Networks of Innovation This page intentionally left blank Networks of Innovation Change and Meaning in the Age of the Internet ILKKA TUOMI 1 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Helsinki,  Sitra’s Publication Series, publication no , ISSN ‒ (Sitra) Sitra – the Finnish National Fund for Research and Development The moral rights of the authors have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published  First published in paperback  All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Tuomi, Ilkka Networks of innovation : change and meaning in the age of the Internet / Ilkka Tuomi p cm Includes bibliographical references and indexes  Technological innovations  Computer networks  Internet  Linux I Title T. T  .Ј—dc21  Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd, King’s Lynn, Norfolk ISBN ––– –––– ISBN –––X (Pbk.) –––– (Pbk.)           ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many friends and colleagues provided ideas, comments, and support while I was working on this book I wrote the first version of the manuscript during my yearand-a-half stay at the University of California, Berkeley Sitra, the Finnish National Fund for Research and Development, kindly supported my research at Berkeley, as a part of their innovation research program My former employer Nokia provided partial funding for my research project Finished books are often the result of years of work and they can contain many layers of ideas built one over another It may be difficult to acknowledge all those intellectual debts that go into writing a book Sometimes, however, it is easy to recognize the importance of a specific individual Without the personal and intellectual support of Manuel Castells I could not have written this book Manuel invited me to Berkeley, commented on my work and the manuscript at different phases, and, together with Emma Kiselyova, helped me to feel at home there Berkeley is one of the intellectual hot spots in the world During my stay there, I was able to discuss my ideas in various seminars, workshops, and conferences, and greatly enjoyed the opportunity to talk with many brilliant thinkers and researchers I would like to thank in particular John Canny and Jerry Feldman, who both gave feedback on my work and linked me with many key researchers in the San Francisco Bay area Jerry also organized excellent working conditions for me at the International Computer Science Institute I gained much from discussions with a great number of people I would like to thank Guy Benveniste, Martin Carnoy, Robert Cole, Paul Dourish, Claude Fischer, Blanca Gordo, Bronwyn Hall, Marty Hearst, Nalini Kotamraju, Martin Kenney, Jennifer Kuan, Andrew Leonard, Aaron Marcus, David Mowery, Bonnie Nardi, Richard Nelson, Christos Papandimitriou, Walter Powell, Laurence Prusak, Richard Rosenbloom, Minna and Nir Ruckenstein, Annina Ruottu, Warren Sack, Pam Samuelson, Annalee Saxenian, Claus Otto Scharmer, Susan Stucky, Nancy Van House, Hal Varian, Bill Verplank, Georg von Krogh, Jack Whalen, Matthew Zook, John Zysman, and my friend and colleague from Nokia Research Center, Jukka-Pekka Salmenkaita Ikujiro Nonaka provided me with the opportunity to present an early version of chapter at the Berkeley Knowledge Forum, and I have gained much from discussions with him in various places around the globe Paul Duguid read carefully an early version of the manuscript and made many extremely useful, inspiring, and  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS knowledgeable comments John Seely Brown provided intellectual support and encouragement at various phases of the project Many of the ideas in this book were discussed among the members of the Menlo Circle, originally organized around the Stanford KNEXUS program I would like to thank in particular Liisa Välikangas, George Campbell, Syed Shariq, Eilif Trondsen, Peter Coughlan, Renee Chin, Mahnoush Haririfar, and Helga Wild The Institute for the Future kindly invited me to join their Global Innovation Outlook program, which provided me with the opportunity to study the Silicon Valley innovation culture and get feedback on my work-in-progress I would like to thank in particular Marina Gorbis, Patric Carlsson, Rod Falcon, Paul Saffo, Jan English-Lueck, and Magnus Karlsson for useful discussions I am also thankful for all the intensive discussions among the members of Sitra’s innovation research program, and in particular for the comments provided by Gerd Schienstock, Timo Hämäläinen, J.