The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀ in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy฀ Johannesburg฀and฀São฀Paulo Martin฀J฀Murray HSRC฀ Publishers Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za III Democracy฀and฀Governance฀Research฀Programme,฀Occasional฀Paper฀฀5 Series฀Editor:฀Adam฀Habib,฀Executive฀Director:฀Democracy฀and฀Governance฀Research฀Programme,฀Human฀Sciences฀ Research฀Council Published฀by฀HSRC฀Publishers Private฀Bag฀X9182,฀Cape฀Town,฀8000,฀South฀Africa www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za ©฀2004฀Human฀Sciences฀Research฀Council฀ First฀published฀2004 All฀rights฀reserved.฀No฀part฀of฀this฀book฀may฀be฀reprinted฀or฀reproduced฀or฀utilised฀in฀any฀form฀or฀by฀any฀electronic,฀ mechanical,฀or฀other฀means,฀including฀photocopying฀and฀recording,฀or฀in฀any฀information฀storage฀or฀retrieval฀system,฀ without฀permission฀in฀writing฀from฀the฀publishers. 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Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za About฀the฀Author Martin฀J฀Murray฀is฀Professor฀of฀Sociology฀at฀the฀State฀University฀of฀New฀York฀in฀ Binghamton.฀ He฀ is฀ the฀ author฀ of฀ numerous฀ books,฀ including฀ The฀ development฀ of฀ capitalism฀in฀colonial฀Indochina฀(Berkeley฀and฀Los฀Angeles:฀University฀of฀California฀ Press฀ 1980),฀ South฀ Africa:฀ time฀ of฀ agony,฀ time฀ of฀ destiny฀ (London฀ and฀ New฀ York:฀ Verso฀1987),฀and฀Revolution฀deferred:฀the฀painful฀birth฀of฀post-apartheid฀South฀Africa฀ (London฀and฀New฀York:฀Verso฀1995).฀He฀is฀currently฀interested฀in฀questions฀of฀urban฀ space,฀ including฀ modernist฀ (and฀ post-modernist)฀ city฀ building,฀ the฀ contradictory฀ impulses฀of฀real฀estate฀capitalism,฀the฀exclusionary฀effects฀of฀bunker฀architecture,฀and฀ place฀making฀as฀boundary฀marking. IV Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀ in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy฀ Johannesburg฀and฀São฀Paulo Introduction The฀ ‘global฀ cities’฀ paradigm฀ has฀ drawn฀ our฀ attention฀ to฀ the฀ pivotal฀ role฀ of฀ large฀ metropolises฀as฀key฀command฀and฀control฀centres฀within฀the฀capitalist฀world฀economy.฀ A฀central฀axiom฀of฀this฀innovative฀theoretical฀framework฀is฀the฀claim฀that฀the฀spatial฀ dispersal฀of฀giant฀‘multi-national’฀corporations฀over฀considerable฀distances฀requires฀a฀ parallel฀territorial฀concentration฀of฀‘command฀and฀control’฀functions฀at฀the฀apex฀of฀ the฀global฀urban฀hierarchy.฀Yet฀by฀privileging฀the฀functional฀specialisations฀of฀large฀ metropolitan฀regions฀within฀the฀world฀economy,฀the฀‘global฀cities’฀approach฀restricts฀ the฀kinds฀of฀questions฀that฀can฀be฀legitimately฀addressed฀within฀its฀conceptual฀frame฀ of฀reference.