roe v Wade, 410 U.S 113 (1973) Rose v Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp., 809 N.Y.S.2d 784 (Sup Ct N.Y 2005) Rowe v New Hampshire Motor Transp Ass’n, U.S , 128 S.Ct 989 (2008) Saenz v Roe, 526 U.S 489 (1999) table of u.s cases 281 Santa Fe Natural Tobacco Co v Spitzer, 2001 U.S Dist LEXIS 7548 (S.D.N.Y 2001), rev’d sub nom Brown and Williamson Corp v Pataki, 320 F.3d 200 (2d Cir 2003) Santiago v Sherwin Williams Co., F.3d 546 (1st Cir 1993) Schenck v United States, 249 U.S 47 (1919) Seavey v Preble, 64 Me 120 (1874) Segregation of Lepers, Haw 162 (1884) Sindell v Abbott Labs., 607 P 924 (Cal 1980) .2d Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S (16 Wall.) 36 (1873) South Dakota v Dole, 483 U.S 203 (1987) State v Lee, 465 P.2d 573 (Haw 1970) Supreme Beef Processors, Inc v U.S Dep’t of Agric., 113 F Supp 2d 1048 (N.D Tex 2000), aff’d 275 F.3d 432 (5th Cir 2001) Supreme Beef Processors, Inc 275 F.3d 432 (5th Cir 2001) Tarasoff v Regents of Univ of Cal., 551 P 334 (Cal 1976) .2d Tedla v Ellman, 19 N.E.2d 987 (1939) Thomas v Mallett, 701 N.W.2d 523 (Wis 2005) Thompson v Western States Med Ctr., 535 U.S 357 (2002) Town of Castle Rock v Gonzales, 545 U.S 748 (2005) Troxel v Granville, 530 U.S 57 (2000) Tunkl v Regents of the Univ of Cal., 383 P 441 (Cal 1963) .2d United Food and Commercial Workers Union Local 751 v Brown Group, Inc., 517 U.S 544 (1996) United Haulers Ass’n, Inc v Oneida-Herkimer Solid Waste Mgmt Auth., 550 U.S 330, 127 S.Ct 1786 (2007) United States v Carolene Products Co., 304 U.S 144 (1938) United States v Carroll Towing, 159 F.2d 169 (2d Cir 1947) United States v Darby, 312 U.S 100 (1941) United States v Edge Broadcasting Co., 509 U.S 418 (1993) United States v Lopez, 514 U.S 549 (1995) United States v Morrison, 529 U.S 598 (2000) United States v Nova Scotia Food Prods Corp., 568 F.2d 240 (2d Cir 1977) United States v Sabri, 183 F Supp 2d 1145 (D Minn 2002), rev’d in part, 326 F.3d 397 (8th Cir 2003), aff’d, 541 U.S 600 (2004) Vacco v Quill, 521 U.S 793 (1997) Vandine, In re 23 Mass 187 (1828) 282 table of u.s cases Village of Schaumburg v Citizens for a Better Env’t, 444 U.S 620 (1980) Virginia Dep’t of Educ v Riley, 106 F.3d 559 (4th Cir 1997) Virginia State Bd of Pharmacy v Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, 425 U.S 748 (1976) Warner-Lambert Co v Kent, _ U.S _ , 128 S Ct 1168 (2008)(aff ’d mem.) Washington v Glucksberg, 521 U.S 702 (1997) West Coast Hotel Co v Parrish, 300 U.S 379 (1937) West Virginia Bd of Educ v Barnette, 319 U.S 624 (1943) Whitman v American Trucking Ass’ns, 531 U.S 457 (2001) Whitney v California, 274 U.S 357 (1927) Wickard v Filburn, 317 U.S 111 (1942) Williamson v Lee Optical, 348 U.S 483 (1955) Willson v Black Bird Creek Marsh Co., 27 U.S (2 Pet.) 245 (1829) Youngberg v Romeo, 457 U.S 307 (1982) Zauderer v Office of Disciplinary Counsel, 471 U.S 626 (1985) INDEX Abel, Richard, 226–27 accountability, 135 Acheson Report (1997), ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act), 130–31 administrative law: and agency authority, 61–62; individualism in, 63, 65–66; populationbased legal analysis in, 65–68; public health influence on, 36; public health methods and, 69 Administrative Procedures Act, 65 advanced directives, 146 advertising: of cigarettes and tobacco, 176; of drug prices, 174; and freedom of speech, 171–74, 183; and tort law, 225 See also commercial speech doctrine advocacy groups, 31 Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, 252 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), 253 Agriculture Department (USDA), 59–60, 62, 63, 66 AIDS See HIV/AIDS air pollution, 37, 91 alcohol abuse, 163n23 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 130–31 analogical reasoning, 17, 53, 58–59 Annas, George, 253–54 anthrax attacks, 51, 109, 191 antibiotics, 129 Article I of U.S Constitution, 80–82, 91, 93, 98–99 Article III of U.S Constitution, 66 asbestos exposure, 230 associational standing, 66 assumption of risk defense, 224–25 asthma, 35 authoritarianism, 268 automobiles See motor vehicle safety autonomy, 116, 149 availability heuristic, 171 avian influenza, 192, 200 Barry, John, 193 Beaglehole, Robert, 12 Beauchamp, Dan E., 10, 14, 51 Beef Hormone Case, 252–53 Beef Promotion and Research Act of 1985, 180 behavioral problems and childhood obesity, 168 Bendectin, 232 Benforado, Adam, 169, 172 Biggs, Herman, 33, 38 Bill of Rights, 125, 144 See also specific amendments bioethics, 143, 161, 197, 202 biostatistics, 233 See also epidemiology bioterrorism, 134, 271, 272 bird flu, 192, 200 birth control, 33, 144 Black Death, 11, 245 Blackmun, Harry: on