-C Spender, Reijo Miettinen, Aija Leiponen, Peter McGrory, Tanja Kotro, Rogers Hollingsworth, and Antti Hautamäki In Europe, Japan, and the US, I have also benefited from discussions with Aleksi Aaltonen, Marko Ahtisaari, Jean-Claude Burgelman, Kathy Curley, Kirsten Foot, Kinji Gonda, Sara Heinämaa, Jeremy Hunsinger, Juha Huuskonen, Yrjö Engeström, Jyri Engeström, Sirkka Jarvenpaa, Petri Kasper, Kari Kuutti, Dorothy Leonard, Tarmo Lemola, Irma Levomäki, Tuomas Lukka, Teija Löytönen, Ian Miles, Hajime Oniki, Mika Pantzar, Matthew Ratto, Tuomas Toivonen, Linus Torvalds, Ryoko Toyama, Paavo Tuomi, and Jaakko Virkkunen Indeed, without interaction and networks no innovation could happen and no knowledge could be created I.T  February  Helsinki CONTENTS List of Figures ix List of Tables xi  Introduction  Innovation as Multifocal Development of Social Practice . . . . . . . . . . Putting the User in Focus Use as Meaningful Practice Production as an End Investment and Invention of Meaning Community as the Locus of Practice Interpretative Flexibility and Ecology of Social Practices Social Drivers of Innovation Individual Exploration Spaces of Novelty Dynamics of Networked Innovation Spaces  Inventing the Web . . . . . . The First WorldWideWeb Proposal State of the Art: KMS Architecture of the WorldWideWeb Mobilizing Resources The Vision of Xanadu Sources of Success  The Making of the Internet . . . . . . . . Laying the Infrastructure Networking the World Competing Technologies Message-packets and Resilient Networks: Innovation at RAND Time-sharing and Network Society: Work at NPL Interactive Computing: Augmenting the Human Mind Time-sharing and On-line Communities IPTO: Translating Ideas into Money and Technology                              CONTENTS  Analysis of the Early Phase of Internet Development  . Technological Frames . Resource Mobility in the Early Phases of Internet History    Socio-Cognitive Spaces of Innovation and Meaning Creation  . . . . . Thought Collectives Speech Genre and Chronotope Communities of Practice Social Learning in Communities of Practice The Concept of ba  Breaking through a Technological Frame . Two Evolutionary Paths of Communities . Development of Specialization, Division of Labour, and New Technological Frames . Combinatorial Innovation in an Ecology of Communities . Layered ba and Combinatorial Innovation  Combination and Specialization in the Evolution of the Internet . Email as a Combinatorial Innovation . ARPANET Ecology and the Evolution of the Network Working Group  Retrospection and Attribution in the History of Arpanet and the Internet . ‘The First Paper on Packet-switching Theory’ . Reconstructing the Internet  Learning from Linux . . . . . . The Evolution of Linux The Linux Developer Community Sedimentation, Translation, and Reduction of Complexity Quality Control, Linus’s Law, and the Ecology of Bugs Rules, Regulations, and Intellectual Property Developer Incentives and Resource Allocation  Concluding Remarks . . . . Linux as Modern Economy The Hierarchy of Innovation The New Economy The Road Ahead                             References  Name Index  Subject Index  LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WWW servers connected to the Internet Changing production–consumption linkages How the ‘World Wide Web’ became ‘the web’ Investment cost of transatlantic cable per minute of use Total number of transatlantic voice circuits Revenues from international services in the US, – Total share of international revenues in the US, – The US Postal Service, pieces of mail handled Some key loci of innovation in the evolution of the Internet, – The general structure of thought collectives The basic SECI-model of knowledge creation Bakelite as a structural coupler between communities A layered ba Layers of a systematization ba The waves of Internet technology development The division of labour in the early phases of Internet development The production of fractal community structure The ‘Morris worm’ and Internet articles in newspapers, – The Morris worm in major newspapers, – Early Internet awareness Internet articles in the Financial Times,  Layers of a Unix operating system Linux kernel distributions New source code directories Removed directories as a function of time Number of people in the Linux CREDITS file, – Location of active contributors, March  Geographical expansion of development activity, March –March  Linux architecture The Growth of Linux core kernel components                               NAME INDEX Law, J , , , , , , ,  Lee, J A N , , ,  Leiner, B M  Leont’ev, A N , , , , ,  Lessig, L , ,  Levinas, E ,  Levinthal, D A  Levy, S  Lewicki, R J  Licklider, J C R , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Lobachevsky  Locke  Luhmann, N ,  Lukka, T J  Luria, A R ,  Lynn, L H  Lyon, M  Machlup, F , ,  MacIntyre, A , ,  Mahajan, V ,  Mandel, E ,  Marx, K H  Maslow, A , ,  Maturana, H R ,  McCorduck, P  McCracken, D L , ,  McCracken, G , , , ,  McKee, D  McKusick, M K  McNamara, R  Merrill, T  Merton, R K , ,  Meyerson, D  Miettinen, R  Miles, R E ,  Milford, G  Mills, H  Minsky, M  Mintzberg, H  Mitchell, W J  Mokyr, J  Morone, J G  Morris, R T ,  Morse, S , , ,  Morson, G S , , ,  Mullins, J W  Mundie, G  Nagata, A  Nahapiet, J  Nardi, B A ,  Naughton, J , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Nelson, R A  Nelson, R R ,  Nelson, T H , , , , , , ,  Nishida, K , , , ,  Nishitani, K   Nonaka, I , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Norberg, A L , , , , , ,  O’Neill, J E , , ,  Ockman, S , , , , , ,  Olmstedt, D D  Pacey, A  Padmore, T  Pam, A  Parkes, A  Paulson, A S  Peeling, N ,  Penrose, E , ,  Perens, B , ,  Perez, C , ,  Petroski, H  