This page intentionally left blank Democratic Accountability and the Use of Force in International Law The spread of democracy to a majority of the world’s states and the legitimization of the use of force by multilateral institutions such as NATO and the UN have been two key developments since the Second World War In the last decade these developments have become intertwined, as multilateral forces moved from traditional peacekeeping to peace enforcement among warring parties This book explores the experiences of nine countries (Canada, France, Germany, India, Japan, Norway, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) in the deployment of armed forces under the UN and NATO, asking who has been and should be accountable to the citizens of these nations, and to the citizens of states who are the object of deployments, for the decisions made in such military actions The authors conclude that national-level mechanisms have been most important in ensuring democratic accountability of national and international decision-makers   is executive vice president and executive director of the American Society of International Law Her recent publications include Global Governance and the Changing Face of International Law (2001), “Using Military Forces under International Auspices and Democratic Accountability” (2001), and “American Lawyers and International Competence” (with Christopher J Borgen, 2000) She is also coeditor with Paul Diehl of the widely used collection, International Law: Classic and Contemporary Readings (1998)    (1929–2001) was, at the time of coediting this book, Jesse Siddal Reeves professor of political science, senior research scientist, and adjunct professor of law at the University of Michigan His many publications include Engaging Countries: Strengthening Compliance with International Environmental Accords (coedited with Edith Brown Weiss, 1998) During his distinguished career he was awarded the Excellence in Education Award of the University of Michigan’s College of Literature, Science, and the Arts; and was elected a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science from which he also received the Award for International Scientific Cooperation Democratic Accountability and the Use of Force in International Law Edited by Charlotte Ku and Harold K Jacobson cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, United Kingdom Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521807470 © The American Society of International Law 2002 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2003 isbn-13 978-0-511-07233-8 eBook (EBL) isbn-13 isbn-10 isbn-10 0-511-07233-3 eBook (EBL) isbn-13 isbn-13 978-0-521-80747-0 hardback isbn-10 isbn-10 0-521-80747-6 hardback isbn-13 978-0-521-00207-3 paperback isbn-13 isbn-10 isbn-10 0-521-00207-9 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate To Jake’s family and students, that his humanity and scholarship may live on Contents List of figures List of tables Notes on contributors Preface List of abbreviations I page ix x xi xix xxii Introduction Broaching the issues       II The domestic and international context The interface of national constitutional systems with international law and institutions on using military forces: changing trends in executive and legislative powers    39 Domestic political factors and decisions to use military forces    61 Collective security, peacekeeping, and ad hoc multilateralism    81 The legal responsibility of military personnel     III 104 Traditional contributors to international military operations Canada: committed contributor of ideas and forces, but with growing doubts and problems    127 vii viii Contents Norway: political consensus and the problem of accountability       India: democratic, poor, internationalist      IV 176 Newcomers to international military operations Japan: moderate commitment within legal strictures   10 Germany: ensuring political legitimacy for the use of military forces by requiring constitutional accountability   V 154 207 231 Permanent members of the UN Security Council 11 Russian Federation: the pendulum of powers and accountability   12 France: Security Council legitimacy and executive primacy  ,  ,    257 280 13 The United Kingdom: increasing commitment requires greater parliamentary involvement    300 14 The United States: democracy, hegemony, and accountability    323 VI Conclusion 15 Toward a mixed system of democratic accountability       Appendix A Uses of military forces under the auspices of the UN and NATO Appendix B Country participation in international operations, 1945–2000 References Index 349 384 399 415 430 426 References Rudner, Martin, “Canada, the Gulf Crisis, and Collective Security” in Fen Osler Hampson and Christopher J Maule (eds.), After the Cold War: Canada Among Nations 1990–91 (Ottawa, Carleton University Press, 1991), pp 241–80 Russell, R B