commercial speech doctrine, 175, 184; on expert testimony, 232; on positive rights to care and protection, 151 Bloche, Gregg, 206 blood lead levels, 34 BMI (body mass index), 167–68 boards of health, 31, 36–37, 38 body mass index (BMI), 167–68 Bonita, Ruth, 12 botulism, 63 Bouvia, Elizabeth, 155, 160 bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), 59 Bradley, Joseph, 120, 121 Brandeis, Louis: on federalism, 78, 101; realist approach of, 44 Brandt, Allan, 17 Braveman, Paula, 257 Brennan, William, on federalism, 89 Breyer, Stephen, on commercial speech, 177–78 BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), 59 283 284 bubonic plague, 112 Buck, Carrie, 112 Burris, Scott, 17 Bush, George W., 110, 205 Calabresi, Guido, 220, 224 Cambridge Board of Health, 38 cancer: and public health influence on law, 38; smoking and lung cancer link, 17–18 carcinogen exposure in workplace, 37 causation requirement: and empirical analysis, 70; and individualism, 227–31; and obesity epidemic, 173; in tort law, 202, 226–27 Center for Law and the Public’s Health at Georgetown and Johns Hopkins Universities, 109 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 34, 109, 110, 271–72 Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services, 207 Central Hudson test, 175–76, 177, 183 Certificate of Need (CON) programs, 203 childhood obesity, 166–85; and commercial speech doctrine, 174–78; and compelled speech, 178–80; freedom of speech role, 171–73; population-based approach to, 180–85; public costs of, 169; and zoning laws, 35 children: and international human rights law, 254–55, 256; marketing to, 172; and vaccination programs, 82, 201; as vulnerable population, 169 See also childhood obesity cholera epidemics, 245 Christakis, Nicholas, 170 Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act of 1965, 178 cigarettes See smoking and tobacco civil commitments, 127, 128, 130, 151 civil liberties in public health emergencies, 110, 112 See also individual rights Civil Rights Act of 1866, 118 class actions, 230 climate change, 246, 270 collective rights, 259 The Coming Plague (Garrett), 245 commerce clause: and federalism, 80, 81, 91–94; public health influence on, 36 See also dormant commerce clause commercial speech doctrine, 167, 173, 174–78, 181 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 255 community mobilization, 181, 258 compelled speech, 178–80 index compelling state purpose requirement, 142 CON (Certificate of Need) programs, 203 constitutional law: and federalism, 79–80; and free speech protections, 31; and individual rights, 117; and interstate commerce, 83; and morality, 45n5; population perspective on, 55–56; public health influence on, 36, 41; and quarantines, 140n95; and right to die, 146 See also due process; police powers; specific constitutional amendments consumer-driven health care, 203–8 contact tracing, 113 contracts, law of, 220 Controlled Substances Act of 1970, 93 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 256 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 256, 257 Convention on the Rights of the Child, 254, 256 cooperative federalism, 95 coronary heart disease, 38, 168 corporate law, 55 corpuscular approach to epidemiological evidence, 234–35 corrective justice, 220, 227 cost-benefit analysis, 55, 221–23 Crescent City Livestock Co., 119 cross-subsidies, 203 Cruzan, Nancy Ann, 146, 159 cultural identity and bioethics, 143 customary international law, 249 Dalkon Shield litigation, 230 Daniels, Norman, 4n1, 10, 114, 116 deductive reasoning, 17, 53, 58–59, 68 dental health, 34 DES (diethylstilbestrol), 229 DeShaney, Joshua, 153 deterrence goal of tort law, 227 diabetes, 168, 248 diagnostically related groups (DRGs), 204, 206 diethylstilbestrol (DES), 229 directly observed therapy (DOT), 134 disabilities, individuals with: and childhood obesity, 168; and international human rights law, 256, 257; and quality of life, 157 discrimination: in epidemic responses, 112; gender, 125, 256 disproportionate share program, 204 distribution of wealth, 35, 114, 247 distributive justice, 208–10 Doha Declaration, 253 Donne, John, 14 index dormant commerce clause, 82–90, 98, 103 dose-response relationship, 241n64 DOT (directly observed therapy), 134 Douglas, William O., on police powers, 122–23 DRGs (diagnostically related groups), 204, 206 drug abuse, 163n23 drug price advertising, 174 drug-resistant tuberculosis, 109, 110, 112, 130 due process: contemporary applications of, 124–29; and fundamental rights, 125; and individual rights, 117–24, 125–26, 133; population-based approach, 129–36; and positive rights to care and protection, 