HANDBOOK OF ANTENNAS IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS © 2002 by CRC Press LLC THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SIGNAL PROCESSING SERIES Edited by Alexander Poularikas The Advanced Signal Processing Handbook: Theory and Implementation for Radar, Sonar, and Medical Imaging Real-Time Systems Stergios Stergiopoulos The Transform and Data Compression Handbook K.R Rao and P.C Yip Handbook of Multisensor Data Fusion David Hall and James Llinas Handbook of Antennas in Wireless Communications Lal Chand Godara Forthcoming Titles Propagation Data Handbook for Wireless Communications Robert Crane The Digital Color Imaging Handbook Guarav Sharma Handbook of Neural Network Signal Processing Yu Hen Hu and Jeng-Neng Hwang Applications in Time Frequency Signal Processing Antonia Papandreou-Suppappola Noise Reduction in Speech Applications Gillian Davis Signal Processing in Noise Vyacheslav Tuzlukov Electromagnetic Radiation and the Human Body: Effects, Diagnosis and Therapeutic Technologies Nikolaos Uzunoglu and Konstantina S Nikita Digital Signal Processing with Examples in MATLABđ Samuel Stearns â 2002 by CRC Press LLC HANDBOOK OF ANTENNAS IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS Edited by LAL CHAND GODARA CRC Press Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated A wide variety of references are listed Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher All rights reserved Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $1.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is ISBN 0-8493-0124-6/02/$0.00+$1.50 The fee is subject to change without notice For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431 Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2002 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-0124-6 Printed in the United States of America Printed on acid-free paper Preface I authored a two-part article for the Proceeding of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) on the application of antenna arrays to mobile communications in 1997 It provided the current state of antenna array research and described how an array of antennas may be used to help meet the ever-growing demand of increased channel capacity for wireless mobile communications services The amount and the kind of feedback I received on the subject, particularly from graduate students and practicing engineers, indicated to me that there is a need for a more comprehensive source of this material than a journal article One day in late 1998, I received an e-mail from Dr Alexander D Poularikas, who coordinates the Electrical Engineering and Signal Processing series for CRC Press, inviting me to be the editor of a handbook covering the fundamental developments of this field so that the engineers in practice or the ones who want to start in this area have a good source to guide them I accepted his invitation and prepared a list of topics to be covered by the handbook Because the handbook was meant to be a major reference source on this subject, I invited the leading experts in the field to contribute material on topics of their special interest I am very excited about the final outcome and trust that you share my enthusiasm as I briefly describe what the handbook has to offer The handbook has successfully brought together every aspect of antennas in wireless communications with 26 chapters filled with the latest research and development results compiled by leading researchers in a manner that is easy to follow The material has been developed logically, requiring no prerequisite and thus making it extremely useful not only for researchers and practicing engineers as a reference book but also for newcomers as a great source of learning It is a unique book covering all facets of antennas for wireless communications providing detailed treatment of cellular systems, antenna design techniques, practical antennas, phased-array technology, theory and implementation of smart antennas, and interaction of EM radiation with the human body It contains more than 1200 references for the readers to probe further The handbook would be useful for • Practicing electrical engineers, in general, and communication engineers, in particular, as a reference book • Academics in the area of mobile communications, signal processing, antenna theory, and smart antennas • Graduate students and researchers in this area • Antenna designers in general • Those who are fascinated by the field of mobile communications and smart antennas The chapters in the book have been selected to provide coverage of different topics However, some overlap between various chapters has been allowed to provide discussion from a different point of view © 2002 by CRC Press LLC The handbook has been organized into six parts outlined as follows: A B C D E F Wireless communication systems and channel characteristics Antenna technology and numerical methods Antenna developments and practical antennas Smart antennas and array theory Implementation of smart antenna systems Electromagnetic radiation and the human body