The Politics of Aid The Global Economic Governance Programme was established at University College in 2003 to foster research and debate into how global markets and institutions can better serve the needs of people in developing countries The three core objectives of the Programme are: r to conduct and foster research into international organizations and markets as well as new public–private governance regimes; r to create and maintain a network of scholars and policymakers working on these issues; and r to influence debate and policy in both the public and the private sector in developed and developing countries The Programme is directly linked to Oxford University’s Department of Politics and International Relations and Centre for International Studies It serves as an interdisciplinary umbrella within Oxford drawing together members of the Departments of Economics, Law, and Development Studies working on these issues and linking them to an international research network The Programme has been made possible through the generous support of Old Members of University College Its research projects are principally funded by the MacArthur Foundation (Chicago) and the International Development Research Centre (Ottawa) The Politics of Aid African Strategies for Dealing with Donors Edited by Lindsay Whitfield Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © The Several Contributors 2009 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2009 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham, Wiltshire ISBN 978–0–19–956017–2 10 ‘ “Paternalism is the greatest despotism imaginable.” This is so because it is to treat men as if they were not free, but human material for me, the benevolent reformer, to mould in accordance with my own, not their, freely adopted purpose.’ Isaiah Berlin, Two Concepts of Liberty (1958), Oxford: Clarendon Press, p 22, quoting Immanuel Kant This page intentionally left blank Contents Foreword Preface List of Abbreviations Notes on Contributors ix xi xv xviii Introduction: Aid and Sovereignty Lindsay Whitfield and Alastair Fraser 1 Negotiating Aid Lindsay Whitfield and Alastair Fraser 27 Aid-Recipient Sovereignty in Historical Context Alastair Fraser 45 Understanding Contemporary Aid Relationships Alastair Fraser and Lindsay Whitfield 74 Botswana: The African Success Story Gervase Maipose 108 Ethiopia: Retaining Sovereignty in Aid Relations Xavier Furtado and W James Smith 131 Rwanda: Milking the Cow Creating Policy Space in Spite of Aid Dependence Rachel Hayman 156 Ghana: Breaking Out of Aid Dependence? Economic and Political Barriers to Ownership Lindsay Whitfield and Emily Jones 185 Mali: Patterns and Limits of Donor-Driven Ownership Isaline Bergamaschi 217 vii Contents Mozambique: Contested Sovereignty? The Dilemmas of Aid Dependence Paolo de Renzio and Joseph Hanlon 246 10 Tanzania: A Genuine Case of Recipient Leadership in the Aid System? Graham Harrison and Sarah Mulley with Duncan Holtom 271 11 Zambia: Back to the Future? Alastair Fraser 12 Aid and Power: A Comparative Analysis of the Country Studies Lindsay Whitfield Conclusion: Changing Conditions? Lindsay Whitfield Index viii 299 329 361 380 Foreword At the same time as the Global Economic Governance Programme was founded in 2003, a serious debate was taking place among aid agencies about ‘reforming the international aid architecture’ In the Development Assistance Committee (of the OECD) donors were discussing how they should better coordinate their aid efforts International agencies were taking seriously the suggestion that they should better define their respective roles and find more ways to work together Donors across the world were focused on how to improve the quality of their aid Having established the Global Economic Governance Programme to focus research on how international institutions could better meet the needs of people in developing countries, the aid debate was not one we could avoid That said, it provoked us to think hard about how university-based research might contribute to shifting areas of policy such as this It soon struck us that beyond the immediate day-to-day concerns of policymakers and commentators lay a more fundamental question about the way the debate was being framed If coordination was so obviously beneficial for donors and their development partners, why was it not already occurring? What were the deeper incentives which kept aid uncoordinated? A close look at the political economy of aid led us to the view that focusing on greater coordination among donors as envisaged in the OECD DAC process was unlikely to lead to a rapid improvement in the quality of aid We chose instead to focus on the role that aid-receiving countries can or might play in improving the quality of aid In our early discussions about the project, Sarah Mulley coined the term ‘reverse conditionality’ to describe an approach which would turn the aid debate upside down, examining whether the quality of aid could be improved by aid-receiving countries setting aid-enhancing conditions on donors – a focus on the demand-side rather than the supplyside of aid It is this focus which Lindsay Whitfield has amplified, using her own extraordinary skills and background in African politics successfully to bring together an ambitious, highly successful project At the Global Economic Governance Programme, we are hugely fortunate to have research funders who support this type of research and understand the importance of approaching international arrangements with a close ear ix Index Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) 188, 196–7, 349 President’s Special Initiatives (PSIs) 202, 203, 207–8 priorities 205–7, 347 private sector Private Sector Development Strategy 201–2, 205 Trade Sector Support Programme 202–3, 205–8, 210 privatization 198 Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) 189–90, 192, 198 public-private partnerships 202 reforms 192–5 sector-level policy 200–10 stabilization 189–91, 194, 199 structural adjustment 185, 