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Microsoft Word HICOC TOC PDF doc v This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Contents About the Editors vi Contributors vii Preface ix 1 Introduction an Overview of the Che[.]
Contents About the Editors vi Contributors vii Preface ix Introduction: an Overview of the Chemical Process Industry and Primary Raw Materials 1.1 The Chemical Process Industry 1.2 Development of the Chemical Industry 1.3 Characteristics of the Chemical Industry 1.4 Raw Materials, Manufacturing, and Engineering Environmental Aspects References Safety Considerations in Process Industries 11 1.5 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) and PSM (Process Safety Management) 14 2.3 Incident Statistics and Financial Aspects 16 2.4 Safety Decision Hierarchy 16 2.5 Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment (HARA) 17 Types of Hazards in Industries 18 2.6.1 18 2.6 Heat and Temperature This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation v vi Contents 2.6.2 Pressure Hazards 19 2.6.3 Electrical Hazards 21 2.6.4 Mechanical Hazards 23 2.6.5 Toxic Materials 24 2.6.6 Fire and Explosion 27 2.6.7 Accelerator and Falling Objects 30 2.6.8 Confined Space 31 2.6.9 Radiation 33 2.6.10 Noise and Vibrations 37 2.6.11 Ergonomics 39 Risk Management Plan 40 2.7.1 The Role of Safety Personnel 40 2.7.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 41 Appraising Plant Safety and Practices 44 Planning for Emergencies 45 References 47 Industrial Pollution Prevention 49 2.7 2.7.3 2.7.4 3.1 Definition of Industrial Waste 50 3.2 Types of Industrial Wastes 51 3.2.1 Classification of Industrial Waste 52 3.3 Public Concern over Pollution 54 3.4 Legislation to Waste Management 56 3.5 Industrial Pollution Prevention 57 3.6 Assessment of Industrial Pollution Prevention 58 3.6.1 Assessment of Waste Generation 58 3.6.2 Feasibility of the Industrial Pollution Prevention 59 Feasibility Implementation 59 3.6.3 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Contents vii Waste Management 61 3.7.1 Procedural Change 61 3.7.2 Technology Change 63 3.7.3 Input Material Change 64 3.7.4 Product Change 64 Recycling 64 3.8.1 Options in Recycling 65 3.8.2 Recycling Technologies 66 Waste Treatment 69 3.9.1 Physical Treatment 70 3.9.2 Chemical Treatment 73 3.9.3 Biological Treatment 75 3.10 Waste Disposal by Incineration 77 3.10.1 Rotary Kiln Incinerators 78 3.10.2 Liquid Injection Incinerators (LII) 79 3.10.3 Fluidized Bed Incinerators 81 3.10.4 Multiple-Hearth Incinerators 81 3.11 Ultimate Disposal 81 3.11.1 Land-Farming 81 3.11.2 Landfilling 82 3.11.3 Deep-Well Injection 83 3.11.4 Ocean Dumping 83 References 84 Edible Oils, Fats, and Waxes 85 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.1 Introduction 86 4.2 Fatty Acids 88 4.3 Glycerides 92 4.4 Physical Properties of Triglycerides 94 4.4.1 94 Melting Point This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation viii Contents 4.5 4.4.2 Specific Heat 94 4.4.3 Viscosity 94 4.4.4 Density 96 4.4.5 Refractive Index 96 4.4.6 Polymorphism 96 4.4.7 Other Physical Properties 96 Chemical Properties of Triglycerides 98 4.5.1 Hydrolysis 98 4.5.2 Methanolysis 98 4.5.3 lnteresterification 98 4.5.4 Hydrogenation 99 4.5.5 Isomerization 100 4.5.6 Polymerization 100 4.5.7 Autoxidation 100 4.6 Sources of Edible Oils and Main Fats 102 4.7 Oils and Fats: Processing and Refining 103 4.8 Fats and Oils Stability and Antioxidants 115 4.9 Methods of Analysis and Testing of Fats and Oils 118 4.9.1 Identification and Compositional Analysis 118 4.9.2 Quality Control Tests 120 References 121 Soaps and Detergents 123 5.1 Soap 123 5.1.1 Introduction 123 5.1.2 History 124 5.1.3 Raw Materials 125 5.1.4 Chemistry