Chapters through are devoted to wireless communications systems and channel characterization Chapter 1, “Cellular Systems,” presents cellular fundamentals by describing the working of mobile communications systems and discussing concepts of multiple access schemes, channel reuse, channel allocation and assignments, and handoff and power control It then briefly describes various popular standards Chapter 2, “Satellite-Based Mobile Communications,” discusses satellite orbital fundamentals and the satellite radiopath, and describes various mobile satellite communications systems Chapter 3, “Propagation Prediction for Urban Systems,” treats the prediction of the average signal strength for a variety of physical parameters and conditions such as range, antenna height, presence of foliage, and terrain; and discusses site specific predictions using ray models Chapter 4, “Fading Channels,” emphasizes fundamental fading manifestations, types of degradation, and methods for mitigating the degradation It presents examples to mitigate the effects of frequency-selective fading in time division multiple access (TDMA) and code division multiple access (CDMA) systems Chapters through 10 provide coverage of antenna technology and numerical methods Chapter introduces basic antenna parameters and terminology; and discusses commonly used antenna types, impedance matching, feeding arrangements, and available software for antenna analysis and design Chapter introduces microstrip patch antennas by discussing their general characteristics It describes various feed techniques and methods to enhance bandwidth of patch antenna and to reduce the size of conductors Examples of active patch antennas are also included in this chapter Chapter introduces the finite difference time domain (FDTD) method with emphasis on its applications to printed antenna and antenna arrays The chapter discusses fundamentals of FDTD, absorbing boundary conditions, and radiation patterns; and presents examples of various microstrip antenna analyses Chapter 8, “Method of Moments Applied to Antennas,” concentrates on the application of integral equations to antenna problems and their solution using the method of moments (MOM) It presents the basic philosophy of MOM and its application to wire antennas, arbitrary metallic structures, and combined metallic and dielectric structures Chapter introduces genetic algorithms and shows how these may be applied to find good solutions to wireless antenna problems Chapter 10, “High-Frequency Techniques,” presents high-frequency applications for antennas by discussing modern geometric optics, geometric theory of diffraction, physical optics, and physical theory of diffraction Chapters 11 through 15 constitute Part C of the handbook and are devoted to antenna developments and practical antennas Chapter 11 presents development in outdoor and indoor base station antennas in Japan by describing various base station antennas for cellular systems, diversity antennas for macrocellular systems, antennas for micro- and picocellular systems, and personal handy phone system (PHS) base station antennas Chapter 12, “Handheld Antennas,” describes various antennas used for handheld phones and presents a detailed study of meander line antennas for personal wireless communications Chapters 13 and 14 provide coverage on antenna development for satellite communications; Chapter 13 concentrates on aeronautical and maritime antennas whereas Chapter 14 focuses on fixed and mobile © 2002 by CRC Press LLC antennas Chapter 13 presents antennas and tracking systems for International Maritime Satellite (INMARSAT)-A, -B, -C, -F, -M, and -AERO; and antennas for land mobile earth stations and handcarried terminals Chapter 14 presents space segment antennas, earth-segment antennas, and gateway antennas for satellite communications; microstrip antennas for fixed and mobile satellite communications; and mobile antennas for receiving direct-broadcast satellite service television (DBS TV) and SATPHONE antenna systems Chapter 15, “Shaped-Beam Antennas,” focuses on shaped dielectric lens antennas and presents design guidelines for these antennas along with the discussion of some practical aspects, focusing on mobile applications Part D of this handbook on smart antennas and array theory contains Chapters 16 to 21 Chapter 16 presents basic array theory and pattern synthesis techniques by discussing basic theory of antenna arrays, array weight synthesis techniques, and array geometry consideration for pattern adjustment Many examples are included in the chapter to emphasize the concepts Chapter 17, “Electromagnetic Vector Sensors with Beamforming Applications,” describes advantages and developments of vector sensors, solves a beamforming problem using these sensors, and compares the results with that of scalar sensors Chapter 18, “Optimum and Suboptimum Transmit Beamforming,” discusses channel characterization and presents beamforming strategies for transmit arrays including beamforming algorithms and robust beamforming methods Chapter 19, “Spatial Diversity for Wireless Communications,” treats the basic principles of spatial diversity combining and discusses the performance improvement that can be accomplished by a diversity array using various combined techniques The chapter also presents the results on the effect of branch correlation and mutual coupling Chapter 20, “Direction-of-Arrival Estimation in Mobile Communication Environments,” presents various methods for estimating direction of arrival (DOA) of point sources and tracking of moving sources A detailed treatment of estimation for the wireless channel is also included in the chapter Chapter 21, “Blind Channel Identification and Source Separation in Space Division Multiple Access Systems,” addresses the problem of discriminating radio sources in the context of cellular mobile wireless digital communications systems The chapter describes several deterministic as well as stochastic maximum likelihood methods to solve the blind sources separation and channel identification problem Chapter 22 through Chapter 24 are devoted to implementation of smart antenna systems Chapter 22, “Smart Antenna System Architecture and Hardware Implementation,” presents an overview of system architecture and implementation and discusses various important design issues The chapter describes some real-time implemented systems using digital signal processor (DSP) modules Chapter 23 presents phased-array technology for wireless systems by discussing phased-array antennas for land mobile communications systems, stratospheric communications systems, and satellite communications systems Chapter 24, “Adaptive Antennas for Global System for Mobile Communications and Time Division Multiple Access (Interim Standard-136) Systems,” starts with an overview of these systems and then outlines some of the most important issues to consider when applying adaptive antenna techniques to existing cellular systems A discussion of some possible system architectures suitable for implementation is presented and issues related to signal-processing algorithms are considered The chapter presents a detailed simulation of the system and compares the results with those obtained from field trials Chapters 25 and 26 are devoted to the final part on electromagnetic radiation and the human body Chapter 25 mainly deals with the effect on the human body of the radiation characteristics of handheld antennas whereas Chapter 26 concentrates on health hazards of electromagnetic (EM) radiation Chapter 25, “Electromagnetic Interactions of Handheld Wireless Communication Antennas with the © 2002 by CRC Press LLC Human Body,” reviews exposure standards for radio-frequency (RF) fields and different types of handheld wireless devices, and describes numerical techniques and experimental methods used to quantify and characterize the interactions of the radiated field with humans Examples showing the effect of these interactions on the radiation and input impedance characteristics of antennas in handheld devices are presented Chapter 26, “Safety Aspects of Radio-Frequency Effects in Humans from Communication Devices,” considers how guidelines for human exposures to RF are derived, known interactions with human tissues and their measurements, and the evidence for the existence of health effects © 2002 by CRC Press LLC Contributors Sören Andersson Christos Christodoulou Lal C Godara Ericsson Radio Systems Stockholm, Sweden University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico School of Electrical Engineering University College, University of New South Wales Australian Defence Force Academy Canberra, Australia Hiroyuki Arai Division of Electric and Computer Engineering Yokohama National University Yokohama, Japan Victor Barroso Instituto Superior Tecnico Instituto de Sistemas e Robotica Lisboa, Portugal Mats Bengtsson Henrik Dam Ericsson LMD Copenhagen, Denmark Paul W Davis School of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering University of Queensland St Lucia, Queensland, Australia Department of Signals, Sensors and Systems Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm, Sweden Antonije R Djordjevic Magnus Berg Atef Z Elsherbeni Ericsson Radio Systems Stockholm, Sweden Jennifer T Bernhard Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Urbana, Illinois School of Electrical Engineering University of Belgrade Belgrade, Yugoslavia Marek E Bialkowski School of Computer Science & Electrical Engineering University of Queensland Brisbane, Queensland, Australia © 2002 by CRC Press LLC Electrical Engineering Department ITESM Guadalajara, Mexico Bo Hagerman Ericsson Radio Systems S-164 80 Stockholm, Sweden Kwok Chiang Ho Addest Technovation Pte Ltd Singapore, Republic of Singapore Chun-Wen Paul Huang Electrical Engineering Department University of Mississippi University, Mississippi Meng Hwa Er Nanyang Technological University School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Singapore, Republic of Singapore Henry L Bertoni Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Polytechnic University Brooklyn, New York Javier Gómez-Tagle Carlos A Cardoso