188, 190–1, 193, 347, 349 suspensions of aid 193 technical assistance 191, 201, 208 Trade Sector Support Programme 202–8, 210 trends in aid flows 186 World Bank 185, 188, 190–4, 197–201, 205–9, 212, 336, 346–50 Gibson, C 36–7 Global Fund to Fight Aids Botswana 119, 121–6, 335 Country Coordinating Mechanism (CCM) of 121, 122–3, 125 grants 122–5 new aid practices 81 governance conditionality 75 Mozambique 248–9, 255, 256–8, 260, 263, 264–5 New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) 376–7 non-state actors 99–100 Rwanda 160, 175 Tanzania 271, 277, 290–4, 343–4 grants Botswana 110–11, 122–5 Ethiopia 143 Zambia 305 Group of 77 53, 54–6, 371–2 Guebuza, Armando 257, 262–4 Habyarimana, Juvenal 157–8, 162, 164, 172–3, 339 Hanlon, J 342, 344 Harrigan, J 16, 31–4, 37, 39, 60, 63, 101, 329 Harrison, Graham 100, 260, 291, 293 health Ethiopia 142, 147 Mali 230 Tanzania 287 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) debt relief 366 Ethiopia 135, 140 Ghana 188, 196, 197–200, 206, 210–12, 347, 349 Mali 237, 349 Mozambique 253, 349 Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI) 82–3 negotiating aid 21 new aid practices 81, 82–3 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) 99 Rwanda 159–60 Tanzania 278, 284, 285–6, 349 Zambia 307–8, 311, 313–14, 316–17, 321, 324, 349 Helleiner, Gerry 80–1, 275, 278, 283, 285, 289 HIPCs see Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) HIV/AIDS see also Botswana HIV/AIDS policy, case study on Global Fund to Fight Aids 81, 119, 121–6, 335 Mali 230 human development 77 humanitarian relief Ethiopia 132, 133, 332 Rwanda 161–2, 165, 169 Hutchful, E 189, 190, 192–3 ideological conditions anti-imperialism 53 Botswana 334–5 Cold War 66, 71 development thinking 367–8 Economic Partnership Agreements with ACP countries 376–7 Ethiopia 336–7 Latin America 367 innovation 376–7 left, attacks on 57 nationalism 292–3, 324, 333, 346 negotiations 41, 366–7, 376 neo-liberalism 367 New International Economic Order (NIEO) 55, 376 populism 62–3, 96, 304, 325, 345, 368–9 priorities 366–7 Rwanda 340 social and radical movements in Third World 53 socialism 47, 218, 249–50, 273–5, 309–11, 324, 342–3, 348 sovereignty 53, 54 Third Worldism 371, 376–7 Zambia 300, 301–2, 309–15, 323–6 387 Index image, aid giving for reasons of 28 IMF see International Monetary Fund (IMF) implementation of conditions see also non-implementation of conditions civil society organizations 90 conflicts of interest 38 Ghana 205–8, 346 Mali 233, 235, 242, 341, 349 models or donor-recipient relations 34–5, 28–9 partial implementation 32 performance assessment 89–90 policy 329–30 principal-agent model 34–5, 38 Rwanda 341 Zambia 307, 311, 323 India 22 industrialization Ethiopia 139, 140 Ghana 202–3 sovereignty 54 infrastructure China 365 Ghana 210–11 Zambia 320, 322, 324–5 institutions 369–71 ACP (African-Caribbean-Pacific) countries 374, 375–7 African Union 374–5 Botswana 113–15, 127–8, 335, 369–70 Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) 81 entanglement with institutions 352–4 Ethiopia 369–70 European Union, Economic Partnership Agreements with 375–6 fragmentation 353–4 Ghana 352, 369, 371 Mali 352, 369 Mozambique 352, 369 negotiating aid 42 new institutionalism 36–7 New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) 374–7 partnership 99, 101 political unity, institutionalization of 374–6 Rwanda 340–1 self-determination 14 Tanzania 352, 369 Third Worldism 371, 374–6 Zambia 316–17, 326, 352, 369, 371 International Monetary Fund (IMF) Angola 97 Asia 372–3 assessments 373–4 Botswana 110 civil service 352 388 Cold War 50–1 conditions 372–3 control 86 dependency on aid, ensuring 53 Ethiopia 147–50, 336–8 Ghana 185, 189–93, 197–201, 211–12, 346–50, 374 Latin America 372 legitimacy crisis 373 Lomé Conventions 69–70 Mali 219, 222–4, 226–7, 348–50 Mozambique 249–50, 255–6, 263–4, 341, 349–50 negotiating aid 363 Nigeria 374 ownership 90–3 performance criteria 69 Policy Support Instrument 373–4 political conditions 50 political models, formal policy neutrality over 50 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) 374 programmes, requirement to have 86 readiness to disengage 373–5 riots 60 sovereignty 59–61 standby agreements 59–60 structural adjustment 352 Tanzania 273–5, 284, 287–8, 294, 349–50 United Kingdom, sterling crisis in 59–60 Zambia 299–300, 303, 305–6, 309, 312–15, 345, 349–50 Islamic fundamentalism 153 Jackson, Robert Johnson, J Johnson, O joint government-donor processes confrontation 354 Ethiopia 146 negotiations 353–4 policy 353–4 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) 353 Tanzania 277–80, 283–4, 343 Zambia 315, 317–19, 357 justice Botswana 112 Mozambique 257–8 Rwanda 169–71, 175, 176 Kagame, Paul 15, 340 Kaunda, Kenneth 299, 300, 303, 305, 311 Kayibanda, Grégoire 157 Kenya 96 Keynes, John Maynard 50 Index Khama, Seretse 113 Keita, Modibo 218 Kibaki, Mwai 96 Kikwete, Jakaya 276–7 Killick, Tony 34–5, 37, 61, 254, 262–3 Klinghoffer, A 339 Kohl, Helmut 57 Konaré, Alpha Oumar 219–20, 228, 237, 348 Kufuor, John 188, 195, 199, 201–2, 207, 209–10, 331, 347 Kyerematen, Alan 202–3, 207, 208–10 Laïdi, Zaki 65–6 Lancaster, Carol 27 Latin America Bank of the South 372 ideological conditions 367 International Monetary Fund (IMF) conditions, reduction in exposure to 372 political conditions 368 readiness to disengage 371–2 Southern Cone 55–6, 60 sovereignty 55–6, 60 United States 372 Zambia 300 liberalization Botswana 334 Ethiopia 140, 141–3, 148, 337 Ghana 192, 198 Mali 218–19 Mozambique 248–9, 255–6, 263, 265, 354 Rwanda 157–8, 162, 339 Tanzania 275, 277, 287–90, 292–4, 343–4 Zambia 299–300, 302–4, 310–12, 324–5, 354 Liebenthal, Robert 323 Lomé Conventions 69–70, 83 Lula da Silva, Luiz Inácio 372 Machel, Samora 50 Magande, Ng’ande 324 ‘Make Poverty History’ campaign Mali 217–45 see also Mali and cotton ADEMA 219–21 agriculture 222, 229, 233 ANICT (Agence Nationale pour l’Investissement des Collectivités Territoriales) 235 bilateral donors 222, 224 budget 230, 231 capacity building 232–3 civil service 221–3, 226–7, 231–3, 242, 352, 359 Cold War 218–19 commitment 348 conditionality 341, 352, 357, 369 consensus government, constructing 348–9 control 231, 341 coordination 224 debt relief 349 decentralization and centralization 219, 232, 234–6, 241 decolonization 348 democracy 234, 341 dependence on aid 222–4, 355 donor-recipient policy dialogue 231–2 economic conditions and growth 222, 229, 232, 348–9, 370 education 229 effectiveness of aid 224–5 elections 219–21, 349 European Development Fund (EDF) 224 food security 229 France 218, 235 health sector 230 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) 349 HIV/AIDS 230 human resources 227, 230 ideology 348 implementation 233, 235, 242, 341, 349 institutional conditions 352, 369 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 219, 222–4, 226–7, 348–50 job creation 229 language 242 liberalization 218–19 management system 224–6, 232–3, 349, 352 military rule 218–19 Millennium Challenge Account (United States) 221 Ministry of Economy and Finance 224–5, 227, 232 Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI) 221 multilateral donors 222 multiplication of implementation units 233 negotiations 224, 234–42, 341, 348–52, 356–7, 371 new aid modalities 229–31 non-governmental organizations 221 official development assistance (ODA) 223 ownership 217–33, 241–2, 331, 358 Paris Declaration 217, 225–6, 231, 241, 355, 357 PDES (Programme pour le Développement Economique et Social 2007–2012) 228–9 policy 220, 224, 227, 231–2, 341, 348–9, 355 political conditions 368 political system, emergence of consensus 219–21, 355–6 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) 217, 224–9, 241, 348–9 389 Index Mali (cont.) priorities 224–30 private sector 229 PRODESS (Programme de Développement Sanitaire et Social) 230–1 reform 224–40 refusal of aid 234–6 repression and clientalism 218–20 rural socialism 218, 348 SADI 220–1 Secretariat 225, 226 sectors 230 SNLP (Stratégie Nationale de Lutte contre la Pauvreté) 226 sovereignty 218, 231 structural adjustment 219, 222, 227, 233, 349 SWAPs 230–1 technical assistance 233 trends in aid flow 223 UN Development Program 226 World Bank 219, 223–4, 226–7, 234–6, 241, 349–50 Mali and cotton 236–40 budget 237 CMDT personnel 237–8 privatization of 236–40, 241 Cotton Support Fund, creation of 239 dependency on cotton sector 236 donor harmonization 238–9 European Union 240 France 238–9 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) 237 Ministry of Economy and Finance 238 monopoly 236 ownership 239 pricing 237–9 privatization 236–40, 241, 377 subsidies for other countries, opposition to 239–40 trade track and development track 240 United States 240 World Bank 238–40, 241 World Trade Organization, negotiations with 236, 239–40, 377 management of aid Botswana 352, 369–70 Ethiopia 144, 145–51, 337, 352, 369–70 Ghana 347, 352 Mali 224–6, 233, 349, 352 Mozambique 352 Rwanda 157, 162–8 Tanzania 278–80, 283–95, 352 technical assistance 19 Zambia 352 390 Mariko, Oumar 220 Masire, Ketumile 113 Mbeki, Thabo 375 McKinley, T 322 Meagher, K 11 Mengistu Haile Mariam 138 Mill, John Stuart Millennium Challenges Account (MCA) (United States) 81 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Ethiopia 133, 137 Ghana 210–11 Mozambique 253 poverty 78 Rwanda 156, 160, 165 Zambia 311, 317 Mkapa, Benjamin 276, 283, 285, 287–8 Mobutu Sese Seki 172 Mocumbi, Pascoal 255–6 models or donor-recipient relations 28–37 conditions 29–39 conflicts of interest 38–9 elites neo-patrimonialism 29–30 self-preservation strategies of 29 implementation, influences on 34–5, 38–9 neo-liberalism 29, 31 neo-patrimonialism 29–30, 38 new institutionalism 36–7 policy 29–38 principal-agent model 34–5, 38 rational choice 29–31, 38 simplified model of aid negotiation 38–9 strategic game 31–4 structural conditions 39 threats 32–3 Washington Consensus 29, 31 World Bank 31–4 Mogae, Festus 364–5 Moi, Daniel Arap 96 Mosley, P 16, 31–4, 37, 39, 60, 63, 101, 329, 341, 356 Mozambique 246–70 1975–1985 249–50 1985–1995 249 1995–2005 249 accountability 253–4, 261, 342–3 Agenda 2025 252–3, 264 aid subservience 248–9 amount of aid 246–7 assassinations 251–2, 265 banks assassinations 251–2, 265 development bank, establishment of 263, 264, 265 privatization of 251–2 bilateral donors 250–1 Index budget support 253, 258–64, 359 bureaucratic overload 258–9, 266 capitalism 251 caps on government spending imposed by IMF 263–4 cashew industry, liberalization of 248–9, 255–6, 263, 265 central planning 249–50 civil war 249–51, 342 Cold War 60, 249, 342 conditionality 255–6, 261, 341, 352, 357, 369 control 259, 261–2, 341 coordination 258 corruption 249, 251–2, 255, 257–8, 264–6, 354 debt relief 247, 253, 349 democracy 341, 343 dependency on aid 246–7, 253–4, 342 economic conditions 246, 250, 349, 370 elections 250, 262–3, 356 elites 251, 253, 257, 342 emergency relief 250 fragmentation of aid 258–9 Frelimo 248, 251–2, 257–8, 263, 265–6, 342, 356 G19, relationship with 259, 261–2, 264–5 geo-strategic importance 249 governance 248–9, 255, 256–8, 260, 263, 264–5 government-donor relations boundary 259–62 G19, relationship with 259, 261–2, 264–5 nature of 252–4 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) 253, 349 history and it’s impact 249–52 institutional conditions 352, 369 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 249–50, 255–6, 263–4, 341, 349–50 judicial system 257–8 land privatization 248–9, 255, 256–8, 263 liberalization 248–9, 255–6, 263, 265, 354 management of aid 352 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 253 monitoring 246, 261 National Emergency Executive Commission (CENE) 250 national project 252 negotiations 252, 262, 341, 349–52, 356–7, 371 new aid modalities 246 non-governmental organizations 250 official development assistance 246–7 ownership 259–60, 265, 342–3, 358 Paris Declaration 261 PARPA (poverty reduction strategy) 248, 253, 261 partnership 95, 266 peasants, land rights of 256–7 policy 248–9, 253, 257, 259, 262, 264–6, 341, 342–3, 359 political conditions 368 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) 349 priorities 253–4, 258, 262–4 private sector 251 privatization 250–2, 256–7, 266, 342 Programme Aid Partners’ Performance Assessment Framework (PAF) 246, 254, 261–2 projects 252–4 reconstruction 250–1 rural development 264 sectors 353 socialist experiment 249–50, 342–3 South Africa 249–50 sovereignty 60, 248–9, 265 structural adjustment 250, 259, 265, 341, 349 tax 248 trends in aid flow 247 United States 250 wage caps imposed by IMF 263–4 war 249–51, 342 Washington Consensus 248, 249 World Bank 249–50, 255–6, 262, 341, 349–50 Mugabe, Robert 77 Mulaisho, Dominic 314 Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI) 82–3 Mulyani Indrawati, Sri 373 Museveni, Yoweri 96, 340 Musunga, Agnes 320–1 Mwanawasa, Levy 303, 312–16, 322–3 Mwinyi, Ali Hassan 274–5 nationalism 292–3, 324, 333, 346 negotiating aid 27–44 see also models or donor-recipient relations 1970s 54 administrative systems, burden of 350–1 agenda setting 39–40 alternative sources of funding, existence of 40 assertive negotiating strategies 45–6 backsliding 97 bargaining power 16, 54, 361–2, 365–6, 371 Botswana 114–17, 126–7, 333–5, 338, 357, 369–70 budget support 351 bureaucracy, condition of state 42 characteristics 21 391 Index negotiating aid (cont.) China, rise of 97 civil service 350–1 Cold War 52 collective positions 63 compromise documents 354 conditions 350 confrontation 354 control 85–6, 361 debt relief 365–6 definition of aid 27 defensiveness 20–1 democracy 94–5, 329 dependence, degree of aid 40 donor coordination 40 economic conditions 40 economic policy 350 Ethiopia 148, 153, 336, 338, 356–7, 369–70 extraversion 52 fragmentation 353–4 Ghana 190–2, 200–10, 336, 341, 346–52, 356–7, 371 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative 21 ideological resources 41, 366–7, 376 institutional conditions 42 interdependence 355–6 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 363 joint government-donor processes 353–4 legitimacy of recipient governments 41 Mali 224, 234–42, 341, 348–52, 356–7, 371 motives for accepting and providing aid 27–8 Mozambique 252, 262, 341, 349–52, 356–7, 371 negotiating capital 39, 41, 94, 97, 362–3, 377–8 New International Economic Order (NIEO) 376 non-confrontation strategy 98–9 non-implementation of policies strategy 21, 40, 97 ownership 331, 332 partnership 93–101 permanent state of negotiations 21, 101, 350–2 policy formulation 39–40 political context 41, 62–3, 350–2, 368, 377–8 post-colonial period 46–7, 361–2 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) 351 rational actor model, beyond the 37–42 Rwanda 168–77, 338–40, 356–7, 369–70 simplified model of negotiation 38–9 sovereignty 62–3, 329 strength of position 361–2 success, conditions for 19–23 392 Tanzania 341, 344, 349–52, 356–7, 371 technocratic and non-state institutions, ceding negotiations to 63 Third Worldism 371 weak countries 20–1, 362–3 withdrawal of aid 356 World Bank 40, 363 Zambia 300–1, 304–22, 341, 344–5, 349–52, 356–7, 371 Nelson, J 62 neo-liberalism 29, 31, 367 neo-patrimonialism 10–12, 14, 29–30, 38 new administrative principles best practices for aid effectiveness 79–84 critiques of previous aid relations 79 Development Assistance Committee (DAC) Shaping the 21st Century 79 long-term performance, aid in response to 80 national plans, aid aligned with 79 off-budget aid 79 outcome or results-based conditionality 80 Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness 2005 83–4 policy matrix 79 poverty 78–9, 81 sector-wide approaches 79 selectivity approach 80 Uganda’s Poverty Eradication Action Plan 81 new aid practices Comprehensive Development Framework (CDF) (World Bank) 81 control, limits of recipient 84–90 Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) 81 European Development Fund (EDF) 81, 83 Global Fund to Fight Aids 81 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) 81, 82–3 Mali 229–31 Millennium Challenges Account (MCA) (United States) 81 Mozambique 246 Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI) 82–3 ownership 358 partnership 81–90 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) 81–2, 93 World Bank, compensating 83 Zambia 301 new donors 40, 364 new institutionalism 36–7 New International Economic Order (NIEO) Europe 57 free market fundamentalism 333 Group of 77 53, 371–2 ideological conditions 55, 376 Index moral case 55–6 negotiations 46, 376 political conditions 56, 377 readiness to disengage 371–2 sovereignty 53–6, 59, 64–5 Third Worldism 333, 371 New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) 374–7 NIEO see New International Economic Order (NIEO) Nigeria capital markets, access to 366 conditionality 95 democracy 95 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 374 Paris Declaration 374 partnership 95 Policy Support Instrument 374 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) Botswana 117, 118–25 conditions 67–8 Ethiopia 134 Mali 221 Mozambique 250 Rwanda 162, 166–7, 176–7 Tanzania 277, 285, 292 Zambia 317 non-implementation of conditions Ghana 188, 346–7 negotiating aid 21, 40, 97 ownership 91 policy Rwanda 341 Senegal 61 South Korea 61 sovereignty 61, 63–4 Tanzania 343 World Bank 31–4 Zambia 311 non-patrimonialism 301, 311 Nyerere, Julius 60, 273–5, 293 Obasanjo, Olusegun 95, 375 Odinga, Raila 96 off-budget sources 79, 134, 144–5, 317 official development assistance (ODA) economic conditions 365 Ethiopia 332 Ghana 185, 192–3, 199 Mali 221 Mozambique 246–7 oil 56–7, 97, 274 Oomen, B 168, 177 ownership 75, 90–3, 329–30 align and transfer ownership 21 Botswana 108–9, 126–7 bureaucratic obstacles 90 commitment to policies, ownership as 3, 75 control of process, ownership as 3, 4–5, 13, 84–6, 88, 331 definition of ownership 3, 4–5 elites 91 Ethiopia 152, 153 expansion of limits of ownership agenda 90–3 Ghana 358 governance 13 incentives 90, 93 intensity of ownership 3–4 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 90–3 Mali 217–33, 239, 241–2, 331, 358 Mozambique 