Pisano, G  Plato ,  Polanyi, M ,  Powell, W W ,  Prandelli, E  Prosch, H  Punamäki, R L  Quarterman, J S  Rawls, J  Raymond, E R , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Reddy, N M  Reichman, J H ,  Reid, E ,  Reid, R H  Rembrandt , ,  Rheingold, H  Rip, A  Roberts, L G , , , , , , , , ,  Rochberg-Halton, E  Rogers, E M  Rogoff, B  Roosevelt, F D  Rorschach ,  Rosen, R  Rosenberg, N  Rosenbleuth, A  Rosenbloom, R S  Rosenthal, G  Ruina, J  Samuelson, P , ,  Satchell, J ,  Sawhney, M  Saxenian, A  Scantlebury, R ,  Scapin  Schön, D A , , , ,  Schuetze, H   NAME INDEX Schumpeter, J A , , , , , , , , ,  Schuster, P  Schwartz, H ,  Sendall, M  Shakespeare  Shannon, C ,  Shapin, S  Shapiro, E  Shimizu, H  Shirky, C  Shuen, A  Siddiqi, S  Simmel, G ,  Smith, A  Smith, J B , ,  Smith-Doerr, L ,  Snow, C C  Soete, L , ,  Soper, B  Spender, J.-C  Sproull, R  Stallman, R , ,  Standage, T , ,  Stankiewicz, R  Star, S L , ,  Stigler, S M  Stone, M , , , , , ,  Stoughton, R  Suominen, L  Sutherland, D J , ,  Takeuchi, H , ,  Tanenbaum, A S , , , ,  Tanuan, M C  Taylor, C  Taylor, R W , , , , , , ,  Teece, D J  Thomke, S  Thompson, C J  Torvalds, L , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Toyama, R , , ,  Turing, A  Tushman, M L  Tyler, T R  Urban, G  Usher, A P  Utterback, J M  Valsiner, J , , ,  Van Bragt, J  van Dam, A ,  Van de Ven, A H ,  van der Veer, R , , ,  Varela, F J ,  Verganti, R  Victor, B  Von Hippel, E ,  von Krogh, G  Vygotsky, L , , ,  Wahba, A  Warden, F  Watson, P ,  Watt, J  Wayner, P ,  Weick, K E  Weinberg, G  Weiss, S F  Weizenbaum, J  Wenger, E , , , , , ,  Wertsch, J V , , ,  Wessler, B  Wheatstone, C  Whittaker, S ,  Wiener, N , , ,  Wilkinson, P  Wilson, H , ,  Wilson, R  Wind, J  Winter, S G  Woodhull, A  Woolgar, S ,  Yamaguchi, Y  Yoder, E A , ,  Zander, U  Ziman, J  Zuckerman, H  Subject Index ABC telegraph  ACE  activity theory , , , , , , ,  activity and action ,  activity hierarchy , , ,  activity systems , , ,  actor-network theory , , , ,  actants ,  actor-networks , , , , , , ,  Advanced Computer Technology project  Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  advertising , ,  affordances ,  Air Force, U.S , , , , , ,  Alcoholics Anonymous  AM radio network ,  AMD K processor  anomalies, presumptive , , , ,  AOL  Apache ,  appropriation , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  archetypes  Archie  Aristotelian logic  ARPANET , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  community , , ,  evolution of , , ,  project , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Users Interest Working Group  art artistic thinking  market  artefacts , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  technological , , , ,  articulation , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  artificial intelligence (AI) , ,  As We May Think ,  Associated Press  AT&T ,  Atlantic Monthly  atomization of social transactions  attention , , , , , ,  attribution , ,  augmentation , , , , , , , ,  Augmentation Research Center (ARC) , , , , , ,  authenticity  authority , , , , ,  authorship , , , ,  automobile industry  autopoietic systems  ba , , , , , , , , , , ,  backtracking in hypertext systems  Bakelite , , , , , , , , ,  community , , ,  Corporation  Bangladesh  basho ,  BASIC programming language  battle of currents  bazaar development model , , ,  Beijing   SUBJECT INDEX Bell , , ,  bicycle ,  BITNET  black boxes , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN) , , , , , , , , , ,  Boston ,  brands ,  breakdown ,  Brief History of the Internet, A  Brown University ,  BSD (Berkeley System Distribution) licence  Unix  bugs , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  bulletin board systems  calculus-based trust  Caldera  Caltech  Canada , ,  capability as representation of networks of actors  augmenting human See augmentation ,  cognitive ,  combinatorial  exhaustion of functional capabilities  intellectual ,  of community ,  of production  problem-solving  sense-making  to mobilize resources See resources  transformative  capitalism , , , , , , ,  Carnegie Institution  Carnegie-Mellon University (CMU) , , ,  cars , , , , ,  cathedral building , , ,  causality  CCI See Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy  Celluloid , ,  centrality , , ,  CERN , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  China , ,  Christian Science  chronotope , , ,  Cisco, Texas  class consciousness  Clickworkers  coaxial cable , ,  code of conduct  co-evolution , , , ,  cognition , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Cold War  collaboration , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  distributed ,  technologies  collective consciousness  memory  production , , , ,  combination See recombination , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  combinatorial capabilities  command shell  common good , ,  communication , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  communication networks frame See frames  communication systems , ,  communication technologies , , , , ,  community , , ,  development of , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  diffuse boundaries  dominant  ecology , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  external communities  face-to-face  focal community , , ,  fractal community  GNU/Linux community See Linux ,  heterogeneous  homogeneous ,  innovation communities  SUBJECT INDEX interdependence See symbiosis , , ,  interpretative , , , ,  members of , , , , , , , , , , , ,  memory  mobility of ,  of appropriation  of creation  of developers , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  of identity ,  of interest  of medical practitioners  of practice , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  of production , , ,  of system operators  of users , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  on-line , , , , , ,  open source , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  overlap , , ,  problem solving  productive ,  representation of , ,  self-organizing ,  spin-offs from NWG , ,  stability of , ,  sub-communities ,  technological , , ,  thought community See thought collectives , , , , , ,  tool-developing  values of ,  virtual , , , , ,  community layer ,  Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) , , ,  competences , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  development , , ,  infrastructure for  complexity , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,   computer games, supercharged meaning  computer networking , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  computer worms , ,  computers efficient use of  host , , , , ,  Linux supercomputer  mainframes , ,  time-sharing , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  TX computers ,  Conceptual Framework for the Augmentation of Man’s Intellect, A ,  conflicts , , , ,  Confucianism  congestion  constraints , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  construction of meaning See meaning ,  Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy (CCITT) , ,  consumer goods ,  consumption , , , , , , , ,  contracts , , , , ,  contradictions , , ,  control , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Control Data Corporation  coordination , , , , , , , , , , ,  Copernican revolution  copyleft licences , , ,  copyrights , , , , , , , , , , , ,  crackers  craters on Mars  creative destruction , ,  creativity , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  creeping featurism ,  crime , , ,  critical mass ,  cross-licensing   SUBJECT INDEX cultural categories , , ,  differences  diversity  principles ,  resources , , , ,  cultural-historical activity theory See activity theory , , , , ,  culturally constituted world ,  culture , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Internet culture  of engineering  of hacking , ,  technological  cumulative systems technologies  CVS version control system  cybernetics , , , ,  Cyclades network , ,  Dartmouth ,  Debian distribution  Free Software Guidelines  GNU/Linux community  debugging , , , , , , , ,  decision-making , , , , , ,  Defense Communications Agency, U.S ,  demand articulation ,  demand pull  demo scene  Denmark ,  Department of Defense, U.S , , , , , ,  design spaces  developer community , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  developing countries  developmental paths , , , , ,  device drivers ,  DHL  dialectic logic  dialogue , ,  Differential Analyzer  diffusion , , , , , , ,  horizontal and vertical  Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) , ,  digital networks , ,  digitalization , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  discontinuity ,  disintermediation  displacement of concepts  disruptive change  distinctions , ,  distributed networks , ,  divestment rituals  document management systems , , ,  docuverse ,  domain name system (DNS) , , ,  dominant practice  Douglas Aircraft Company  downstream , , ,  ecology of communities , , , , , , , , , , , ,  economic rationality See economy , , , , ,  economic transactions See economy , , , , ,  economy allocation of resources See resources ,  and modern society , , , ,  as collective production See division of labor  as technology  capitalism , , , , , , , , ,  common good , ,  concept of value , , , , ,  cost of peripheral participation  crises  economic feasibility , ,  economic rationality , , , , ,  economic systems as socio-technical systems  economic theories of innovation , , , , ,  expansive theory of ,  free riding in open source  gift economy See gifts , , ,  incentives See incentives  intellectual property See intellectual property ,  link between innovation and growth ,  long waves , ,  market economy  money , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  national competitiveness ,  new , , , , , , , ,  non-market , , , ,  of art  of open source , , , , , , , ,  SUBJECT INDEX of scientific research  positive returns  post-scarcity  production functions  productivity , , ,  profit economy ,  recombinant growth See resources, recombination ,  social capital , , ,  social view ,  socio-economic development , , ,  structure of economic theory , , , ,  symbiotic