฀In฀particular,฀by฀narrowing฀the฀scope฀of฀research฀to฀the฀functional฀roles฀ of฀cities฀within฀the฀world฀economy,฀the฀‘global฀cities’฀paradigm฀tends฀to฀downplay฀ the฀evolving฀spatial฀form฀of฀ cities฀that฀aspire฀to฀‘world-class’฀ status.฀In฀contrast,฀a฀ growing฀ number฀ of฀ scholars฀ have฀ focused฀ instead฀ on฀ the฀ changing฀ morphological฀ characteristics฀of฀urban฀landscapes,฀and,฀in฀particular,฀on฀the฀use,฀management,฀and฀ regulation฀of฀urban฀space.฀By฀emphasising฀such฀spatial฀features฀as฀unfettered฀urban฀ sprawl,฀the฀urbanisation฀of฀the฀periphery,฀the฀proliferation฀of฀‘edge฀cities’,฀and฀the฀ emergence฀of฀a฀new฀‘fortification฀aesthetic’฀that฀has฀accompanied฀the฀construction฀ of฀such฀post-public฀places฀as฀festival฀marketplaces,฀citadel฀office฀complexes,฀enclosed฀ shopping฀malls,฀and฀gated฀residential฀communities,฀these฀theorists฀of฀urban฀life฀have฀ drawn฀attention฀to฀the฀evolving฀patterns฀of฀spatial฀restructuring฀association฀with฀a฀ 1 Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Martin฀J฀Murray 2 The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy 3 distinctive฀kind฀of฀polynucleated฀and฀fragmented฀city-form,฀one฀which฀some฀scholars฀ have฀called฀‘postmodern฀urbanism’.฀ At฀the฀risk฀of฀oversimplification,฀it฀is฀possible฀to฀identity฀five฀features฀associated฀ with฀‘post-modern฀urbanism’.฀While฀these฀do฀not฀exhaust฀the฀possible฀characteristics฀ of฀ this฀ particular฀ kind฀ of฀ urbanity,฀ they฀ do฀ constitute฀ its฀ central฀ elements.฀ Concentrating฀ on฀ the฀ extent฀ to฀ which฀ these฀ characteristic฀ features฀ of฀ postmodern฀ urbanism฀can฀be฀found฀in฀two฀aspirant฀‘world-class’฀cities฀–฀Johannesburg฀and฀São฀ Paulo฀–฀enables฀us฀to฀highlight฀the฀global฀dispersal฀of฀a฀new฀kind฀of฀urban฀form฀that฀ has฀developed฀around฀the฀world.฀One฀of฀the฀deficiencies฀in฀existing฀urban฀scholarship฀ is฀the฀great฀gap฀between฀the฀grand,฀totalising฀theories฀like฀the฀‘global฀cities’฀paradigm฀ or฀the฀‘post-modern฀urbanism’฀ideas฀associated฀with฀the฀so-called฀Los฀Angeles฀(LA)฀ School฀and฀empirical฀studies฀of฀cities฀that฀are,฀so฀to฀speak,฀‘off฀the฀map’.฀Looking฀ at฀ these฀ ‘ordinary฀ cities’฀ that฀ fall฀ outside฀ the฀ glare฀ of฀ the฀ core฀ zones฀ of฀ the฀ world฀ economy฀provides฀us฀with฀an฀unusual฀opportunity฀to฀investigate฀in฀some฀detail฀how฀ the฀globalising฀tendencies฀of฀ city-building฀trickle฀down฀to฀aspiring฀ to฀‘world-class’฀ status฀but฀those฀which฀are฀located฀well฀below฀the฀top฀of฀the฀‘global฀cities’฀hierarchy. The฀pioneering฀work฀of฀urban฀theorists฀such฀as฀John฀Friedmann฀and฀Goetz฀Wolff,฀ Saskia฀ Sassen,฀ Manuel฀ Castells,฀ Peter฀ Taylor,฀ Anthony฀ King,฀ and฀ Neil฀ Bremner,฀ among฀many฀others,฀has฀drawn฀attention฀to฀the฀pivotal฀role฀of฀the฀current฀wave฀of฀ globalisation฀ in฀ fostering฀ intensified฀ competition฀ amongst฀ and฀ between฀ cities฀ that฀ aspire฀to฀‘world-class’฀status. 