152; procedural, 127; and quarantines, 131; and right to die, 141–48; substantive, 127, 128, 130, 148 durational residency requirement, 150 Dworkin, Ronald, 29, 54 E coli 0157:H7 bacteria, 60, 194 economic efficiency, 222, 228 See also market economics economics See law and economics Edson, Cyrus, 12 education: and international human rights law, 257; and public health, 47n47 Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act of 1986 (EMTALA), 209–12 emotional problems and childhood obesity, 168 empirical analysis: and commercial speech doctrine, 184–85; and federalism, 97; and human rights, 260; and individual rights, 123; and international health law, 253; need for, 2; in population-based legal analysis, 52–53, 269, 274; and public health methodology, 58–59, 68, 70–71 Employee Retirement Security Act of 1974 (ERISA), 106n58 EMTALA (Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act of 1986), 209–12 end-of-life care, 150, 197 See also right to die England and Black Death, 11 Enlightenment, 14 environmental factors in health decisions: advertising’s influence on, 177, 183, 225; and federalism, 102; and globalization, 246; and individual choice, 170; and risks, 54, 56 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 66 EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 66 epidemics: and discrimination, 112; population impact of, 10–11 See also specific diseases epidemiology: and empirical and probabilistic reasoning, 58–59; and individualism, 142; and infectious diseases, 193–95; and public 285 health influence on law, 38, 43; and public health methodology, 70–71; research in, 34; and tort law, 231–35 See also evidence Epstein, Richard, 168, 171 Equal Protection Clause, 120, 125 ERISA (Employee Retirement Security Act of 1974), 106n58 ethnicity See race and ethnicity Etzioni, Emitai, 10 eugenics, 112 Europe and European Union: Black Death in, 11; and international health law, 252 euthanasia See physician-assisted suicide; right to die evidence: corpuscular approach to epidemiological evidence, 234–35; epidemiological evidence, 40–41, 44, 68–69, 231–35; weight of the evidence approach, 235 exclusive powers approach, 83 expert testimony, 232 extraterritorial laws, 87 false positive vs false negative errors, 63 family law, 55, 144 family planning, 33 FDA See Food and Drug Administration Federal Aviation Administration Authorization Act of 1994, 91–92 federalism, 78–104; and dormant commerce clause, 82–90; and police powers, 79–82; and population health, 96–104; and preemption, ˚ 82, 91–92, 104d public health protection, 90–96 Federalist Papers, 99, 100 Federal Meat Inspection Act of 1907, 62, 63, 66 Federal Rules of Evidence, 232, 233 Federal Trade Commission, 172 Feldman, Heidi, 54 Fidler, David, 249, 272 Field, Stephen, 120 Fifth Amendment, 117 Firestone tires investigation, 237, 243n98 First Amendment: and commercial speech doctrine, 174–78; and compelled speech, 178–80; and individual rights, 182; and obesity epidemic, 171–80; public health impact of, 166 Fletcher, George, 220 flow control ordinance, 86, 88 Food and Drug Act of 1906, 91 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 63, 91, 126, 237 286 Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997, 177 food-borne illnesses, 60, 67 Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, 82 food safety, 33, 59–62 Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), 60–62 Ford, Margaret, 172 formalism: and federalism, 87, 90, 94, 98–99; indeterminancy in, 73n2; and public health influence on law, 43 Fourteenth Amendment: and individual rights, 117, 118, 119, 121, 125; and police powers, 36; and positive rights to care and protection, 154 See also Due process; Equal Protection Clause Fowler, James, 170 Framers of the Constitution, 79–80, 95, 125 Framingham Heart Study, 170 Francis, Leslie, 143 freedom of movement, 129 freedom of speech See First Amendment free trade: and federalism, 89, 103; and international health law, 251–52 Frohlich, Katherine, 21 Frye rule, 232 FSIS (Food Safety and Inspection Service), 60–62 fundamental rights, 122, 125, 127, 147 The Future of Public Health (IOM), Galileo’s Revenge (Huber), 219 GAO (Government Accountability Office), 60 Garrett, Laurie, 245 GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), 252 gender differences: in childhood obesity, 167; in health outcomes, 247; in life expectancy, 246; in right to die cases, 163n22 gender discrimination, 125, 256 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 252 germ theory, 12, 142 Glass, Thomas, 114 globalization, 244–62; and health disparities, 246–49; and health law, 249–53; and human