of Soaps 125 5.1.5 Classification of Soaps 126 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Contents 5.2 5.3 5.4 ix 5.1.6 Manufacturing of Soaps 127 5.1.7 Environmental Aspects 130 Detergent 130 5.2.1 Introduction and History 130 5.2.2 Principle Groups of Synthetic Detergents 132 5.2.3 Surfactants 133 5.2.4 Inorganic Builders 144 5.2.5 Sundry Organic Builders 149 5.2.6 Manufacturing of Detergents 153 Environmental Aspects 156 5.3.1 Emissions and Controls 156 5.3.2 Wastewater and the Environment 157 5.3.3 Biodegradation 158 Economic Aspects 159 References 160 Sugar 163 6.1 Introduction 163 6.2 The Chemistry of Saccharides 164 6.3 Properties of Sucrose 167 6.4 Historical Survey and World Production 168 6.5 Cane Sugar 170 6.5.1 Raw Sugar Manufacture 170 6.5.2 Refining of Raw Sugar 180 6.6 Beet Sugar 184 6.7 Other Sugars 189 6.8 By-Products of the Sugar Industry 191 6.9 Other Sweeteners 192 6.9.1 Acesulfame-K 194 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation x Contents 6.9.2 Alitame 194 6.9.3 Aspartame 195 6.9.4 Cyclamate 195 6.9.5 Saccharin 196 6.9.6 Sucralose 197 6.10 Sugar Analysis 197 References 198 Paints, Pigments, and Industrial Coatings 201 7.1 Introduction 201 7.2 Constituents of Paints 204 7.2.1 Pigments 204 7.2.2 Inorganic Pigments 209 7.2.3 Organic Pigments 217 7.2.4 Binders 221 7.2.5 Solvents 226 7.2.6 Additives 227 7.3 Paint Formulation 231 7.4 Paint Manufacture 234 7.5 7.4.1 Pigment Dispersion 234 7.4.2 Processing Operations 237 7.4.3 Classification and Types of Paints 238 7.4.4 Varnishes 245 7.4.5 Lacquers 245 Paint Application and Causes for Paint Failure 246 7.5.1 Techniques of Paint Application 246 7.5.2 Causes for Paint Failure 248 7.6 Testing and Quality Control 254 7.7 Environmental Impacts and Risks 255 References 256 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Contents xi Dyes: Chemistry and Applications 259 8.1 Introduction 259 8.2 Colorants 260 8.3 Classification of Dyes 261 8.4 Textile Fibers 268 8.5 The Application of Dyes 272 8.6 Intermediates 274 8.6.1 Miscellaneous Reactions 285 8.7 Manufacture of Dyes 286 8.8 Environmental and Health Aspects 287 References 288 Industrial Fermentation 289 9.1 Introduction and History 290 9.2 Biochemical and Processing Aspects 292 9.3 9.4 9.2.1 Overview 292 9.2.2 Microorganisms 293 9.2.3 Culture Development 296 9.2.4 Process Development 298 9.2.5 Bioreactors 300 9.2.6 Downstream Processing 303 9.2.7 Animal and Plant Cell Cultures 304 Food and Feed Treatment by Fermentation 304 9.3.1 Food Conservation 304 9.3.2 Feed and Agriculture 309 9.3.3 Single Cell Protein (SCP) 309 Industrial Chemicals by Fermentation 311 9.4.1 Ethanol 311 9.4.2 Other Industrial Alcohols 312 9.4.3 Organic Acids 313 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation xii Contents 9.5 9.4.4 Amino Acids 314 9.4.5 Vitamins 316 9.4.6 Industrial Enzymes 317 Pharmaceutical Products by Fermentation 318 9.5.1 Pharmaceuticals by Direct Fermentation 318 9.5.2 Pharmaceuticals via Biotransformation 319 9.5.3 Biopolymers 322 9.6 Environmental Biotechnology 323 9.7 Social and Economic Aspects 327 Bibliography 328 10 The Pharmaceutical Industry 331 10.1 Introduction 332 10.2 Use and Economic Aspects 332 10.3 Discovery and Development of Drugs 337 10.3.1 Introduction 337 10.3.2 Classical Drug Discovery and Early Development 339 10.3.3 Modern Drug Discovery 341 10.3.4 Preclinical Testing 344 10.3.5 Clinical Testing 345 10.4 Classification and the Chemistry of Pharmaceutical Products 347 10.4.1 The Analgesics 347 10.4.2 Antiallergy and Antiasthmatic Drugs 351 10.4.3 Antibacterials and Antibiotics 353 10.4.4 Antidepressants 357 10.4.5 Antiepileptics 359 10.4.6 Antihypertensives 359 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Contents