1 ฀In฀the฀main,฀much฀of฀this฀scholarly฀writing฀about฀urban฀ rivalries฀has฀crystallised฀around฀a฀research฀agenda฀that฀has฀come฀to฀be฀known฀as฀the฀ ‘global฀ cities’฀ paradigm.฀ Scholars฀ operating฀ within฀ this฀ framework฀ have฀ sought฀ to฀ reassess฀the฀importance฀of฀large฀ metropolises฀as฀key฀command฀and฀ control฀centres฀ within฀the฀interlocking฀globalising฀dynamics฀of฀financial฀markets,฀high-level฀producer฀ services฀ industries,฀ corporate฀ headquarters฀ and฀ other฀ associated฀ business-services฀ industries฀ (telecommunications,฀ business฀ conferences,฀ media,฀ design฀ and฀ cultural฀ industries,฀transport,฀and฀property฀developments).฀A฀central฀tenet฀of฀this฀innovative฀ theoretical฀ framework฀ is฀ the฀ contention฀ that฀ the฀ spatial฀ dispersal฀ of฀ transnational฀ corporations฀(TNCs)฀over฀increasingly฀global฀distances฀requires฀a฀parallel฀territorial฀ concentration฀ of฀ ‘command’฀ functions฀ at฀ the฀ apex฀ of฀ the฀ global฀ urban฀ hierarchy฀ (Amin฀&฀Graham฀1997).฀ In฀short,฀the฀global฀integration฀of฀high-level฀headquarter฀functions฀has฀ created฀‘a฀ new฀strategic฀role฀for฀major฀cities’.฀Beyond฀their฀conventional฀historical฀role฀as฀central฀ sites฀for฀managing฀worldwide฀trade฀and฀international฀banking฀and฀finance,฀emergent฀ ‘global฀cities’฀now฀function฀as฀‘highly฀concentrated฀command฀[and฀control]฀points฀in฀ the฀organisation฀of฀the฀world฀economy’฀and฀as฀key฀locations฀for฀transnational฀corporate฀ Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Martin฀J฀Murray 2 The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy 3 head฀ offices. 2 ฀ While฀ globalisation฀ has฀ affected฀ all฀ kinds฀ of฀ geographical฀ localities฀ in฀ a฀ variety฀ of฀ ways,฀ it฀ assumes฀ particular฀ significance฀ in฀ those฀ key฀ urban฀ centres฀ that฀scholars฀ have฀labelled฀‘global’฀ or฀‘world฀cities’.฀In฀short,฀globalisation฀precedes฀ and฀ largely฀ determines฀ urban฀ spatial฀ and฀ sociocultural฀ restructuring,฀ inexorably฀ transforming฀emergent฀global฀cities฀by฀disconnecting฀them฀from฀their฀local฀ties. 3 In฀ its฀ original฀ formulation,฀ the฀ ‘global฀ cities’฀ thesis฀ laid฀ particular฀ stress฀ on฀ the฀ historically฀ specific฀ functions฀ of฀ London,฀ New฀ York฀ and฀ Tokyo฀ at฀ the฀ apex฀ of฀ the฀ world-scale฀ urban฀ hierarchy.฀ At฀ the฀ outset,฀ discussion฀ focused฀ on฀ clarifying฀ terminological฀ disputes฀ (‘world’฀ versus฀ ‘global’฀ cities),฀ refining฀ initial฀ definitions,฀ and฀ postulating฀ about฀ which฀ cities฀ might฀ be฀ included฀ under฀ the฀ rubric฀ of฀ ‘global฀ cities’฀and฀what฀criteria฀might฀be฀used฀to฀determine฀their฀rank฀order.