rights law, 253–61; and population-based legal analysis, 257–61; of populations, 245–46 global warming, 246, 270 golden age of public health, 32–33 Goldmark, Josephine, 44 Goldsmith, Peter, 63 Goodman, Ellen, 181 Goodman, Richard, 271 index Good Samaritan statutes, 240n32 Gostin, Lawrence: on definition of public health, 8, 272–73; on individual rights, 109; on law and public health, 31, 271; and MSEHPA, 111; on social compact theory, 121 Government Accountability Office (GAO), 60 government power: and constitutional law, 55–56; and individual rights, 53; and public health, 79, 115 See also federalism; police powers grassroots movements, 258 greenhouse gases, 66 Gruskin, Sofia, 257 Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990, 92, 93, 97 gun manufacturers, 231 HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point regulations), 60–62 Hallmark Meat Packing Co., 59–60 Hand formula, 221, 222 Harlan, John Marshall: on individual rights, 121, 133; on law and public health, 38–39, 49n89; on police power, 40; on positive rights to care and protection, 154 Hart, H L A., 29 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point regulations (HACCP), 60–62 hazardous pollutants, 35 Health and Human Services Department, 172, 212 health disparities, 244, 246–49 health insurance: lack of, 196; and obesity, 169 health law, 191–213; and consumer-driven health care, 203–8; and health safety net, 208–12; and informed consent, 198–203; and interdependency of health, 193–95; international, 249–53; and managed care, 203–8; overview, 195–98; population-based approach, 212–13; public health influence on, 42 Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973, 207 health quality report cards, 207 health safety net, 208–12 health savings accounts, 205 H5N1 avian influenza, 192, 200 hidden cross-subsidies, 203 Higginbotham, Patrick, 61 high-fructose corn syrup, 170 high-risk individuals: and HIV epidemic, 113; targeted interventions for, 35, 48n48 Hill, Austin Bradford, 70, 231 index HIV/AIDS: and community mobilization, 181; and drug-resistant tuberculosis, 130; emergence of, 196; and globalization, 245; and health disparities, 246; and individual rights, 113, 114; and international human rights law, 257; mortality statistics on, 193, 214n20; and public health discourse, 271 Hoffman, Frederick, 33 Holmes, Oliver Wendell Jr.: on epidemiology, 12, 49n89; on freedom of speech, 182; on public health and individual rights, 3; on statistics and economics, 28, 30, 41 Holmes, Stephen, 152 Homeland Security Council, 191 Hospital-Based Emergency Care: At the Breaking Point (IOM), 211 hospital price controls, 203 Huber, Peter, 219 Humane Society of America, 59 human rights See international human rights law ICCPR (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights), 254 ICESCR (International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), 254, 256 IFCTC (International Framework Convention on Tobacco Control), 250–51 IHR See International Health Regulations Illingworth, Patricia, 114 IMF (International Monetary Fund), 249 inalienable rights, 120–21 individualism: and commercial speech doctrine, 185; and constitutional law, 55–56; exceptions to, 55–56; in informed consent law, 200, 202; in legal discourse, 54–55; possessive, 115–16; and public health, 19–20, 111; in tort law, 224–25, 236 individualized causation, 227–31 individual rights, 109–36; and due process, 117–36; and First Amendment, 182; and government power, 53; and negative rights, 115–17; and police power, 117–24; and population-based due process, 129–36; and positive rights, 115–17; and public health, 111–15 infant mortality: in golden age of public health, 33; and health disparities, 247; and public health influence on law, 38; racial differences in, 247 infections: emergency treatment of, 210; and interdependency of health, 193–95; obesity as, 170; and public health influence on law, 38 See also epidemics 287 infectious diseases: decline of, 32–33; influence on bioethics, 143–44, 197; influence on health law, 33–34, 197; reemergence of, 109–10, 113, 192–94 influenza pandemic: emergency planning for, 191–92; mandatory quarantines for, 134; and MSEHPA, 109; and public health emergencies, 110, 271; public health preparations for, 3; and vaccine manufacturing capacity, 201–2 Information Quality Act of 2001 (IQA), 69 informed consent: and compelled speech, 178; individualistic bias of, 200, 202; legal development of, 143–44; population-based approach to, 198–203; and right to die, 146 injury prevention and tort law, 224–27 Institute of Medicine (IOM): on childhood obesity, 167; definition of public