xiii 10.4.7 Antiulcers 361 10.4.8 Antipsychotic Agents 362 10.4.9 Diuretics 363 10.4.10 Contraceptives 364 10.4.11 Vitamins 364 10.5 Industrial Processes in Pharmaceutical Industry 365 10.5.1 Research and Development 366 10.5.2 Chemical Manufacturing 366 10.6 Manufacturing of Pharmaceutical Products 370 10.6.1 The Manufacturing of Aspirin 370 10.6.2 The Manufacture of Pyribenzamine 371 10.6.3 Formulation, Mixing, and Compounding 372 10.7 Quality Control 378 References 379 11 Agrochemicals 381 11.1 Introduction and History 381 11.2 Chemical Pest Control 385 11.2.1 Herbicides 386 11.2.2 Insecticides 390 11.2.3 Fungicides 392 11.2.4 Miscellaneous Compounds 396 11.2.5 Chemical Synthesis of Pesticides 401 11.3 Formulated Products 403 11.4 Biological Pest Control 407 11.5 Testing Requirements for New Pesticides 410 11.5.1 General Information and Physical and Chemical Properties 410 11.5.2 Toxicity 413 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation xiv Contents 11.5.3 Residues in Food 414 11.5.4 Human Safety Risk Assessment 415 11.5.5 Environmental Fate and Environmental Toxicology 417 11.6 Social and Economic Aspects 420 11.6.1 Social Consequences of Pesticide Use 420 11.6.2 Economic Aspects 422 Bibliography 426 12 Chemical Explosives and Propellants 429 12.1 Chemical Explosives 430 12.1.1 Introduction 430 12.1.2 Development of Explosives 430 12.1.3 Classification of Explosives 435 12.1.4 Chemistry of Explosives 444 12.2 Propellants 449 12.2.1 Gun Propellants 449 12.2.2 Rocket Propellants 453 12.3 Pyrotechnics 455 12.3.1 Sound Producers 456 12.3.2 Light Producers 456 12.3.3 Heat Producers 457 12.3.4 Smoke Producers 457 12.4 Manufacturing of Explosives 458 12.4.1 TNT Production 458 12.4.2 Black Powder Production 459 12.4.3 RDX and HMX Production 461 12.5 Thermochemistry of Explosives 462 12.5.1 Oxygen Balance 463 12.5.2 Heat of Formation 464 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Contents xv 12.5.3 Heat of Explosion 465 12.5.4 Explosive Power and Power Index 467 12.6 Safety and Environmental Considerations 467 12.7 Classification, Transportation, and Storage of Explosives 469 12.7.1 Explosives Classification 469 12.7.2 Transportation of Explosives 470 12.7.3 Storage of Explosives 470 References 471 13 Petroleum and Petrochemicals 473 13.1 Introduction 473 13.2 Desalting and Dewatering 477 13.3 Evaluation 478 13.4 Distillation 478 13.5 Cracking, Coking, Hydrocracking, and Reforming 481 13.6 Treating Processes 497 13.7 Petroleum Products 499 13.8 Fuel Gas (Refinery Gas) and Liquefied Petroleum Gas 499 13.9 Gasoline 499 13.10 Solvents 501 13.11 Kerosene 502 13.12 Fuel Oil 502 13.13 Lubricating Oil 503 13.14 Petroleum Wax 504 13.15 Asphalt 505 13.16 Coke 506 13.17 Petrochemicals 507 Bibliography 509 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation xvi Contents 14 Synthetic Polymers 511 14.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions 511 14.2 Classification of Polymers 513 14.3 Polymers Industry 520 14.4 Polymer Structure 520 14.5 Polymer Structure-Property Relationships 541 14.5.1 Thermal Properties 541 14.5.2 Mechanical Properties 546 14.5.3 Solubility 548 14.5.4 Viscosity 554 14.6 Rheology 556 14.7 Molecular Weight of Polymers 560 14.8 The Synthesis of High Polymers 564 14.8.1 Condensation or Step-Reaction Polymerization 569 14.8.2 Addition or Chain-Reaction Polymerization 572 14.8.3 Free Radical Polymerization 573 14.8.4 Ionic Polymerization 582 14.9 Polymerization Techniques 594 14.10 Copolymerization 600 14.11 Modification of Synthetic Polymers 607 14.12 Degradation, Stability, and Environmental Issues 611 14.13 Polymer Additives 616 References 618 Index 621 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation