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Handbook of flavour ingredients
FENAROLI’S HANDBOOK OF Flavor Ingredients FIFTH EDITION Copyright 2005 by CRC Press CRC PRESS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. GEORGE A. BURDOCK, PH.D. FENAROLI’S HANDBOOK OF Flavor Ingredients FIFTH EDITION Copyright 2005 by CRC Press This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The consent of CRC Press does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2005 by CRC Press No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-3034-3 Library of Congress Card Number 2004051965 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Burdock, George A. [Handbook of flavor ingredients] Fenaroli’s handbook of flavor ingredients.—5th ed. / George A. Burdock. p. cm. Ref. ed. of: Fenaroli’s handbook of flavor ingredients / George A. Burdock. 4th ed. c2002. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-3034-3 (alk. paper) 1. Flavoring essences—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title: Handbook of flavor ingredients. II. Fenaroli, Giovanni, Prof. Dr. Handbook of flavor ingredients. III. Title. TP418.B86 2004 664 ¢ .5—dc22 2004051965 3034_C00.fm Page iv Monday, October 25, 2004 1:47 PM Copyright 2005 by CRC Press DEDICATION Dedicated to Ioana, Meredith and Mike 3034_C00.fm Page v Monday, October 25, 2004 1:47 PM Copyright 2005 by CRC Press vii PREFACE Since publication of the first edition of Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients in 1971, Fenaroli’s has remained the standard reference for flavor ingredients throughout the world. Each subsequent edition has listed more substances, including those conferred food additive status, substances generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by qualified scientists (including the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association [FEMA] Expert Panel) and those substances having undergone GRAS Notification with the Food and Drug Administra- tion (FDA). The fourth edition added 200+ entries and represented a total reorganization and updating of the text, consistent with new data and regulations. This edition is likewise expanded with over 100 new entries, including many botanicals and other natural substances. The addition of botanicals is a response to an expanded readership with an interest in dietary supplements, in which a number of flavoring botanicals serve a dual role. GRAS, Dietary Supplements and Other Terms of Art, Science and Regulation The reader is cautioned that GRAS status and approval for use as a dietary supplement 1 should not be confused, for they are not the same and not even related. 2 Both the statutory and regulatory language is very clear in making the distinction between these two entities. Even the standard for determining safety of GRAS vs. dietary supplements is different (GRAS substances are held to a higher standard of safety). 3 For the same reasons, dietary supplements are not GRAS (nor are food additives, for that matter) and cannot be added to food for the purpose of providing a dietary supplement. 4 The reader should also note that a substance is GRAS for no other purpose and at no other amount ( i.e., level of use) than for which it was approved. The position of FDA was re-asserted with the following statement: It has been too often assumed that the GRAS substance may be used in any food, at any level for any purpose. As a result, the uses of some GRAS food ingredients have prolif- erated to the point where the GRAS status was brought into serious question. ( Federal Register 39 :34194-34195, 1974.) There are, of course, exceptions to all of the preceding, but each must be evaluated according to its own merits; and for these judgments, the opinion of experts in toxicology and regulations should be sought. Frequently asked questions regarding the meaning of “safe,” “common knowledge,” “notified substance,” etc., are addressed in 62 Fed. Reg. 18937 (April 17, 1997) or log on to www.burdockgroup.com. 1 More appropriately this means lack of objection by FDA for use as a dietary supplement ingredient. 2 For a definition of GRAS, see the definition of “food additive” in section 201(s) of the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act as Amended. For a definition of a dietary supplement, see section 201(ff) of the Act. 3 The reader is referred to a discussion of this distinction (Burdock, G.A., 2000). Dietary supplements and lessons to be learned from GRAS, Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 31 :68-76). Copies are also available upon request at www.burdockgroup.com. 4 A “nutrient supplement” may be added to food, but this is also distinct from a dietary supplement. See 21 CFR §170.3(o)(20) for a definition. 