health, 7; on emergence of infectious diseases, 194; on emergency care, 211; on food advertising and childhood obesity link, 173; on medically induced injuries, 237; on pay for performance, 207; on private sector public health activities, 31 instrumentalist perspective on individualized causation, 227–28 interdependency of health, 53, 193–95 intermediate scrutiny, 125 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 254 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), 254, 256 International Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (IFCTC), 250–51 international health law, 249–53 International Health Regulations (IHR), 250, 251, 272 international human rights law, 114, 253–61, 270 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 249 International Sanitary Conference of 1851, 245, 250 international trade, 251–52 interstate commerce See commerce clause; dormant commerce clause interventions, public health: in golden age of public health, 33; targeted, 21, 35, 48n48 investigational drugs, 126 IOM See Institute of Medicine IQA (Information Quality Act of 2001), 69 Isaacs, Stephen, 34 isolation, 113 See also quarantines Italy and Black Death, 11, 245 288 Jacobi, John, 42 Jacobson, Henning, 38–40 Jacobson, Peter, 204 Jay, John, 100 judicial review, 135 The Jungle (Sinclair), 60 justice: corrective, 220, 227; distributive, 208–10; and legal profession, 30; and public health, 114 Kaiser Family Foundation, 172, 196 Kamisar, Yale, 141 Kamoie, Brian, 210 Kantian ethics, 258 Kaplan, George, 247 Kennedy, Anthony: on federalism, 99; on individual rights, 126, 139n83 Kent, Chancellor, 119 Koch-Henle postulates, 17 Kuhn, Thomas S., 267 labeling laws, 178–80 law: decline of public health role in, 42–45; defined, 29–30; international, 249–53; politics separated from, 57; populations in, 53–56; public health as goal of, 51; public health influence on, 35–42; and vulnerable populations, 112 See also health law; specific legal concepts law and economics: contrasted to populationbased legal analysis, 52, 55, 197; in tort law, 220–24 Law in Public Health Practice (Goodman, ed.), 271 lead levels in children, 34 legal realism: and indeterminancy of legal rules, 73n2; and politics and law separation, 57; and public health influence on law, 43, 44–45; and public health methodology, 58–59 Legionnaires’ disease, 194 Levy, Barry, 246 liability See tort law liberal individualism, 19–20, 54–55 See also individualism libertarianism, 169, 268 liberty interests, 147 See also due process; negative liberties; positive liberties licensing of physicians, 89 life expectancy: and childhood obesity, 168; in golden age of public health, 33; as population health indicator, 156; and public health influence on law, 38 lifestyle choices, 194–95 index Link, Bruce, 12, 13 literacy and public health, 47n47 Locke, John, 15 lung cancer and smoking, 17–18 Lyme disease, 194 Lynch, John, 247 Macpherson, C B., 115 mad cow disease, 59 Madison, James, 99 majority populations and constitutional law, 56 malaria, 193, 194 malpractice, medical, 197 managed care, 203–8 Mann, Jonathan, 114, 116, 257 manufacturing of vaccines, 201–2 marijuana, medical, 93 Mariner, Wendy, 257 market economics: and health care costs, 203, 204; and health law, 197; and obesity epidemic, 169; population-based approach vs., 15–16; and tort law, 222 See also law and economics marketing: and freedom of speech, 171–73, 183; and tort law, 225 See also advertising; commercial speech doctrine market share liability, 229, 240n48 Marshall, John, on federalism, 80, 81 Marshall, Thurgood, on positive rights of care and protection, 150, 151 Master Settlement Agreement (MSA) in tobacco litigation, 230 McCain, John, 205 McGarity, Thomas, 232 Medicaid and Medicare programs: and childhood obesity, 169; and end-of-life care, 150; and federalism, 81; and health care costs, 204, 206; and health care law, 196; and positive rights to health care, 209; prescription drug program, 209 Medical Devices Acts Amendments of 1976, 92 medical malpractice, 197 medical marijuana, 93 Medicare See Medicaid and Medicare programs Meier, Benjamin, 258 methicillan-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), 194 methodological individualism, 54, 55 Miller, Samuel, 119–20, 121 minority populations, 56, 125 See also race and ethnicity Model State Emergency Health Powers Act (MSEHPA), 109, 111, 130, 276n16 index monopoly provisions, 120 Moore, Michael, 236 morality: and constitutional law, 45n5; and tort law, 220 motor vehicle safety, 33, 34, 36, 37 Moulton, Anthony, 34 MRSA (methicillan-resistant Staphylococcus aureus), 194 MSA (Master Settlement