259–60, 265, 342–3, 358 negotiations 331, 332 new aid reforms 358 non-implementation 91 Paris Declaration 2, 3–4, 21–2, 84, 90, 93, 362 partnership 98 policies 1–4, 14, 90–2, 358–9 Rwanda 156–7, 160, 168, 178 sovereignty 14 strong countries 331–2 Tanzania 80–1, 271–6, 281–94, 331, 342–3, 358 weak countries 331–3 World Bank 3–4, 90–3 Zambia 302, 318–19, 325, 358 Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness 2005 alignment 84 control 87 deference 362 enforcement Ghana 212 harmonization 84 legitimacy 357–8 ‘like-minded group’ Mali 217, 225–6, 231, 241, 355, 357 Managua Statement 87 Mozambique 261 mutual accountability 84 new administrative principles 84 Nigeria 374 OECD Development Assistance Committee ownership 2, 3–4, 21–2, 84, 90, 93, 362 partnership commitments 84 principles 87–9 ‘recalcitrant group’ results, managing for 84 risk aversion 362 sound public finance and administration 22 sovereignty 58 Tanzania 271, 282 Uganda 100–1 Zambia 317 393 Index partnership adjustment 93–4 administrative principles 78–81 civil society organizations 99–100 Comprehensive Development Framework (CDF) 81 contemporary aid relationships 75–84, 93–101 democracies, emerging 94–6 expansion of the aid machine 101–2 Ghana 347–8 institutional entanglement 99, 101 Kenya 96 Mozambique 95, 266 negotiations 93–101 New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) 374–7 new practices 81–90 Nigeria 95 non-confrontation strategy 98–9 non-state actors, state actors and agencies, relationship between 100 ownership 98 Pearson Report 76 permanent negotiation 101 policy conditionality 93–4 political dimensions of aid dependence 101 poverty reduction, new consensus on 76–9 recipient agency 93 scepticism 76 South Africa 96 sovereignty 46 structural adjustment 96 Swaziland, lack of democracy in 95–6 Tanzania 95, 98, 271, 278–82, 285, 287, 295 Uganda, lack of democracy in 95–6 Zambia 95, 315–21, 326, 354–5 paternalism 48 performance assessment 89–90 Petras, J 49, 55- 3676 Pinochet, Auguste Plank, David 248, 258 political conditions and context 62–3, 368–9 ACP (African-Caribbean-Pacific) countries 374, 375–7 African Union 374–5 anti-colonial movements 377 Botswana 111–14, 333, 334 causes of underdevelopment in Africa 10–12, 14 Cold War 50 conditions 62–3 constituencies, development of mass political 12 dependency of aid 354–6, 368 elites 368 Ethiopia 138–9, 152–3 394 European Union, Economic Partnership Agreements with 377 extroversion of African states 369 Ghana 368 institutionalization of political unity 374–6 Latin American populism 368 Lomé Conventions 69–70 Mali 368 Mozambique 368 negotiating strategies 41, 62–3, 350–2, 368, 377–8 neutrality over political models 50 New International Economic Order (NIEO) 56, 377 New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) 374–7 partnership 101 populism 368–9 post-colonial period (1945–1975), aid recipient sovereignty in 47 principal-agent model 34–5 Rwanda 156–8, 172, 177, 333, 338–40 sovereignty 50, 54, 62–3 Tanzania 271–4, 288–91, 293–4, 344, 368 Third Worldism 371, 377–8 World Bank 40 Zambia 299, 300, 302–7, 309–13, 324–6, 341, 345, 357, 368 Pomerantz, Phyllis 255–6 Ponte, Stefano 288 populism 62–3, 96, 304, 325, 345, 368–9 post-colonial period (1945–1975), aid recipient sovereignty in 46–52 poverty see also Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) Cold War, end of 76–8 conditionality 75 Ghana 188, 196–7 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 78 Mozambique 248, 253, 261 new administrative principles 78–9, 81 partnership 76–9 Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) 86 Poverty Reduction Support Credit (PRSC) (World Bank) 86 Rwanda 156–7, 159–60, 178 sovereignty 67–8 structural adjustment 78 Tanzania 272 Uganda 81 Zambia 311 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) Comprehensive Development Framework (CDF) 81 conditions 81–2 control 84–7 Index criticism 351–2 Ethiopia 140 feedback 82 Ghana 188, 196–7, 349 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) 81, 82, 99 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 374 joint government-donor processes 353 Joint Staff Advisory Note 82 Mali 217, 224–9, 241, 348–9 Mozambique 349 negotiating aid 351 new practices 81–2, 83 participatory process in document preparation 82 Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) 82 Poverty Reduction Support Credit (PRSC) (World Bank) 82 principles 87–8 prioritization, lack of 97–8 process 81–2 Rwanda 159–60, 165–6 second-generation 87, 160 Tanzania 273, 277, 278–80, 284–9, 292, 343, 349 Zambia 309, 315–16, 323, 325, 349 principal-agent model 34–5 priorities alignment of aid flows 88 Botswana 334–5 China 365 Ethiopia 335 Ghana 205–7, 347 ideological conditions 366–7 Mozambique 253–4, 258, 262–4 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) 97–8 Rwanda 156, 165–6, 170, 173–4, 339 Tanzania 271–2, 286, 286 Zambia 306 private sector Ethiopia 139–40 Ghana 201–3, 205–8, 210 Mali 229 Mozambique 251 privatization Ethiopia 337 Ghana 198 Mali 236–40, 241, 377 Mozambique 250–2, 256–7, 266, 342 Tanzania 289 Zambia 300, 301, 302–4, 306–8, 313–15, 322–5, 346, 357 process conditionality 85–7 PRSP see Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) Putnam, Robert 35 Rakner, L 301, 310–11 rational choice 29–30, 37–42 Rawlings, JJ 185, 189–90, 192, 195, 346 readiness to disengage Asia 372–3 Group of 77 371–2 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 373–5 Latin America 371–2 New International Economic Order (NIEO) 371–2 Third Worldism 371–4 World Bank 372–3 Reagan, Ronald 57 reasons for aid giving commercial purposes 27 cultural purposes 27 development purposes 27 diplomatic purposes 27 image 28 reform mongering 61–2, 70 relationships see contemporary aid relationships; models or donor-recipient relations responsibility to protect principle 14 reverse dependence 53, 55, 60–1 right wing dictatorships, emergence of 57 Rimmer, Douglas 27–8 Rwanda 156–84 Aid Coordination, Harmonization and Alignment Framework 166 aid effectiveness 156–7 aid management system 165–6 amount of aid 162, 164 Arusha Accords 157–8, 171–2 bargaining space, creating and sing 173–7 strength 168–73 Belgium 157, 162, 164, 173, 177 bilateral donors 162, 164, 173 budget support 161, 163, 166 capacity building 160 Central Bureau for Public Investments and External Funding (CEPEX) 165–6 centralisation 175, 369–70 civil war 157–9, 162 cluster groups 166–7 conditionality 177, 338–9, 341 coordination 165, 166–7, 340 decentralization 160 Declaration of Principles 159–60, 170 democracy 162, 171–3, 175, 339 Democratic Republic of Congo 172–3, 175, 176, 340 395 Index Rwanda (cont.) dependency on aid 161–2, 332, 341 Development Partners Coordination Group (DPCG) 166–7 development policy 157–62, 173–8 displaced persons 159, 168–71, 174 donor agencies disengagement 162, 164, 169, 172–3 divergence 176–7 genocide 162, 164 involvement of 156–7, 162, 164, 169, 171, 173 management of 162–8 voluntary ‘blindness’ 176–7 economic crisis 157–8, 341 effective aid management 165–6 elections 171–3, 175, 340 emergency aid 165 European Union 172–3 external financing of budget 163 form of aid 161–2 France 164, 339–40 gacaca courts 170–1, 174, 176 genocide 157–9, 161, 162, 164–5, 168–78, 340 geo-strategic position 162, 340, 341 governance 160, 175 Guidance Committee 165 harmonization of aid 166 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative 159–60 history 157–62 human rights 170, 173–4 humanitarian assistance 161–2, 165, 169 Hutus 157 ideological conditions 340 implementation 341 independence 157 institutions 340–1 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) 170 justice 169–71, 175, 176 Kibeho incident 169 liberalization 157–8, 162, 339 management 157, 162–8 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 156, 160, 165 negotiating position 168–77, 338–40, 361–2, 369–70 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 162, 166–7, 176–7 non-implementation 341 ownership 156–7, 160, 168, 178 Patriotic Front 330–1 Permanent Technical Secretariat for Monitoring 165 396 policy 156, 157–62, 165–73, 178, 332, 339–41, 353, 357 political background 157–8, 172, 333, 338–9 political systems and structures 156–7, 177, 340 poverty reduction 156–7, 159–60, 178 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) 159–60, 165–6 priorities 156, 165–6, 170, 173–4, 339 reconciliation 170, 174, 177 reconstruction aid 165, 177 refugees 159, 168–71, 174 regional security 158, 171–3 resettlement 168–71 Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) 157–8, 164, 171–8, 339–40, 357 sector 166 structural adjustment programme 162 Sudan 340 tax base 162 technical assistance 166, 171, 339–41 trends on aid flows 161 Tutsis 157, 174 UN Development Program (UNDP) 166, 170 United States 339–40 villagization schemes for refugees 169 voluntary ‘blindness’ 176–7 World Bank 165, 173, 176, 341 Zaire 158, 172 Sachs, Jeffrey Samaritan’s dilemma 36 Sassa, Oliver 301, 319 sectors Botswana 116, 127, 334 Ethiopia 135, 139, 148–9 Ghana 189–91, 194, 199 Mali 230 Mozambique 353 new administrative principles 79 Rwanda 166 Tanzania 277–8, 286–7, 292 Selaisse, Haile 132–3, 138 self-determination 6–9, 14, 295 Senegal 61 Shakafuuswa, Jonas 322 Shihata, I 56 Siba-Siba Macuacua, António 251, 265 Simba, Iddi 293 Smith, WJ 337 social and economic interests, collaboration between 47 socialism Mali 218, 348 Mozambique 249–50, 342–3 Index post-colonial period (1945–1975), aid recipient sovereignty in 47 Tanzania 273–5, 343 Zambia 309–11, 324 Somalia 52 Somolekae, G 16 South Africa 96, 249–50 South Korea 61 sovereignty of aid recipients 1960s 71 1970s 52–6, 58–9, 71 1980s 56–64, 70, 71 1990s 64–70 ACP 54 Africa fitness for sovereignty 9–12 underdevelopment, causes of 9–12 alternatives to sovereignty 12–14 anti-imperialist ideologies 53 assertive negotiating strategies 45–6 backsliding 61, 63, 64 benchmark criteria 69 Berg Report 58 capitalist countries, crisis in 52–3 change teams of technocrats 62 class, emergence of national 55 Cold War 47–52, 64–70, 71 comprador class, emergence of 55–6 conditions 8, 20, 56, 58–71 conflicts respecting 13–14 Western intervention 65 debt forgiveness programmes 57–62 decolonization 6–7 democratization 65 dependence 53, 55 dictatorships, emergence of 57 domestic politics, importance of 54 donor policies 48–54, 57–8, 66–70 donor-recipient relations 45 economic conditions 5, 20, 58 economic crisis in West 56–7 elites 61–2, 65–6, 70 Enhanced Structural Adjustment Funds Loans 69 Ethiopia 131 European Union 54, 64, 69–70 evasion of control of donors 63, 70 failure of conditions 58 foreign intervention 7, 13–14, 65 Group of 77 (G77) 53, 54–6 historical context 45–73 ideological innovation 54, 66, 71 industrialization 54 international community, responsibilities imposed by International Monetary Fund (IMF) 50–1, 53, 59–61, 69 Latin American Southern cone 55–6, 60 left in recipient countries, attacks on 57 local authorities, working with 51 Lomé Conventions 69–70 Mali 218, 231 Mozambique 60, 248–9, 265 multilayered governance 12–14 negotiations 62–3, 329 New International Economic Order (NIEO) 53–6, 59, 64–5 non-implementation strategy 61, 63–4 non-negotiation strategy 62 OPEC oil cartel 56–7 ownership 14 Paris Club 58 partnership era 46 passivity of recipients 46 pluralism 7–8 policy 8, 56, 58–71 political models, formal policy neutrality over 50 political unity 54 politicalization of negotiations 62–3 populism 62–3 post-colonial period 45–52 poverty agenda 67–8 radical governments, discouragement of 49 recipient responses 54–6, 58–64, 70 reform coalitions 62 reform mongering 61–2, 70 regions 51 reverse dependence 53, 55, 60–1 right, aid as a, 56 right wing dictatorships, emergence of 57 self-determination 6–9 Senegal, policy conditions and 61 short-leash lending 69 social and radical movements in Third World 53 Soviet Union 48–51, 65 strengths and weaknesses of recipient strategies in 1980s 62–4 stroke of pen reforms 61 structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) 46, 57, 66–7, 69 surveillance 