3034_C00.fm Page vii Monday, October 25, 2004 1:47 PM Copyright 2005 by CRC Press viii Safety-In-Use Most, but not all, of the ingredients cited in this book are either foods or products thereof, generally recognized as safe (GRAS) or have food additive status. Also, as noted above, there are exceptions to every rule and this is no less true in determinations of safety. Therefore, while there is an obligation on the original approving party to ensure safety-in-use at the time of approval, there is no assurance that all scientific data continue to support the original determination of safety. For example, safrole, coumarin and cinnamyl anthranilate, all once commonly used and presumed safe, are now prohibited from addition to food by FDA (21 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) §189). Likewise, FEMA has withdrawn GRAS status for nine substances, including alknet root extract (FEMA No. 2016), 2-methyl-5-vinylpyra- zine (FEMA No. 3211), musk ambrette (FEMA No. 2758) and o -vinylanisole (FEMA No. 3248). The bottom line is that the user of the substance is responsible for ensuring its safe use. Therefore, the reader is urged to make a determination of safety based on contempora- neous data, not simply historical information that may be outdated. Sources and Information It was not possible in all cases to obtain details regarding specifications, approved uses, etc., so otherwise available information was used. For example, while FEMA publishes use levels and categories of use for GRAS substances (in the journal Food Technology ), FEMA has not made equally available information such as complete specifications or identification (e.g., CAS numbers) for the substances upon which it has conferred GRAS status. In all cases, where critical information was not available, a good faith effort was made to obtain information from the public venue with the assumption these data represent the articles in commerce. Sources of information include, but are not limited to the following: Anonymous (1996). Inactive Ingredient Guide . Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Office of Management. Division of Drug Infor- mation Resources, Rockville, MD. Anonymous (1999). Volatile Compounds in Food . Bolens Aroma Chemical Informa- tion Service, The Netherlands. Anonymous (2000). Natural Sources of Flavourings. Report No. 1. Council of Europe, Strasbourg. Anonymous (2000). Chemically-Defined Flavouring Substances. Council of Europe, Strasbourg. Anonymous (2000). Code of Federal Regulations . Title 21 FDA. United States Gov- ernment Printing Office, Washington, DC. Arctander, S. (1960). Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin . Arctander, Publisher, Elizabeth, NJ. Arctander, S. (1994). Perfume and Flavor Chemicals (Aroma Chemicals) . Allured Publishing, Carol Stream, IL. Ashurst, P.R. (ed.) (1999). Food Flavorings. (3 rd ed.). Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, MD. Bauer, K. et al. (1997). Common Fragrance and Flavor Materials. (3 rd ed.). Wiley- VCH, New York. Budvari, S. et al. (eds.) (2000). Merck Index . (12 th ed.). Chapman & Hall/CRCnetBase, Boca Raton, FL. 3034_C00.fm Page viii Monday, October 25, 2004 1:47 PM Copyright 2005 by CRC Press ix Burdock, G.A. (1997). Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives . CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Burdock, G.A. (2000). Dietary supplements and lessons to be learned from GRAS. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 31 :68-76. Burnham, T. (ed.) (1999). Facts and Comparisons. The Review of Natural Products. Facts and Comparisons, Wolters Kluwer Company, St. Louis, MO. Clydesdale, F. (1997). Food Additives: Toxicology, Regulation and Properties . CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Committee on Food Chemical Codex (1996). Food Chemicals Codex. National Acad- emy of Sciences. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. DeRovira, D.A. (1999). The Dictionary of Flavors . Food & Nutrition Press, Trumbull, CT. Fazzalari, F.A. (ed.) (1978). Compilation of Odor and Taste Threshold Values Data. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia. Foster, S. (ed.) (1992). Herbs of Commerce (1992). American Herbal Products Asso- ciation, Austin, TX. Lucas, C.D. et al. (1999). Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association of the United States 1995 Poundage and Technical Effects Update Survey , Washington, DC. Mosciano, G. (1991). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 21 (4):51-55; (5):49-54; (6):49-52. Mosciano, G. et al. (1989). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 14 (6):47-55. Mosciano, G. et al. (1990). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 15 (1):19-22; (2):69-73;(3):51-54; (4):59-61; (5):47-49; (6):35-38. Mosciano, G. et al. (1991). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 16 (1):31-33; (2):49-54; (3):79-81; (4):45-47; (5):71-73; (6):43-46. Mosciano, G. et al. (1992). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 17 (1):41-44; (2):33-35; (3):57-59; (4):33-36; (5):127-129; (6):41-43. Mosciano, G. et al. (1993). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 18 (1):43-45; (2):38-41; (3):53-55; (4):51-53; (5):39-41; (6):33-35. Mosciano, G. et al. (1994). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 19 (1):27-29; (2):55-57; (3):51-53; (4):45-47; (5):79-81; (6):53-55. Mosciano, G. et al. (1995). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 20 (1):31-33; (2):37-40; (3):63-65; (4):23-26; (5):89-92; (6):49-51. Mosciano, G. et al. (1996). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 21 (1):33-35;(2):47-49; (3):51-54. Mosciano, G. et al. (2000). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 25 (5):72-78; (6):26-31. Mosciano, G. et al. (2001). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 26 (1):52-53; (2):40-43. Newberne, P. et al. (1999). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 18. GRAS substances. Food Technology 52 (9):65-92. Newberne, P. et al. (2000). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 19. GRAS substances. Food Technology 54 (6):66-84. Smith, R.L. and Ford, R.A. (1993). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 16. GRAS substances. Food Tech- nology 47 (6):104-117. 3034_C00.fm Page ix Monday, October 25, 2004 1:47 PM Copyright 2005 by CRC Press x Smith, R.L. et al. (1996). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 17. GRAS substances. Food Technology 50 (10):72-78, 80-81. Tainter, D.R. and Grenis, A.T. (1993). Spices and Seasonings . VCH Publishers, New York. VanGemert, L.J. (ed.) (1999). Compilations of Odour Threshold Values in Air and Water. TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute. Boelens Aroma Chemical Infor- mation Service, The Netherlands. A diligent effort was made to obtain accurate information and to proof that information prior to publication; however, the author and publisher make or offer no warranties as to the representations provided herein. 3034_C00.fm Page x Monday, October 25, 2004 1:47 PM Copyright 2005 by CRC Press xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The editor would like to thank Dr. Madhusudan Soni for his scientific expertise and Deborah Pizzimenti for her organizational wizardry; their tireless efforts represent the core of this edition. Thanks also to Drs. James Griffiths, Alan Hood and Ray Matulka; Erica Dineson, Carolyn Schaner, Morgan Griffiths, Tim Fritz and Jessica Marrero for their contri- butions including, but not limited to data gathering, data entry, editing and indexing. Thanks also to all those who provided help and information for this and the previous editions. Thanks also to those who have made suggestions for improvements since the last edition. In contemplation of the next edition, I encourage those with suggestions for corrections, revisions or additions to contact me at the following address: George A. Burdock, Ph.D., D.A.B.T. 780 US Highway 1 – Suite 300 Vero Beach, Florida 32962 www.burdockgroup.com 3034_C00.fm Page xi Monday, October 25, 2004 1:47 PM Copyright 2005 by CRC Press xiii THE AUTHOR George A. Burdock, Ph.D., is a principal in the toxicology consulting firm of the Burdock Group, with offices in Vero Beach, Florida, and Washington, D.C. Dr. Burdock is an internationally recognized authority on the safety of food ingredients, personal care products and dietary supplements. He has more than 20 years of experience dealing with regulatory issues related to product safety and risk assessment. He has over 40 publications in scientific journals and has published two books, the previous two editions of Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients and the Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives. He is coauthor of the chapter “Food Toxicology” in the current and previous edition of Casarett and Doull’s textbook Toxicology . He is also author of the chapter “Flavor Regulation” in the second edition of Nutritional Toxicology in the Target Organ Toxicology Series . His experi- ence includes director of scientific affairs for the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Asso- ciation and manager of product safety for the Shulton Division of American Cyanamid. He is also experienced in laboratory studies, having been a study director and section manager at Hazleton Laboratories (now Covance). Dr. Burdock is a diplomate of the American Board of Toxicology and fellow of the American College of Nutrition; and is a member of the American Chemical Society, the International Society for Regulatory Toxicology and Phar- macology, the Society of Toxicology (associate member), the American College of Toxicol- ogy and the Institute of Food Technologists. 3034_C00.fm Page xiii Monday, October 25, 2004 1:47 PM Copyright 2005 by CRC Press [...]