Agreement) in tobacco litigation, 230 MSEHPA See Model State Emergency Health Powers Act NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), 251 National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act of 1986, 201 National Childhood Vaccine Program, 82 National Highway Transportation Safety Administration, 237 National Meat Association, 61, 66 National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza, 192 natural law and negative liberties, 122 negative liberties: and compelled speech, 179–80; and individual rights, 133; and natural law, 122; population-based approach, 135; and rights to care and protection, 151, 160 negative rights: and bioethics, 143; defined, 115–17; and right to die, 148, 150 negligence law See tort law neoformalists, 57 New Deal approach: and due process, 124; and federalism, 91; and individual rights, 122, 123 New England Journal of Medicine on social framing, 170 no-duty-to-rescue rule, 225–26, 227 non-binding resolutions, 249 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 251 Nuremburg Trials, 254 nutrition: and freedom of speech, 171–73; public health improvements in, 33 Obama, Barack, 205 obesity See childhood obesity occupational hazards: carcinogen exposures, 37; injuries from, 33; protection from, 41; and public health influence on law, 43; and workers’ compensation laws, 225 Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, 82 289 O’Connor, Sandra Day: on commercial speech doctrine, 176, 177; on federalism, 94, 96, 99, 100; on right to die, 147–48, 157 Office of Management and Budget, 69 ontological individualism, 54–55 originalists, 125 Oxford English Dictionary on public health, ozone depletion, 246 parens patriae power, 169 parent-child relationship, 55, 169 Pareto optimality, 16 Parker, Leroy, 38 Partial-Birth Abortion Act of 2003, 139n76 paternalism: and commercial speech doctrine, 175; and physician-patient relationship, 143 patients’ rights paradigm, 196–97 pay for performance, 207, 218n90 Peckham, Rufus, 40–41, 42 Peters, Ronald, 15 pharmaceutical regulation, 36 Phelan, Jo, 12, 13 PHLA (Public Health Law Association), 272 PHLP (Public Health Law Program), 271–72 physician-assisted suicide, 36, 127, 148, 149 See also right to die physician licensing, 89 physician-patient relationship, 143, 200 Pike balancing test, 84, 88, 89 plenary powers, 81 police powers: and dormant commerce clause, 84; and federalism, 79–82; and individual rights, 117–24; New Deal approach to, 142; public health influence on, 36, 40 polio vaccine, 196 pollutants, 35, 37 population-based legal analysis: defined, 2; and due process, 129–36; and federalism, 96–104; and First Amendment, 180–85; formalism vs realism in, 52; and globalization, 257–61; and health law, 212–13; and obesity epidemic, 180–85; and public health, 13–19; and right to die, 156–61; and tort law, 236–38 populations: defined, 18–19; and federalism, 96–104; globalization of, 245–46; health as legal norm in, 56–58, 62–65; in law, 53–56; and public health methods, 58–59, 68–72; role of, 65–68 population perspective: defined, 13–14; and empiricism and probabilistic reasoning, 17–18; and end-of-life care, 150, 152–53, 156–61; and federalism, 102–3, and individual rights, 115–16; in population-based 290 population perspective (continued ) legal analysis, 30, 52, 53–56, 67, 202–3; and public health, 19–22; utilitarianism contrasted with, 15–17 positive laws, 31 positive liberties, 133, 160, 179–80 positive rights: to care and protection, 148–56; defined, 115–17; to health care, 209; and right to die, 148–56, 160 positivism, 74n24 Posner, Richard, 220 possessive individualism, 115–16 Potvin, Louis, 21 Powell, Lewis: on federalism, 88–89; on positive rights of care and protection, 151, 153 precautionary principle, 69–70, 71 preemption doctrine, 82, 91–92 preparedness for public health emergencies, 192–93 President’s Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 144, 149 prevention paradox, 21, 27n92, 268 price controls, 203 privacy rights, 125, 144, 145, 199 privilege and immunities clause, 119, 120 probabilistic reasoning: need for in legal analysis, 2; in population-based legal analysis, 17, 53, 72, 274; in public health methodology, 58–59 procedural due process: as applied to positive rights to care and protection, 148, 154; as applied to quarantines, 127 product safety, 91 Products Liability Restatement, 223 Progressives, 12, 38, 43 psychopathologies and childhood obesity, 168 public health: definitions of, 7–9; and federalism, 90–96; golden age of, 32–33; history and importance of, 10–13; and individual rights, 111–15; as legal norm, 52; methodology of, 