฀Over฀time,฀the฀ ‘global฀cities’฀debate฀has฀moved฀away฀from฀its฀relatively฀narrow฀focus฀on฀a฀few฀leading฀ urban฀centres฀to฀a฀much฀more฀nuanced,฀sophisticated฀and฀broader฀theorisation฀of฀the฀ changing฀functions฀of฀cities฀in฀a฀globalising฀world฀economy฀increasingly฀dominated฀ by฀informationalised฀economic฀activities฀(Castells฀1996;฀Lo฀&฀Yeung฀1998;฀Marcuse฀ &฀Van฀Kempen฀2000a;฀Sassen฀2000a,฀2000c).฀Taken฀as฀a฀whole,฀the฀‘global฀cities’฀ model฀ –฀with฀its฀ particular฀ stress฀on฀the฀evolving฀ network฀of฀ interconnected฀urban฀ centres฀–฀has฀sparked฀a฀great฀deal฀of฀substantive฀research฀that฀has฀greatly฀advanced฀our฀ understanding฀of฀the฀place฀and฀function฀of฀certain฀strategically฀located฀cities฀in฀the฀ spatial฀geography฀of฀the฀contemporary฀world฀economy.฀By฀situating฀large฀metropolitan฀ regions฀ within฀ a฀ common฀ ‘globalising’฀ framework,฀ this฀ approach฀ has฀ opened฀ up฀ unique฀possibilities฀for฀fruitful฀comparisons฀that฀promise฀to฀yield฀new฀insights฀into฀the฀ changing฀roles฀of฀cities฀in฀the฀contemporary฀world฀economy฀(Abu-Lughod฀1999;฀Abu- Lughod฀2001;฀Nijman฀1997;฀Portes฀&฀Stepick฀1993;฀Sassen฀&฀Portes฀1993). Nevertheless,฀ despite฀ its฀ considerable฀ strengths฀ as฀ an฀ orienting฀ framework฀ for฀empirically฀ grounded฀research,฀the฀ ‘global฀ cities’฀approach฀ is฀ not฀ without฀ its฀ theoretical฀ limitations฀ as฀ an฀ overarching฀ paradigm฀ for฀ studying฀ contemporary฀ cities. 4 ฀By฀identifying฀certain฀key฀urban฀centres฀as฀material฀manifestations฀of฀the฀ structural฀processes฀of฀globalisation,฀the฀‘global฀cities’฀approach฀has฀incorporated฀a฀ certain฀functionalist฀and฀economistic฀bias฀into฀its฀theoretical฀reasoning. 5 ฀This฀way฀ of฀thinking฀has฀inadvertently฀contributed฀to฀a฀narrowing฀of฀the฀field฀of฀vision฀for฀ urban฀studies.฀By฀analytically฀privileging฀the฀functional฀roles฀and฀specialisations฀of฀ large฀metropolitan฀centres฀in฀the฀global฀marketplace,฀and฀by฀categorising฀cities฀into฀ a฀ranked฀hierarchy฀roughly฀in฀accordance฀with฀the฀economic฀power฀they฀command,฀ the฀‘global฀cities’฀approach฀limits,฀in฀an฀a฀priori฀way,฀the฀kinds฀of฀questions฀that฀ can฀ be฀ legitimately฀ addressed฀ within฀ its฀ theoretical฀ framework฀ (Robinson฀ 2002;฀ Smith฀1998). Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za By฀ directing฀ attention฀ primarily฀ to฀ transnational฀ business฀ and฀ financial฀ networks฀ that฀link฀leading฀metropolitan฀centres฀in฀a฀global฀hierarchy฀defined฀primarily฀by฀market฀ relations,฀the฀‘global฀cities’฀literature฀tends฀to฀downplay฀or฀overlook฀the฀evolving฀spatial฀ dynamics฀of฀large฀cities฀ that฀aspire฀ to฀ ‘world-class’฀ status.