... They are also used in the curing of meat and in the canning of certain vegetables In the manufacture of mayonnaise, the addition of a portion of acetic acid (vinegar) to the salt- or sugar-yolk reduces the heat resistance of Salmonella Water binding compositions of sausages often include acetic acid or its sodium salt, while calcium acetate is used to preserve the texture of sliced, canned vegetables Consumption:Annual:... Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association (FEMA) from the list of 34 food categories adopted by FEMA FDA recognizes 43 general categories of food (21 CFR §170.3(n)) as originally established in Exhibit 33B of the report of the National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council report, “A Comprehensive Survey of Industry on the Use of Food Chemicals Generally Recognized as Safe” (September 1972)... Soft candy Sweet sauce Usual Max 9.29 21.49 0.20 0.70 23.00 50.00 1.67 5.53 76.00 76.00 38.00 190.00 0.0085 0.02 0.25 10.00 3.00 1000.00 13.00 230.00 Synthesis: The method of synthesis is dependent on the price of feedstock and may be produced by a number of methods: (1) by oxidation of ethyl alcohol with potassium dichromate or manganese dioxide in the presence of sulfuric acid; (2) by addition of. .. danger to the health of the citizens or environment of the member state, it may suspend or restrict the use of that chemical within the borders of the member state The Council of Europe (CoE) uses a fairly broad definition of flavor: A flavouring substance is a chemically-defined compound which has flavouring properties It is obtained either by isolation from a natural source or by synthesis Flavouring properties... Terpeneless oil: Removal of some terpenes to provide stability because they contribute to the instability of an essential oil However, removal of all terpenes may severely undermine the flavor There is no standard of what constitutes a “terpeneless oil.” Theoretical added maximum daily intake (TAMDI): Calculated on the basis of upper use levels and the estimated daily intakes of foods For example, the... mean consumption values (based on Market Research Corporation of America mean frequency of eating and USDA mean portion size of 34 general food categories) Therefore, the FEMA PADI (in milligrams/person/day) is the mean consumption of foods containing the maximum amount The conservatism of the PADI method assumes that the maximum amount of substance is added to the entire food category, not just the... manufacturers of the volume of ingredients produced during the survey year The assumption is that there is a finite amount of substance available and it is ingested regardless of source at the retail level The method is easy to use because it divides the total yearly poundage by the population in the survey year and the number of days per year Some considerations are necessary in the use of the survey data:... Handbook of Flavor Ingredients number of different processes As dilute solutions, it is obtained from alcohol by the “QuickVinegar Process.” Smaller quantities are obtained from the pyroligneous acid liquors acquired in the destructive distillation of hard wood It is manufactured synthetically in high yields by the oxidation of acetaldehyde and of butane, and as the reaction product of methanol and carbon... interesterification of edible fats with triacetin and in the presence of catalytic agents that are not food additives or authorized by regulation, followed by a molecular distillation or by steam stripping; or (2) the direct acetylation of edible monoglycerides with acetic anhydride without the use of catalyst or molecular distillation, and with the removal of vacuum distillation, if necessary, of the acetic... population (243.9 million in 1987) consumes 100% of the calculated amount (Clydesdale, 1997) Again, the assumption is made for a 60 kg individual Council of Europe (CoE):8 A body of 41 European states, among which have signed the Partial Agreement in the Social and Public Health Field A Committee of Experts has been appointed by the signers to review the safety of substances added to food The substances . Burdock, George A. [Handbook of flavor ingredients] Fenaroli’s handbook of flavor ingredients. —5th ed. / George A. Burdock. p. cm. Ref. ed. of: Fenaroli’s handbook of flavor ingredients / George. 0-8493-3034-3 (alk. paper) 1. Flavoring essences—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title: Handbook of flavor ingredients. II. Fenaroli, Giovanni, Prof. Dr. Handbook of flavor ingredients. III. Title. TP418.B86 2004 664 . FENAROLI’S HANDBOOK OF Flavor Ingredients FIFTH EDITION Copyright 2005 by CRC Press CRC PRESS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. GEORGE A. BURDOCK, PH.D. FENAROLI’S HANDBOOK OF Flavor Ingredients FIFTH