52–53, 58–59, 68–72, 274; ontology of, 19–22; population perspective on, 13–19 Public Health Law Association (PHLA), 272 Public Health Law: Power, Duty, Restraint (Gostin), 271 Public Health Law Program (PHLP), 271–72 public health methodology, 52–53, 58–59, 68–72, 274 See also empirical analysis Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002, 212 Public Health Service, 112 public nuisance actions, 231 index quality-adjusted life years (QALY), 157 quality of health care measurements, 207–8 quality of life, 156–57 quarantines: authorization of, 31, 79, 81, 84, 100; and constitutional law, 140n95; and due process, 129; mandatory, 134; and public health emergencies, 110, 112 Quinlan, Karen Ann, 145 Rabin, Robert L., 219 race and ethnicity: and bioethics, 143; and childhood obesity, 167–68; and health disparities, 247–48; and public health emergencies, 112 radioactive waste disposal, 94 railroad accidents, 36 rational basis test, 174 rationality standard, 123 Rawls, John, 10 realism: and indeterminancy of legal rules, 73n2; and politics and law separation, 57; and public health influence on law, 43, 44–45; and public health methodology, 58–59 Rehnquist, William: on commercial speech doctrine, 175–76; on federalism, 85, 92–93, 95; on positive rights to care and protection, 153–54; on right to die, 146–47, 148–49, 150 relative-income hypothesis, 114 Report of the Sanitary Commission of Massachusetts (Shattuck), 14 reproductive rights, 144 residency requirements, 150 Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, 223 rights: fundamental, 122; inalienable, 120–21; and individualism, 54; to privacy, 125, 144, 145, 199; reproductive, 144 See also negative rights; positive rights right to die, 141–61; and due process, 141–48; and health law, 197; population perspective on, 156–61; and positive rights to care and protection, 148–56 right-to-refuse treatment, 149 See also right to die risks: compelled disclosure of, 178–80; environmental, 54, 56, 170; epidemiological analysis of, 234; individual control of, 159; and individual liberties, 182; interdependency of, 225; and probabilistic reasoning, 72 risk-utility analysis, 221, 223 Roberts, John: on federalism, 86; on preemption, 92 Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 271 Rose, Geoffrey, 20–21 291 index Rosenbaum, Sara, 210 Rosenblatt, Rand, 142, 197 Rothman, David, 161 rule of law, 56–57, 73n19 See also law rule of recognition, 29 safety net paradigm, 208–12 salmonella: and food safety, 59–62; USDA categorization of, 62, 63, 66 salus populi suprema lex, 1, 38, 57–58, 129, 267 sanitary conditions: Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, 252; and epidemics, 11–12; and federalism, 86; and individual liberty, 117–18; and international health law, 252; public health improvements in, 33 SARS, 109–10, 114–15, 194, 245 Scalia, Antonin: on commercial speech doctrine, 176; on compelled speech, 180; on federalism, 93–94; on individual rights, 126; as neoformalist, 57; on Pike balancing test, 89; on positive rights to care and protection, 154 Schiavo, Terri, 141 Schoch-Spana, Monica, 114 school lunch program and obesity, 170 Schor, Juliet, 172 Schroeder, Steven, 34 Schwartz, Gary, 236 scientific method: and epidemiology, 235; and incremental accrual of knowledge, 69; and legal reasoning, 17; and public health methodology, 58–59 See also empirical analysis self-determination, 143 See also individualism Sen, Amartya, 10 September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 109, 191 SES gradient See socioeconomic status Shattuck, Lemuel, 5, 12, 14 Shaw, Lemuel, 118 Sidel, Victor, 246 Sinclair, Upton, 60 Singer, Joseph, 45, 57 smallpox, 38, 79, 191 smoking and tobacco: advertising for, 176; and assumption of risk defense, 225; and compelled disclosures of risk, 178; decline in, 33, 34; industry litigation, 230–31, 232, 237; and international law, 250–51, 272; master settlement agreement on, 230; Surgeon General’s Report on, 17–18 Snow, John, 12, 70 social contract theory, 15, 121, 199–200 social determinants of health, 20, 24n48, 53, 54 social epidemiology, 24n48 social framing, 170 Social Security Act of 1935, 81 socioeconomic status (SES gradient), 13, 143, 247 solid waste disposal, 86, 87 Souter, David: on federalism, 86, 93; on fundamental rights, 127, 135 South Africa, Constitutional Court of, 256 Spanish flu, 193 Speaker, Andrew, 110, 112 specific causation, 227–31 speech, freedom of: and advocacy groups, 31; and obesity epidemic, 171–73; as population health determinant, 166 See also commercial speech doctrine spending power, 91, 95 standing doctrine, 65, 66 states: protectionism