Fernandes Instituto Superior Técnico Instituto de Telecomunicaỗừes Lisboa, Portugal Ulf Forssộn Ericsson Radio Systems Stockholm, Sweden Electrical Engineering Department University of Mississippi University, Mississippi Magdy F Iskander Electrical Engineering Department University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah Ramakrishna Janaswamy Code EC/Js, Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, California Ami Kanazawa Yokosuka Radio Communications Research Center Communication Research Laboratory Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications Yokosuka, Japan Jonas Karlsson José M F Moura Roberto G Rojas Ericsson Radio Systems Stockholm, Sweden Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Department of Electrical Engineering/ESL The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio Nemai C Karmakar School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Republic of Singapore Branko M Kolundzija School of Electrical Engineering University of Belgrade Belgrade, Yugoslavia Fredric Kronestedt Ericsson Radio Systems Stockholm, Sweden Te-Hong Lee Department of Electrical Engineering/ESL The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio Sara Mazur Ericsson Radio Systems Stockholm, Sweden Eric Michielssen Center for Computational Electromagnetics Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Urbana, Illinois Ryu Miura Yokosuka Radio Communications Research Center Communications Research Laboratory Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan Karl J Molnar Ericsson Inc Research Triangle Park, North Carolina © 2002 by CRC Press LLC Arye Nehorai Department of EECs (M/C 154) University of Illinois at Chicago Chicago, Illinois Michael J Ryan School of Electrical Engineering Australian Defence Force Academy Canberra, Australia Tapan K Sarkar Boon Poh Ng School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Republic of Singapore H Ogawa Communications Research Laboratory Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan Shingo Ohmori Communication Systems Division Communications Research Laboratory Tokyo, Japan Björn Ottersten Department of Signals, Sensors and Systems Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm, Sweden A W Preece Medical Physics University Research Centre Bristol Oncology Centre Bristol, United Kingdom Sembiam R Rengarajan Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering California State UniversityNorthridge Northridge, California Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Syracuse University Syracuse, New York Bernard Sklar Communications Engineering Services Tarzana, California Charles E Smith Electrical Engineering Department University of Mississippi University, Mississippi Hyok J Song HRL Laboratories, LLC Malibu, California Thomas Svantesson Department of Signals and Systems Chalmers University of Technology Göteborg, Sweden B T G Tan Faculty of Science National University of Singapore Singapore, Republic of Singapore Masato Tanaka Kashima Space Research Center Communications Research Laboratory Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications Kashima, Ibaraki, Japan Saúl A Torrico Comsearch Reston, Virginia 26.2.4 Measurement Probes for Human Exposure Assessment Radiation hazard meters are available for different frequency ranges, and for most applications an isotropic probe is preferable to cope with unknown polarization for near-field measurements, and where there may be multipath reflections An H-field probe is needed for near-field conditions, in particular Below 100 MHz, induced currents and contact currents are important and need to be considered in addition to spatially averaged E- and H-field measurements However, at high RF and microwave frequencies it is convenient and usually accurate to measure either the E- or H-field component and to relate these on the basis of the medium in which measurements are to be made, whether this is air or tissue Probes should be specific to the field parameter (e.g., E-field probes should not respond to Hfields) This can be achieved by ensuring that there are no conducting paths between the E-field plates and that the electronics are not sensitive to induced pickup; or conversely, in B-field probes there are no open-circuit components susceptible to electric fields Probes need to be small in dimension compared with the wavelength in the medium at the highest frequency of interest At ELF this is no problem, but if the probe is large compared with the wavelength, it becomes very sensitive to both position and orientation and underestimates the field Probes should be isotropic — this can be achieved with three orthogonal dipoles or loops An alternative arrangement is to use a monopole set at 270° that can be rotated in the field to detect radiation in x-, y-, and z-axes.2 Probes need to be nonperturbing — this is attainable by use of resistive leads of small physical cross section, such as carbon-loaded plastic, or carbon monofilament of similar conductivity to the tissue or medium Probes should also be reasonably accurate — an error of