฀ In฀ contrast,฀urban฀theorists฀ such฀as฀David฀Harvey,฀John฀Hannigan,฀Nan฀Ellin,฀Michael฀Dear,฀Steven฀Flusty,฀Diane฀ Ghirado,฀Michael฀Sorkin,฀ Mike฀Davis,฀ Christine฀ Boyer,฀Sharon฀Zukin,฀Edward฀Soja,฀ Christopher฀Jencks฀and฀many฀others฀have฀focused฀instead฀on฀the฀changing฀morphological฀ characteristics฀ of฀ urban฀ landscapes฀ and,฀ in฀ particular,฀ on฀ the฀ use,฀ management฀ and฀ regulation฀of฀city฀space฀(Boyer฀1998;฀Davis฀1985;฀Dear฀2000;฀Dear฀&฀Flusty฀1998;฀Ellin฀ 1996;฀Ghirado฀1991;฀Harvey฀1989;฀Hannigan฀1998;฀Jencks฀1993;฀Soja฀1989;฀Soja฀1992;฀ Sorkin฀1992;฀Zukin฀1998).฀In฀looking฀at฀the฀fragmentation฀of฀the฀urban฀realm฀into฀what฀ David฀Harvey฀calls฀‘a฀patchwork฀quilt฀of฀islands฀of฀relative฀affluence฀struggling฀to฀secure฀ themselves฀in฀a฀sea฀of฀spreading฀decay’฀(Harvey฀2000:฀152),฀these฀scholars฀have฀drawn฀our฀ attention฀to฀the฀spatiality฀of฀contemporary฀cities.฀By฀highlighting฀such฀spatial฀features฀as฀ ‘edge฀cities’,฀gated฀residential฀communities฀and฀other฀privatopias,฀fortified฀office฀citadels,฀ downtown฀ renaissance฀ zones,฀festival฀ marketplaces฀ and฀ other฀ enclosed฀ shopping฀ mall฀ extravaganzas฀as฀they฀appear฀in฀cities฀around฀the฀world,฀these฀urban฀theorists฀have฀drawn฀ our฀attention฀to฀the฀evolving฀patterns฀of฀spatial฀restructuring฀associated฀with฀a฀distinctive฀ kind฀of฀polynucleated฀and฀fragmented฀city฀form,฀one฀which฀some฀scholars฀have฀called฀ ‘postmodern฀urbanism’. 6฀ Unlike฀the฀ ‘global฀cities’฀paradigm฀that฀ takes฀ urban฀ political฀ economy฀as฀its฀point฀of฀departure,฀the฀theorists฀of฀‘postmodern฀urbanism’฀look฀upon฀ the฀cityscape฀as฀a฀contested฀terrain,฀where฀spatial฀politics฀involve฀struggles฀over฀the฀use฀ of฀urban฀space,฀particularly฀in฀regard฀to฀who฀belongs฀where฀and฀with฀what฀entitlements฀ or฀citizenship฀rights฀(Borden,฀Kerr,฀Rendell฀&฀Pivaro฀2001;฀Dovey฀1999;฀Harvey฀2000;฀ Holston฀1999;฀Leach฀2002;฀Sandercock฀1998;฀Westwood฀&฀Williams฀1997). As฀ a฀ distinct฀ urban฀ form,฀ postmodern฀ urbanism฀ expresses฀ the฀ confluence฀ of฀ a฀ multiplicity฀ of฀ macrosocial฀ trends,฀ including฀ deindustrialisation฀ of฀ the฀ metropolis฀ (where฀post-Fordist฀‘flexible฀specialisation’฀has฀replaced฀Fordist฀mass฀production฀as฀ the฀ main฀engine฀of฀economic฀growth),฀the฀widespread฀middle-class฀abandonment฀ of฀urban฀residence฀ coupled฀with฀rapid฀suburban฀sprawl,฀the฀devaluation฀of฀public฀ space฀(parks,฀plazas,฀streetscapes,฀sidewalks,฀collective฀modes฀of฀transport฀and฀easily฀ accessible฀ places฀ of฀ entertainment),฀ and฀ an฀ awestruck฀ love฀ affair฀ with฀ an฀ ‘inward- looking’฀ architectural฀ style฀ that฀ ‘turns฀ its฀ back฀ on’฀ the฀ surrounding฀ cityscape.