by, 83; public health protection by, 80 See also federalism; police powers state-sponsored speech, 180 Steinbock, Bonnie, 14, 51 Stevens, John Paul, on federalism, 93, 95 Stewart, Potter, on federalism, 84–85 Stone, Harlan Fiske, on due process, 124–25 strict scrutiny, 125, 142, 177, 183 subsidies, 203 substance abuse, 163n23 substantive due process, 127, 128, 130, 148 Sugarman, Stephen, 230 Sunstein, Cass, 152 supremacy clause, 91 Supreme Beef Processors, 61–62 Supreme Court, U.S.: on class actions, 230; on commercial speech doctrine, 175–78; on compelled speech, 180; on due process, 124; on epidemiological evidence, 40–41, 44, 69, 232–33; on federalism, 81, 82, 83–89, 97–99, 103; on individual rights, 122, 139n76; and international human rights law, 256; on mandated vaccinations, 38–40; on medical self-determination, 144; on negative liberties, 151; on negative rights, 153; on police power, 36; on positive rights, 151, 152, 154; on preemption, 91; on public health and constitutional law, 42; on right to die, 146 See also specific Justices surge capacity, 201–2, 207 Surgeon General’s Report on smoking (1964), 17–18 Tamiflu, 200 targeted interventions, 21, 35, 48n48 292 Task Force on Community Preventive Services, 34 tax and spend clause, 91, 95 Taylor, Allyn L., 245, 250 telemedicine, 89 television and obesity epidemic, 173 Tenth Amendment, 80, 94–95 textual interpretation and public health methodology, 58–59 A Theory of Justice (Rawls), 10 Thomas, Clarence, on commercial speech, 176 Thompson, Bennie, 111 Tichner, Joel, 70 Tillotson, James, 170 tobacco See smoking and tobacco To Err Is Human (IOM), 237 tort law, 219–38; epidemiological evidence in, 68–69, 231–35; and individualized causation, 227–31; and injury prevention, 224–27; population-based approach, 202, 236–38, 270; public health influence on, 36; state reform of, 197; theoretical landscape of, 220–24 toxic chemicals, 36, 270 See also hazardous pollutants trade, 251–52 See also commerce clause traditionalism, 129 transparency, 135 travel restrictions, 110, 129, 150 TRIPS (Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights), 253 trust and population health, 113–14, 135 tuberculosis: drug-resistant, 112, 130; extensively drug-resistant, 109–110; mortality statistics on, 193; and police powers, 40 Tushnet, Mark, 161 Tuskegee Study, 112 Tutu, Desmond, 244, 248 type II diabetes, 168, 248 UNAIDS, 214n20 uninsured patients, 204, 209 United Nations, 250, 254 United Nations Charter, 259 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 254 index USDA See Agriculture Department utilitarianism, 15, 19, 55 vaccines and vaccinations: of health and emergency personnel, 191; and informed consent, 201; mandatory, 32, 38–40, 113, 147; manufacturing capacity for, 201–2; National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act of 1986, 201; National Childhood Vaccine Program, 82; polio, 196; racially based, 112; universal childhood, 33 Violence Against Women Act of 1994, 93 Viscusi, Kip, 236 vulnerable populations: children as, 169; and international human rights law, 259; and public health actions, 2–3, 112 Wall Street Journal on public health risks, 206 waste disposal, 86, 87 water pollution, 91 wealth distribution and public health, 35, 114, 247 weight of the evidence approach, 235 welfare economics, 15–16, 19, 55, 221 Wetlaufer, Gerald, 43 Where the Public Good Prevailed (Isaacs), 34 WHO See World Health Organization Winslow, C W., women: individual rights of, 114; and international human rights law, 256; Violence Against Women Act of 1994, 93 See also gender differences workplace injuries See occupational hazards World Health Assembly, 250 World Health Congress, 272 World Health Organization (WHO): definition of public health, 7–8; on food advertising and childhood obesity link, 173; on HIV/AIDS mortality rates, 214n20; on infant mortality, 247; and international health law, 249, 250; on life expectancy, 246 World Trade Organization (WTO), 103, 251, 253 Worthington, Robert, 38 Yersinia pestis, 245 zoning laws, 35 .. .populations, public health, and the law POPULATIONS, PUBLIC HEALTH, and the LAW W E N D Y E PA R M E T Georgetown University Press Washington, D.C Georgetown University Press, Washington,... lawmaking bodies and the tone and tenor of the law The Rise of Public Health in American Legal Discourse Despite the intimate and important nature of the relationship between law and public health, ... examining the differences between the perspectives of law and public health and then explores the ways in which law can affect population health The chapter concludes by discussing public health? ??s