See symbiosis  venture capital , , ,  ego-satisfaction ,  electric power networks  electronic services frame ,  Emacs ,  email , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  diffusion of  encapsulation ,  end-users , , , ,  Enquire program , ,  enrollment , , , , , ,  entrepreneurs , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  ephemerality , ,  epistemic cultures  epistemology , , , , ,  eponymy  esoteric circle ,  ethics , , , , , ,  Europe , , , , , , , , , , ,  European Community  European computer networks  everyday life , , , , , , ,  evolution co-evolution , , ,  creative  cultural  Darwinistic  models of ,  of a network of practice  of activity  of ARPANET , , ,  of communities , , ,  of designs  of functional organs  of Internet , , , , , , , , ,  of Linux , , , , , , , , , , ,  of phenotype  of practice , , , , ,   of products , , ,  of specialization  of species  of technical frames ,  of technology , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  of the Network Working Group  social , ,  socio-technical , ,  speed of  exchange rituals  excommunication  exoteric circle ,  expansive learning  experimentation , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  expertise locus of  expertise See specialization ,  exploration ,  extensibility , , ,  external values , ,  externalization , , , , , , ,  externalized representations  family structure , ,  fashion , , , , , ,  Federal Express  FIDONET  field of social interaction , ,  field theory, in psychology and physics  Figaro  file transfer  filesystems  financial rewards  Financial Times , ,  Finland , , , ,  First International Conference of Computer Communications  flexibility , , , , , , , ,  interpretative , , , ,  focus groups  forking , , ,  form-shaping ideology  fractality , , ,  frames , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  augmentation systems frame ,  combinatorial  communication networks frame  electronic services frame ,  on-line communities frame ,  technological , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  developmental stages , ,  dominant  generation of   SUBJECT INDEX France , , , , , ,  free markets , , , ,  Free Software Foundation , ,  Freely Redistributable Software  freezing See sedimentation  of Linux core  frontiers of progress  FRS licence  ftp , ,  functional differentiation ,  functional failure  functionality , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  game theory  gender , ,  General Post Office, UK (GPO) , , , , ,  genre , , , , , ,  Germany ,  gifts , , , , , , , ,  globalization , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Gnome system  GNU , , , , , , , , , , , ,  c-compiler (gcc) , , , , ,  General Public License (GPL) , , ,  GNU gcc community  GNU/Linux , , , ,  Gopher  governments , , , , , , , ,  grooming  GSM  GZigZag See ZigZag  hackers , , , , , , , ,  happiness , , ,  harmonic telegraph  Harvard University  heroic model of innovation , , , , , , , , , ,  heroic user  heterogeneous networks ,  Hewlett-Packard (HP)  hierarchy of activity See activity theory  Homestead  homesteading  homogeneity , , ,  Honeywell Corporation  horizontal diffusion  hosts , , ,  names  number of  software ,  hot-potato routing  Hughes Aircraft Company  human capabilities See capabilities ,  hunting , ,  HyperCard ,  hypercycle  hypertext , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  links and nodes , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)  Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)  IBM , , , , , ,  Iceland  identity , , , , , , , , , , ,  construction of ,  idiosyncratic contexts of use and testing  IEEE  Imperial and Royal Hospital of Wieden  improvement See innovation, continuous , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  improvisation , , , ,  incentives , ,  inclusion , , , ,  individualism , , , ,  individuality , , ,  Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) See IPTO ,  information theory ,  innovation as reinterpretation  author of , , , ,  cognitive basis of , ,  combinatorial , , , , , , , , , , ,  communities of ,  complementary  concept of , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  context of , , ,  continuous , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  cultural  distributed , ,  drivers for , , , ,  dynamics of , ,  economic theories of ,  SUBJECT INDEX emergence of , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  evolution of  explosive  failures  heroic model , , , , , , , , , ,  reconstructed heroes  incremental See continuous ,  institutional , ,  Internet related , , ,  life-cycles  linear model , , , , , ,  local , ,  locus of , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  management of , , , ,  meaning as reconstruction See meaning  models of innovative learning  multifocal , ,  networked , , , , ,  non-local ,  policy ,  politics of innovative ecologies  practice-centered ,  process of , , , , , , , , , , , ,  radical , , , , , ,  regions of  research of , , , , , , , , ,  Silicon Valley innovation system See Silicon Valley , ,  similarity with words and concepts  social , , , , , , , , ,  social basis of , , ,  software-related  sources of , , , , , , ,  spaces , , , , , , ,  speed of  systems ,  technological , , , ,  tectonic model  traditional concept of , , , , , , , , ,  user centred , , , , , , , , ,  innovative activity , , , , ,  institutionalization , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  institutions , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,   Intel , , , ,  intellectual property , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  interactive graphics , ,  intercollective communication  interdependence , , , , , , ,  interface computers ,  Interface Message Processor (IMP) , , ,  interfaces , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Inter-Galactic Computer Network , ,  InterMedia  internal values , , , ,  internalization , , , ,  International Cooperation Board (ICB) , ,  International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) , , ,  International Network Working Group (INWG) , ,  Internet , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  backbone ,  community See community , , , ,  evolution of , , , , , , , , ,  Internet Activities Board (IAB) , ,  Internet Configuration Control Board (ICCB) , ,  Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) ,  Internet Experimentation Notes  Internet Program  Internet Research Group (IRG) , ,  Internet Societal Task Force (ISTF)  Internet Society (ISOC) ,  Internet Task Forces , , , ,  Internet Working Group (IWG) , ,  privatization of  Internet Relay Chat (IRC)  internetworking , ,  interoperability   SUBJECT INDEX interpersonal fields See ba  interpretation , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  interpretative flexibility , , , ,  invention, traditional concept of  inventor , , , , , , , ,  IPTO , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Jacquard loom  Japan  Java programming language , ,  Jini system  JitterBug ,  Kernel Traffic list , , , ,  knowing , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  interpersonal dimensions of  social infrastructure of  tacit  knowledge creation of , , , , , , , , , , ,  explicit , , , ,  exploitation of ,  field of  field of creation , , , ,  flow of ,  locus of  scientific , , , ,  specialized  stocks of , , , , , , , , ,  tacit , , , ,  Knowledge Management System (KMS) , , , , , ,  Knowledge Systems, Inc  knowledge work  Kyoto School , , , , ,  la perruque , ,  labour , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  labour society  land tenure  language , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  latent needs ,  layer of meaning creation  lead users  learning , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  expansive  social , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  legitimate peripheral participation , ,  licensing , , , , , , ,  life cycles of innovations  Lincoln Laboratory , , , ,  linear model of innovation See innovation , , , , , ,  lines of development in Vygotskian theory  Linus’s Law , ,  Linux architecture , , ,  community , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  core kernel , , , , ,  CREDITS file , , ,  developer countries  development , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  development community , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  evolution of , , , , , , , , , , ,  evolution of kernel components  extensible components  FAQ document  linux-kernel mailing list , , , ,  loadable modules  maintainers , ,  number of co-developers  number of device drivers  release paths  releases , , ,  reliability ,  supercomputer  Linux Documentation Project (LDP)  Linux Software Map (LSM) , ,  local area networks , ,  local cultures in Linux development  Lockean theory of property rights  locus of control and power , ,  of innovation , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  of software-based innovation  London , ,  SUBJECT INDEX long waves in economy , ,  Los Angeles ,  MAC (Project MAC) , ,  machine-to-machine communication  Macy Foundation ,  maintainability , , , , ,  Manchester University  Man-Computer Symbiosis  manufacturers , , , , ,  Mark I network , , ,  Mark II network ,  market , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  of art  Mars  mass consumption  mass media  mastery , ,  Matthew Effect  Maxwell’s equations  meaning construction of ,  creation , , , , , , , ,  location of  of action  of objects , ,  of technology , , , , ,  of words ,  products , ,  shared , ,  social basis of ,  meaningful use , , , ,  means and ends , ,  meat cutters  medieval villages ,  Memex , , ,  memory, collective  Merit  meritocracy , , ,  message switching See store-and-forward switching , ,  message-blocks ,  metonymy  microfilm documents , ,  Microsoft , , , , ,  Internet Information Server  Shared Source Philosophy  Minix ,  MIT , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  mobility , , , ,  of software  model-T  modern mentality  modernity , ,   modifiability , , , ,  modularization , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  money , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Morkrum company  Morris Internet worm ,  Morse code ,  Mosaic program ,  motives , , , , , , , , , , ,  Mountain View  Naples ,  Napster system  NASA , , ,  National Physical Laboratory (NPL) , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  National Science Foundation (NSF) , , , ,  Neptune hypertext system  Netcraft ,  Netscape  network of innovation See innovation, networked ,  of interests  of practice , , , , , ,  society , ,  Network Analysis Corporation (NAC)  Network Control Center (NCC) , ,  network effects  Network Information Center (NIC) , , ,  Network Working Group (NWG) , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  neural information processing ,  New York ,  New York Times ,  newsgroups , , , , , ,  NeXT computer , , , ,  NLS See oNLine System , ,  non-discriminatory licensing  non-Euclidian geometry  Norway  NoteCards program ,  novelty , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  novices , , , , , ,  NSFNET ,  nuclear strike , , , ,  Office of Scientific Research, U.S Air Force   SUBJECT INDEX old-timers and gurus  oNLine System (NLS) , , ,  ontogenic development  ontology , , ,  open source communities , , , ,  development , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  projects , , , , , , ,  Open Source Definition , , , ,  Open Source Development Lab  Open Source Initiative  operating systems , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  opinion leaders , ,  opportunity, presumptive  organization , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  cellular organization  fractal ,  hypertext  organizing for innovation  self organization ,  organizational memory ,  overlap , , , ,  Oxford University  packet switching , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  paedophilia  Palo Alto ,  Paris ,  patches , , , , , , ,  patents , , , , , , , , , , ,  path dependence , ,  peers , , ,  peer-review  penal code  Perceptron neural network system  Performance Systems International  peripheral participation ,  costs in Internet communities  periphery , , , ,  Perl programming language , , , ,  petits bleux  phenomenological philosophy , ,  phenotype  Philadelphia  Philippines  pilfering  plastics , , , , , , ,  Plessey  pneumatic tubes ,  policy , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  portability ,  Portland  Posix standard  possession rituals  postal services ,  potential uses , , , ,  praxis  preferences , ,  presumptive anomaly , , , ,  opportunity  Principal Investigators, IPTO ,  privacy , , ,  privatization of Internet  problem solving , , ,  production collective , , , ,  networked  production function ,  productivity , , ,  products , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  concepts  creation , , ,  development , , , , , , , ,  quality  profit , , , , , ,  Project MAC , ,  proprietary software , , ,  proprietary standards  prototypes , , ,  PSINet  Ptolemaic system  public domain licences  punctualization ,  punishments ,  quadruplex  quality , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  queue theory  rabbit-duck  radar , , , , ,  radical innovation , , , ,  radio amateurs , ,  SUBJECT INDEX RAND (reasonable and non-discriminatory) license  RAND Corporation , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Raytheon  recombination , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Red Flag Linux  Red Hat  reduction of complexity  regions , , ,  regulation , , ,  reinterpretation ,  reinvention ,  reliability , , , , , , , ,  religion , ,  Rembrandt Research Project  remote procedure call (RPC) ,  remote terminals ,  repressive sanctions  reproduction , , , , ,  reputation , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Request for Comments See RFCs  research applied  basic  laboratories , , , , , , , , ,  resistances ,  resources allocation of , , , , , , , , ,  allocation of cognitive resources  as a source of identity  availability of , , , ,  cognitive ,  combination of , ,  community resources , , ,  complementary  creation of , , , , ,  cultural , , , , , , ,  ecology of ,  enabling , , , , , , , ,  external , , , ,  heterogeneity of  in bug removal process , ,  informational , ,  mobile  mobility of , , , , , , , ,  mobilization , , , , ,  multiple uses  networked  organizational ,   punctualization ,  recombination , , , , , , , , , , , ,  sedimentation , , ,  social , , ,  sticky  translation , , , , , ,  transparency  unintended , , , , , , , , , , , ,  user created , , ,  restitutive sanctions  retrospection , , , , , , , , ,  reuse , , , ,  revolution , , , , , ,  RFCs , , , ,  Rome , ,  routing , , , , ,  royalties , ,  rules , , , , , , , , ,  Russian formalists  SAGE air defense system , , , , ,  San Francisco , ,  sanctions ,  repressive and restitutive  Santa Barbara ,  Santa Monica , ,  science studies  scientific facts , , ,  knowledge , , , ,  theories  SDC See System Development Corporation , ,  search engines ,  SECI-model , , ,  security , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  sedimentation , ,  self organization ,  semiotics ,  