฀ Driven฀by฀the฀relentless฀pressures฀of฀global฀competition฀in฀all฀its฀guises,฀postmodern฀ urbanism฀ conforms฀ to฀ an฀ inner฀ logic฀ of฀ spatial฀ partitioning฀ that฀ privileges฀ and฀ rewards฀cityscapes฀that฀insinuate฀themselves฀within฀transnational฀circuits฀of฀finance฀ capital.฀In฀aspiring฀to฀achieve฀‘world-class’฀status,฀‘city฀boosters’฀foster฀the฀kinds฀of฀ 4 Martin฀J฀Murray Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za 5 business-friendly,฀ urban฀ regeneration฀ strategies฀ that฀ curry฀ favour฀ with฀ large-scale฀ global฀ corporations฀ by฀ creating฀ cocooned฀ sites฀ of฀ luxury฀ entertainment,฀ shopping฀ and฀ leisure,฀ while฀ simultaneously฀ leaving฀ poor฀ and฀ working-class฀ urban฀ residents฀ to฀fend฀for฀themselves฀in฀competing฀for฀access฀to฀affordable฀housing,฀to฀dwindling฀ public฀space฀and฀to฀privatised฀(‘pay-as-you-go’)฀municipal฀services฀(Connell฀1999;฀ Fitzsimons฀1995;฀Kenny฀1995;฀Loukaitou-Sideris฀&฀Banerjee฀1998).฀ Postmodern฀ urbanism฀ represents฀ a฀ distinct฀ phase฀ of฀ urban฀ growth฀ and฀ development,฀ one฀ characterised฀ by฀ the฀ shift฀ from฀ what฀ Christine฀ Boyer฀ calls฀ the฀ (modernist-inspired)฀ ‘city฀ as฀ panorama’฀ to฀ the฀ ‘city฀ as฀ spectacle’฀ (Boyer฀ 1998).฀ It฀ reflects฀ the฀ collapse฀ of฀ confidence฀ in฀ the฀ holistic฀ design฀ of฀ the฀ urban฀ landscape,฀ a฀ declining฀ faith฀ in฀ comprehensive฀ urban฀ planning฀ as฀ a฀ panacea฀ for฀ social฀ ills,฀ a฀ nostalgic฀fascination฀with฀‘small฀is฀beautiful’,฀a฀turn฀ to฀decorative฀pastiche฀(or฀the฀ free฀play฀of฀styles฀and฀historicist฀allusions)฀and฀a฀growing฀moral฀panic฀associated฀with฀ the฀ fear฀ of฀ crime฀ (Huxtable฀ 1997;฀ Jameson฀ 1991;฀ Judd฀ &฀ Fainstein฀ 1999).฀ New฀ kinds฀of฀segregation฀–฀whether฀social฀or฀spatial,฀semiotic฀or฀symbolic฀–฀have฀become฀ the฀ visible฀ signs฀ of฀ postmodern฀ urbanism.฀ The฀ main฀ instrument฀ through฀ which฀ social฀ and฀ spatial฀ segregation฀ is฀ organised฀ is฀ what฀ Teresa฀ Caldeira฀ calls฀ ‘fortified฀ enclaves’,฀and฀the฀principal฀rhetoric฀that฀legitimates฀them฀is฀the฀fear฀of฀crime.฀The฀ new฀patterns฀of฀urban฀segregation฀have฀created฀novel฀kinds฀of฀‘social฀space’฀–฀neither฀ fully฀public฀nor฀completely฀private฀–฀in฀contemporary฀cities฀around฀the฀world,฀and฀ these฀ congregating฀ spaces฀ no฀ longer฀ relate฀ to฀ the฀ modern฀ ideals฀ of฀ commonality฀ and฀universality.฀Instead,฀this฀new฀kind฀of฀social฀space฀operates฀on฀the฀principle฀of฀ separateness฀and฀assumes฀that฀social฀groups฀should฀live,฀work฀and฀spend฀their฀leisure฀ time฀in฀homogenous฀enclaves,฀physically฀isolated฀from฀those฀persons฀perceived฀(and฀ stigmatised)฀as฀different,฀threatening฀and฀unwanted฀(Caldeira฀1996b;฀Caldeira฀2000;฀ Davis฀1992;฀Merrifield฀&฀Swyngedouw฀1997).