69, 70 Tanzania 293, 295 technocratic and non-state institutions, ceding negotiations to 63 Third Worldism, collapse of 55–6 tranche funding 69, 70 United Kingdom, mid-70s sterling crisis in 58–60 United States 48–51, 64 397 Index sovereignty of aid recipients (cont.) Wapenhams Report 67 West economic crisis in, 56–7 values, dominance of Western 65–6 World Bank 50–1, 53, 58–62, 66–9 Zaire 58 Zambia 299–300, 318, 322, 326 Soviet Union 48–51, 65 stock markets see capital markets, access to Stokke, O 160 strategic game 31–4 strong countries see Botswana; Ethiopia structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) destabilisation 96 Development Assistance Committee (DAC) 77 Ethiopia 337 Ghana 349 growth, failure to achieve 77 human development 77 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 352 Mali 219, 222, 227, 233, 349 Mozambique 250, 259, 265, 341, 349 partnership 96 poverty 78 reforms 352 Rwanda 162 sovereignty 46, 57, 66–7, 69 Tanzania 273–5, 349 war 96 Washington Consensus 77 World Bank 77, 352 Zambia 305, 306, 310, 316–17, 324–5, 345, 349 Sudan 340 Swaziland 95–6 Sy, Ousmane 221, 234 Tanzania 271–98 Africa Commission (United Kingdom) 291 ‘agreed notes’ with donors 278–9 agriculture 286–7 amount of aid 272–3 Arusha doctrine 274 Assistance Strategy (TAS) 278–81, 283–5, 343 bilateral donors 284, 292 budget support 280–1, 285, 288, 292 CCM Party 273, 274, 276–7, 343–4, 356 changing donor behaviour 280–1 civil society organizations 292 commitments 278 conditionality 271, 274–5, 281, 284, 287–91, 341, 343, 352, 357, 369 consultation 271 contemporary aid relations 276–8 coordination 279, 280–2, 343 398 corruption 275, 277, 289–90, 343 culture 290–2, 295 debt relief 349 decentralization and centralization 271, 288–9 democracy 95, 341, 343 Department for International Development (DfID) 286, 293 dependency on aid 271–3, 281, 294, 354 Development Cooperation Group 277–8 Development Partners Group 277 district governments 293 ‘donor darling’, Tanzania as 271, 278–81, 289, 295, 344 economic conditions 272, 274–5, 349, 370 Economic Recovery Programme 274–5 education 284, 286 elections 276, 277, 343–4 elites 277, 288–92 expatriate employment, aid spent on 290–1 financial scandal 275 geo-strategic issues 291 governance 271, 277, 290–4, 343–4 government leadership 281–8 health sector 287 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative 278, 284, 285–6, 349 Helleiner Report 275, 278, 285, 289 historical perspective 273–6 Independent Monitoring Group 80–1, 279 institutional conditions 352, 369 international initiatives 282–3 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 273–5, 284, 287–8, 294, 349–50 Joint Assistance Strategy (JAS) 279–80, 283–4, 343 joint government-donor groups 277–80 liberalization 275, 277, 287–90, 292–4, 343–4 Local Government Reform Programme 293 management 278–80, 283–95 Ministry of Finance 343 monitoring 80–1, 279 nationalism 292–3 negotiations 341, 344, 349–52, 356–7, 371 networks 277 New Public Management 290 non-governmental organizations 277, 285, 292 non-implementation 343 oil crisis 274 ownership 80–1, 271–6, 281–94, 331, 342–3, 358 Paris Declaration 271, 282 partnership 95, 271, 278–82, 285, 287, 295 policies 276, 278–88, 294, 341, 343 political context 271–4, 288–91, 293–4, 344, 368 Index Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) 273, 277, 278–80, 284–9, 292, 343, 349 predictability of aid 281 priorities 271–2, 276, 286 privatization 289 project aid 281, 292 reform 273–5, 286–9, 293–4 reversal of policy decisions 287–8 Rome Declaration 271 scandal 275 sectors 277–8, 286–7, 292 self-determination 295 socialism 343 sovereignty 293, 295 structural adjustment 273–5, 349 suspension of aid 274, 275, 343 technical assistance 287, 290–1 terrorism 291 transparency 271 trends in aid flows 272–3 ujamaa socialism 273–5 United Kingdom 291 United States 291 village politics 293 war against terror, United States and 291 Warioba Report 289 workshops 290 World Bank 273–6, 279, 287–9, 294, 349–50 tax Mozambique 248 Rwanda 162 Zambia 300, 301, 304–5, 317, 321–3, 346 technical assistance Botswana 111, 115 economic conditions 365 Ethiopia 142, 144, 145, 147, 151–2 Ghana 191, 201, 208 Mali 233 management of aid 19 Rwanda 166, 171, 339–41 Tanzania 287, 290–1 technocratic and non-state institutions, ceding negotiations to 63 terrorism 291, 337 Ethiopia 337 Tanzania 291 Thatcher, Margaret 3, 57 Therkilsden, O 294 Third Worldism assertiveness 371–8 collapse of Third Worldism 55–6 conditionality 371 disengage, readiness to 371–4 domestic politics 371, 377–8 ideological innovation 371, 376–7 institutionalization 371, 374–6 nationalism 333 negotiations 371 New International Economic Order (NIEO) 333, 371 social and radical movements in Third World 53 Thomson, A 52 Tibani, Roberto 260 Toumani, Amadou 219 Touré, Amadou Toumani 219–21, 228, 234, 237, 239, 242, 348–9 Toye, J 16, 31–4, 37, 39, 60, 63, 101, 191, 192, 329 tranche funding 69, 70 Traoré, A 218–19, 355 Tsikata, Y 191 Twagirimungu, Faustin 172 Uganda 81, 95–6, 100–1 UN Development Program 135, 166, 170, 226 underdevelopment in Africa see causes of underdevelopment in Africa United Kingdom Africa Commission 291 Department for International Development (DfID) 202, 286, 293, 320 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 58–60 sovereignty 58–60 sterling crisis in 58–60 Tanzania 291 United States Bolivia, sale of tin by 49 Central and Eastern European economies in transition, support for 64 Cold War 48–51, 64 Ethiopia 337 Latin America 372 Mali 221, 240 Millennium Challenge Account 81, 221 Mozambique 250 recession, impact of 364 Rwanda 339–40 sovereignty 48–51, 64 Tanzania 291 war against terror 291 Unsworth, S 68 Uvin, P 162, 177, 339 Van de Walle, N 16, 29, 42, 70, 370 Veltmeyer, H 49, 55–6 Vieira, Sergio 251–2 Vieux, S 49, 55–6 Wade, Abdoulaye 375 Wangwe, Sam 279, 284 Wapenhams Report 67 399 Index war see also civil war; Cold War democracies 96 foreign intervention 65 Mozambique 249–51, 342 sovereignty 13–14, 65 structural