Sendmail program  SGML  shareware , ,  Short Message Services (SMS)  Siemens  Silicon Valley , ,  Sketchpad program  skunk-work projects ,  slack , , ,  social agreements  capital ,  change , , , , , ,  control , , , ,   SUBJECT INDEX social (Cont.) coordination  innovation , , , , ,  institutions , , , , , ,  learning , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  networks , ,  order , ,  practice , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  structure , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  tensions , , , , , , , ,  transactions ,  utopias  socialization , , , , , ,  society , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  modern , , , , , , ,  network , ,  sociocultural view See activity theory , , ,  socio-economic development ,  socio-technical change , ,  development ,  systems , , , , ,  solidarity , , ,  mechanical and organic ,  transpatial  solipsism  Soviet Union ,  space of mutual construction ,  Spain ,  specialization , , , , , , , , , , ,  spin-offs , , , ,  Sputnik  SRI , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  stability , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  stakeholders , ,  standards , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Stanford Research Institute See SRI ,  Stanford University ,  steam engine ,  Stigler’s Law of Eponymy  store-and-forward switching See message switching , , ,  structural drift and coupling  sub-networks , , ,  subsystems , , , ,  Sun Microsystems  survivability , , , , , ,  SuSE  Sweden ,  symbiosis , , , ,  Symbolics Document Examiner  synergy , ,  synthetic dyes ,  syphilis ,  system architecture , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  management  operators  utility programs , , ,  System Development Corporation (SDC) , , ,  system of values , , , , , , ,  taboos , ,  tamagotchi  TAT- network  TCP/IP , ,  techno-economic networks and paradigms  technological architecture See system architecture , ,  technological artifacts , , , ,  technological change , , , , , , , , , , , ,  technological frames See frames  technology meaning of , , , , ,  studies of  technology-in-use , ,  technology push  telegraphy , , , , , , , , ,  telemetry , ,  telephony , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Teletype  television , ,  telex , , , , , ,  telnet program  temporary groups  SUBJECT INDEX text messages  The Mythical Man-Month  The Psychology Of Computer Programming  The Times , ,  theory of economics See economy , , ,  of knowledge ,  of relativity  of value , ,  thought collectives and styles , , , , , , ,  Timaeus  time-scales  time-sharing systems , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  tools , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  configuration of  topos ,  traditions of testability  traffic modelling , , , , ,  transatlantic communication , , ,  transclusion  transcopyright , ,  translation , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  transparency , , , , , , , , ,  travel industry  tribal elders  tribes  trickery  trust , , ,  institutional basis for  knowledge- and identification-based  Tulip device driver  turbojet revolution ,  TX computers ,  unintended resources , ,  unintended uses , , , , ,  United Kingdom (U.K.) , , ,  United States (U.S.) , , , ,  University College of London (UCL)  University of California, Berkeley (UCB) ,  University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)   University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) ,  University of Helsinki  University of Jyväskylä  University of North Carolina  University of Rochester  University of Utah , ,  Unix , , , , , ,  BSD  upstream ,  Usenet system , ,  user communities See community , , , , , , , , ,  user created content , , ,  user groups See community ,  utilitarianism , ,  utility , , , , , , , , ,  Vai tailors  values , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  external , ,  internal , , , ,  value systems , , , , , , ,  venture capital , , ,  version control , ,  vertical diffusion  Vienna  virtual communities , , , ,  virtual markets  visibility , ,  voluntariness ,  Washington Post ,  Washington University in St Louis , ,  Washington, D.C  Wasserman reaction , ,  waves of Internet-technology  WE hypertext system  Western Electric  World War II  World Wide Web , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  X. standard ,  Xanadu , , ,  X-consortium licence  Xerox PARC ,  Yucatan midwives ,  ZigZag program  ZOG hypertext system ,  zone of proximal development ,  ... Ilkka Networks of innovation : change and meaning in the age of the Internet / Ilkka Tuomi p cm Includes bibliographical references and indexes  Technological innovations  Computer networks  Internet. . .Networks of Innovation This page intentionally left blank Networks of Innovation Change and Meaning in the Age of the Internet ILKKA TUOMI 1 Great Clarendon... innovation Innovation does not happen ‘out there’ in the world of objects, but in society and in minds More particularly, it happens in the minds of the users, which are intrinsically integrated with the