฀ Space฀matters:฀post-modern฀urbanism฀and฀ the฀฀‘Los฀Angeles฀school’ The฀urban฀theorist฀Jan฀Nijman฀has฀proposed฀the฀notion฀of฀‘paradigmatic฀city’฀as฀a฀ heuristic฀device฀that฀can฀assist฀us฀in฀divining฀future฀trends฀in฀urban฀restructuring.฀ The฀ ‘paradigmatic฀city’฀may฀be฀defined฀as฀the฀exemplary฀metropolis฀that฀displays฀ more฀clearly฀than฀other฀urban฀sites฀the฀distinguishing฀features฀and฀general฀trends฀that฀ are฀symptomatic฀of฀broader฀sociogeographical฀transformations฀of฀cities฀taking฀place฀ on฀a฀world฀scale.฀In฀short,฀it฀anticipates,฀in฀a฀genuinely฀prescient฀way,฀evolving฀and฀ The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Martin฀J฀Murray 6 The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy 7 unfolding฀patterns฀of฀global฀urbanisation.฀Understood฀in฀this฀way,฀the฀‘paradigmatic฀ city’฀serves฀as฀an฀ideal-typical฀model,฀a฀living฀laboratory฀for฀analysis฀and฀a฀prototype฀ for฀investigating฀trends฀that฀are฀not฀as฀yet฀easily฀discernible฀ in฀other฀cities.฀ In฀the฀ 1920s฀and฀1930s,฀the฀so-called฀‘Chicago฀School’฀of฀urban฀studies฀(under฀the฀guiding฀ hand฀ of฀ Robert฀ Park,฀ Ernest฀ Burgess฀ and฀ Louis฀ Wirth,฀ in฀ particular)฀ defined฀ an฀ agenda฀for฀scholarly฀research฀on฀metropolitan฀areas฀that฀achieved฀undeniable฀success฀ as฀a฀workable฀paradigm.฀Taking฀a฀human฀ecology฀approach฀as฀their฀analytic฀point฀of฀ departure,฀the฀‘Chicago฀School’฀urbanists฀used฀the฀model฀of฀concentric฀rings฀to฀direct฀ attention฀to฀such฀problem฀areas฀as฀land฀use฀patterns,฀urban฀lifestyles,฀ethnic฀rivalries฀ and฀the฀effects฀of฀urban฀environment฀on฀human฀behaviour.฀Despite฀challenges฀from฀ alternative฀perspectives,฀the฀Chicago฀School฀dominated฀the฀field฀of฀urban฀studies฀for฀ most฀of฀the฀twentieth฀century฀(Dear฀&฀Flusty฀1997;฀Nijman฀2000). Beginning฀ in฀ the฀ 1980s,฀ a฀ group฀ of฀ urban฀ scholars฀ began฀ to฀ challenge฀ the฀ conventional฀wisdom฀that฀the฀evolving฀urban฀landscape฀of฀the฀greater฀Los฀Angeles฀ metropolitan฀ region฀ was฀ a฀ notable฀ exception฀ to฀ the฀ rules฀ governing฀ process฀ of฀ urbanisation฀in฀the฀contemporary฀United฀States.฀They฀argued฀instead฀that฀this฀vast,฀ sprawling฀ urban฀ polyglot฀ was฀ not฀ only฀ symptomatic฀ of฀ wider฀ sociogeographical฀ transformations฀ of฀ metropolitan฀ regions฀ throughout฀ the฀ United฀ States,฀ but฀ also฀ a฀ ‘prototype฀ of฀ our฀ urban฀ future’. 7 ฀ Despite฀ their฀ loose฀ affiliations฀ and฀ somewhat฀ differing฀ orientations,฀ these฀ urban฀ theorists฀ became฀ known฀ as฀ the฀ ‘Los฀ Angeles฀ School’฀ (LA฀ School),฀ primarily฀ because฀ the฀ vast฀ urbanising฀ sprawl฀ of฀ southern฀ California฀was฀not฀only฀the฀site฀of฀much฀of฀their฀research฀but฀also฀the฀source฀of฀their฀ inspiration.฀ The฀ scholarly฀ literature฀ clustered฀ around฀ the฀ LA฀ School฀ is฀ filled฀ with฀ allusions฀ to,฀ and฀ suggestions฀ about,฀ the฀ paradigmatic฀ qualities฀ of฀ the฀ Los฀ Angeles฀ megalopolis. 8 ฀ The฀ focal฀ point฀ of฀ the฀ LA฀ School฀ is฀ the฀ two-sided฀ claim฀ that฀ the฀ greater฀ Los฀ Angeles฀ metropolitan฀ region฀ not฀ only฀ is฀ emblematic฀ of฀ more฀ general฀ urban฀dynamics฀that฀are฀currently฀reshaping฀prominent฀cities฀around฀the฀world,฀but฀ also฀ represents฀ the฀ quintessential฀ exemplar฀ of฀ a฀ ‘“mature”฀ postmodern฀ landscape’฀ (Dear฀ 2000;฀ Dear฀ 2001;฀ Scott฀ 2000;฀ Scott฀ &฀ Soja฀ 1996;฀ Soja฀ 1989;฀ Soja฀ 1996;฀ Soja฀ 1999;฀ Soja฀2000).฀By฀making฀a฀strong฀‘case฀for฀moving฀Los฀Angeles฀from฀a฀ conceptual฀location฀as฀marginal฀aberration฀to฀one฀of฀explanatory฀centrality’฀(Crang฀ 2001:฀666),฀leading฀LA฀School฀figures฀such฀as฀Michael฀Dear,฀Steven฀Flusty,฀Edward฀ Soja,฀Allen฀Scott,฀Michael฀Storper฀and฀others฀have฀self-consciously฀sought฀to฀define฀ an฀alternative฀theoretical฀orientation฀for฀urban฀studies,฀arguing฀that฀the฀new฀kinds฀of฀ urbanity฀that฀have฀evolved฀out฀of฀the฀greater฀Los฀Angeles฀metropolitan฀region฀have฀ rendered฀the฀research฀agenda฀of฀the฀Chicago฀School฀obsolete฀and฀outdated฀(Cenzatti฀ 1993;฀Coquery-Vidrovitch฀2000;฀Dear฀&฀Flusty฀1997;฀Dear฀&฀Flusty฀1998;฀Dear฀ Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za [...]... www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za... download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download... Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za . www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Martin฀J฀Murray 2 The Evolving Spatial Form of Cities in a Globalising World Economy 3 head฀ offices. 2 ฀ While฀ globalisation฀ has฀ affected฀ all฀. ‘paradigmatic฀city’฀may฀be฀defined฀as the exemplary฀metropolis฀that฀displays฀ more฀clearly฀than฀other฀urban฀sites the distinguishing฀features฀and฀general฀trends฀that฀ are฀symptomatic of broader฀sociogeographical฀transformations of cities taking฀place฀ on a world scale. In short,฀it฀anticipates, in a genuinely฀prescient฀way, evolving and฀ The Evolving Spatial Form of Cities in a Globalising World Economy Free download from www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za Martin฀J฀Murray 6 The Evolving Spatial Form of Cities in a Globalising World Economy 7 unfolding฀patterns of global฀urbanisation.฀Understood in this฀way, the ‘paradigmatic฀ city’฀serves฀as฀an฀ideal-typical฀model, a living฀laboratory฀for฀analysis฀and a prototype฀ for฀investigating฀trends฀that฀are฀not฀as฀yet฀easily฀discernible฀