adjustment 96 war on terror 291, 337 Western intervention 65 Washington Consensus 29, 31, 77, 248, 249 Wasty, S weak countries see Ghana; Mali; Mozambique; Tanzania; Zambia Weber, Max 10 Weeks, J 322 West see also Cold War; United Kingdom; United States conflicts 65 economic crisis 56–7, 364 sovereignty 65–6 values, dominance of Western 65–6 Williams, David 28, 68 Wolfensohn, James 74, 81 World Bank alternative donors, effect on negotiations of 364 Asia 372–3 benchmark criteria 69 Berg Report 58 Botswana 110, 334 bribery 33 causes of underdevelopment in Africa 11 China 364 civil service 352 Cold War 50–1 Comprehensive Development Framework (CDF) 81 conditionality 31–4, 40, 58–62, 67–9, 329, 363, 373 control 84–5 Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) 81 dependence on, ensuring 53 Enhanced Structural Adjustment Funds Loans 69 Ethiopia 133, 135, 147, 149, 336–7 Ghana 185, 188, 190–4, 197–201, 205–9, 212, 336, 346–7, 349–50 governance, definition of 68 IDA concessional-lending programme 81 interest rates 373 Kenya 96 Latin American Southern cone 55–6, 60 Lomé Conventions 59–60 Mali 219, 223–4, 226–7, 234–41, 349–50 market model 66–7 memorandums of understanding 50 400 models or donor-recipient relations 31–4 Mozambique 249–50, 255–6, 262, 341, 349–50 negotiating aid 40, 363 new practices 81, 83 non-implementation 31–4 ownership 3–4, 90–3 Paris Club 58 political conditions and context 40, 363 political models, formal policy neutrality over 50 poverty 67–8 Poverty Reduction Support Credit (PRSC) 86 readiness to disengage 372–3 reform 33 refusal of aid 234–6 reverse dependence 60–1 Rwanda 165, 173, 176, 341 short-leash lending 69 sovereignty 50–1, 53, 58–62, 66–9 strategic game 31–2 structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) 66–7, 69, 77, 352 Tanzania 273–6, 279, 287–9, 294, 349–50 threats 32–4 Wapenhams Report 67 Zambia 299–300, 303–6, 309, 312–15, 321–5, 345, 349–50 World Trade Organization (WTO) 236, 239–40, 377 Zaire 58 Zambia 299–328 agriculture 320, 322 bank privatization 301, 313–15 bilateral donors 305, 308–9, 318 budget support 320 bureaucracy, overburdening 318 capacity-building 325–6 capitalism 324 China 300, 309, 320 civil service 323, 352, 359 Cold War 303, 309–12 commitments 307, 318–19, 325, 346 conditionality 299, 301, 306–9, 314–15, 318, 321–4, 341, 352, 357, 369, 371 control 341, 346 coordination 320 copper prices 300–1, 302–5, 310, 321–2, 345–6 privatization 300, 303–4, 307, 313, 322 tax 300, 301, 304–5, 321–3, 346 crisis management 300 corruption 300, 303, 354 debt relief 300, 307–9, 311, 314, 316, 321, 345–6, 349 Index democracy 95, 299, 302–3, 311–12, 341 Department for International Development (DfID) 320 dependency on aid 299, 305, 307–9, 354–5 Development Agreements 304 District Development Co-ordinating Committees (DCCs) 317 dual transition thesis 303, 345 economic conditions 344–6, 349, 371 economic growth 308–9 education 323 elections 299–300, 303, 312–13, 322–5, 345, 353–5 elites 301 emergencies, states of 303, 310 European Union 320 expertise, drawing on Zambian 31 grants 305 Harmonization in Process (HIP) group 317–21 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) 307–8, 311, 313–14, 316–17, 321, 324, 349 humanism 309 ideology 300, 301–2, 309–15, 323–6 implementation 307, 311, 323 infrastructure 320, 322, 324–5 institutional changes 316–17, 326, 352, 369, 371 Intern ational Monetary Fund (IMF) 299–300, 303, 305–6, 309, 312–15, 345, 349–50 joint donor-government systems 315, 317–19, 357 Latin American model 300 liberation struggles in neighbouring countries, money spent on 305 liberalization 299–300, 302–4, 310–12, 324–5, 354 looting 303 management of aid 352 material factors 304–9, 321–3 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 311, 317 mining privatization 300, 303–4, 307, 313, 322 taxation 300, 301, 304–5, 321–3, 346 Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD) 299–303, 306–7, 310–13, 316–17, 324–5, 345, 354–7 Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI) 300, 308, 321 multipartyism 302 National Commercial Bank, privatization of 301, 313–15 National Development Plans 299–300, 302, 309, 315, 317, 320, 323 nationalism 324, 346 negotiations 300–1, 304–22, 341, 344–5, 349–52, 356–7, 371 new aid strategy 301 New Economic Recovery Programme (NERP) 305–6, 310, 312 Non-Aligned Movement 309–11 non-governmental organizations 317 non-implementation 311 non-patrimonialism 301, 311 off-budget finance 317 one party rule 302, 311, 354 ownership 302, 318–19, 325, 358 Paris Declaration 317 partial implementation strategy 307–8 partnerships 95, 315–21, 326, 354–5 Patriotic Front (PF) 323–5 policies 299, 306–7, 309–11, 341, 357 political context 300, 302–4 368 political legitimacy 311–13, 324–6, 345 populism 304, 325, 345 poverty reduction 311 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) 309, 315–16, 323, 325, 349 priorities 318 private sector 306 privatization 300, 301, 302–4, 306–8, 313–15, 322–5, 346, 357 protests 312–14, 355 reform 301–4, 306, 310–11, 345 Rights Accumulation Programme (RAP) 306 Rwanda 158, 172 socialism 309–11, 324 sovereignty 299–300, 318, 322, 326 structural adjustment 305, 306, 310, 316–17, 324–5, 345, 349 tax 300, 301, 304–5, 317, 321–3, 346 trade unions 302–3, 309, 314, 316, 323, 345 trends in aid flows 304 UNIP 299, 302–3, 306, 309–12, 354 wider HIP 317–21 windfall taxes 300 World Bank 299–300, 303–6, 309, 312–15, 321–5, 345, 349–50 Zambian Humanism 309 Zenawi, Meles 340, 367 401 ... of Aid African Strategies for Dealing with Donors Edited by Lindsay Whitfield Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers... with aid donors? The first thing to say is that, for all the talk of a brave new era, many of the cases describe aid relationships heavily informed by their recent history Successive reforms of. .. fill the gap, showing how the existing aid system affects the capacity of aid- dependent African governments and how their development strategies are produced in the context of interactions with donors