[...]... differentials and Euler’s theorem, because many concepts and derivations can be presented in a more satisfying and precise manner with their use Chemical Thermodynamics: Basic Concepts and Methods, Seventh Edition By Irving M Klotz and Robert M Rosenberg Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 9 10 2.1 MATHEMATICAL PREPARATION FOR THERMODYNAMICS VARIABLES OF THERMODYNAMICS Extensive and Intensive Quantities... the twentieth century, thermodynamics progressively pervaded all aspects of chemistry and flourished as a recognizable entity on its own chemical thermodynamics By the middle of the twentieth century, biochemistry became increasingly understood in molecular and energetic terms, so thermodynamic concepts were extended into disciplines in the basic life sciences and their use has expanded progressively During... unchanged: to present to the student the logical foundations and interrelationships of thermodynamics and to teach the student the methods by which the basic concepts may be applied to practical problems In the treatment of basic concepts, we have adopted the classic, or phenomenological, approach to thermodynamics and have excluded the statistical viewpoint This attitude has several pedagogical advantages... convenient and powerful in prescribing the rules that govern chemical and physical transitions Therefore, in a sense, the name “energetics” is more descriptive than is 4 INTRODUCTION thermodynamics insofar as applications to chemistry are concerned More commonly, one affixes the adjective chemical to thermodynamics to indicate the change in emphasis and to modify the literal and original meaning of thermodynamics. .. concentration gradient Thermodynamic concepts and methods provide a powerful approach to the understanding of such problems 1.3 LIMITATIONS OF CLASSIC THERMODYNAMICS Although descriptions of chemical change are permeated with the terms and language of molecular theory, the concepts of classic thermodynamics are independent of molecular theory; thus, these concepts do not require modification as our knowledge... Law of Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation / 350 Exercises / 353 References / 355 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 16 ACTIVITIES, EXCESS GIBBS FUNCTIONS, AND STANDARD STATES FOR NONELECTROLYTES Definitions of Activities and Activity Coefficients / 358 Activity / 358 Activity Coefficient / 358 16.2 Choice of Standard States / 359 Gases / 359 Liquids and Solids / 360 16.3 Gibbs Function and the Equilibrium... The cold object seems to have extracted something (caloric) from the hot one Furthermore, Chemical Thermodynamics: Basic Concepts and Methods, Seventh Edition By Irving M Klotz and Robert M Rosenberg Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 1 2 INTRODUCTION if both objects are constituted of the same material, and the cold object has twice the mass of the hot one, then we observe that the increase in... Thermodynamic methods provide the mathematical relations required to estimate such quantities Although the main objective of chemical thermodynamics is the analysis of spontaneity and equilibrium, the methods also are applicable to many other problems For example, the study of phase equilibria, in ideal and nonideal systems, is basic to the intelligent use of the techniques of extraction, distillation, and crystallization;... students, and the scientific community This edition is dedicated to his memory ROBERT M ROSENBERG Evanston, Illinois CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 ORIGINS OF CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS An alert young scientist with only an elementary background in his or her field might be surprised to learn that a subject called thermodynamics has any relevance to chemistry, biology, material science, and geology The term thermodynamics, ... thermodynamics originated from the thinking of over half a dozen individuals: Carnot, Mayer, Joule, Helmholtz, Rankine, Kelvin, and Clausius [1] Each person provided crucial steps that led to the grand synthesis of the two classic laws of thermodynamics Eighteenth-century and early nineteenth-century views of the nature of heat were founded on the principle of conservation of caloric This principle is an eminently . foundations and interrelationships of thermodynamics and to teach the student the methods by which the basic concepts may be applied to practical problems. In the treatment of basic concepts, we. visit our web site at www.wiley.com. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available. ISBN: 97 8-0 -4 7 1-7 801 5-1 Printed in the United States of America 10987654321 Dedicated to. dedicated mentor, and colleague CONTENTS PREFACE xix 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Origins of Chemical Thermodynamics / 1 1.2 Objectives of Chemical Thermodynamics / 4 1.3 Limitations of Classic Thermodynamics