and J B Muther, A History of the United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States, 1940–1945 (Washington, DC, Brookings Institution 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And Other Essays on European Integration (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999) Weller, Marc, “Current Development: the International Response to the Dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia” (1992) 86 American Journal of International Law 569 Weller, M (ed.), Iraq and Kuwait: The Hostilities and their Aftermath (Cambridge, Grotius, 1993) White, N D., Keeping the Peace: The United Nations and the Maintenance of International Peace and Security (2nd edn., Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1997) White, N D., “From Korea to Kuwait: The Legal Basis of United Nations’ Military Action” (1998) 20 International History Review 600 White, N D and R Cryer, “Unilateral Enforcement of Resolution 687: A Threat too Far?” (1999) 29 California Western International Law Journal 272 Wiegandt, Manfred H., “Germany’s International Integration: The Rulings of the German Federal Constitutional Court on the Maastricht Treaty and the Out-of-area Deployment of German Troops” (1995) 10 American University Journal of International Law and Policy 889–916 Wild, M., “Verfassungsrechtliche Moglichkeiten und Grenzen fur Auslandsă ă ă einsă tze der Bundeswehr nach dem Kosovo-Krieg” (2000) Die Offentliche a Verwaltung 622 Wilson, Woodrow, “The Fourteen Points” (Address to Congress, January 8, 1918) Wilson, Woodrow, War and Peace (ed by Ray Stanard Baker and William E Dodd) (8 vols., New York, Harper and Brothers, 1927), vol I Yasuda, Hiroshi (ed.), Peace, Security and the Law (Tokyo, Naigaishuppan, 1996) Yoo, John C., “The Continuation of Politics by Other Means: The Original Understanding of War Powers” (1996) 84 California Law Review 167 Zoller, Elisabeth, Droit des relations ext´rieures (Paris, Presses universitaires de e Paris, 1990) Index Abkhazia 277 ad hoc multilateral peace operations 93, 97, 101–103, 357 Canadian involvement in 130 funding by participants 369 Indian concerns as to use of 179 ad hoc opportunism, avoidance of 383 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights alliances 46, 84 American Convention on Human Rights Aristotle assertive multilateralism, Austria 86, 58 balance of power 82, 84 Berger, Thomas U 64 Blair, Tony 303, 304, 314 Bosnia 95 Canadian participation in UNPROFOR 133 French UNPROFOR leadership 284 NATO airstrikes in 96, 97, 133, 149 Norwegian participation in UNPROFOR 159 Srebrenica Dutchbat, position in international law 117–121 massacre at 96, 118–120, 373 UK participation in 306, 313–318 use of force in 96, 355–356 Bush, George H.W 92, 94 Cambodia 210, 224–225 Canada 68–69 declarations of war by 128 enforcement operations involvement in 139 parliamentary concerns as to 139–143 430 Great Lakes crisis and 135–136 Haiti, involvement in 138 military deployments, legal basis for 128–129 monitoring and observation missions 134 NATO, commitment to 132, 131 non UN peacekeeping operations 131–132, 137 peacekeeping budgetary constraints 152 domestic bureaucratic tensions 135, 137 multidimensional operations 138 parliamentary debate and control 130, 133–137, 148–149, 150 role in 62–63, 71, 130–131, 132, 149 public opinion 72, 149 UN mission to Somalia 143–147 UN monitoring and observation missions 134 UN Security Council, accountability concerns 150–151 US unilateralism, concerns as to 151 cease-fire 215 “Chapter Six-and-a-Half ” operations 89, 90, 94 Russian legislation providing for 270–271 Chapter VII Operations 306–307 use of force, authorization for 354 Chirac, Jacques 291, 292 role in Former Yugoslavia 291 Chr´ tien, Jean 136, 140 e Churchill, Winston 304 Cold War 25, 62, 91, 180, 379 new global order following 381 Index collective security 13, 40, 41 constitutional commitments to 39–40 democratic accountability and 13–14, 366, 380 enforcement or compliance operations, participation in 368 Germany, constitutional consideration of 239, 240 international institutions and 349–350 League of Nations and 15, 82–83 membership commitment 82 multilateral forces, 21st-century role in 81–82 regionalization, European Union and 299 Treaty of Osnabruck and 81, 82 ¨ United Nations authorization for 15–16, 17, 40, 366 United Nations Charter and 83, 380 United States, attitude towards 338 US Congressional issues 48–51 Westminster model of government and 51, 162 collective self-defense 41 collective security, supplement to 379 Japanese constitutional prohibition on 212 right under United Nations Charter 84 communism, collapse of 24, see also Cold War compliance operations, participation in 368 Confederation of Independent States, collective peacekeeping deployment to Abkhazia 277 Congo 134–135, 158–159, 182, 283, 287 conscripts 45 constitutional control over use of force, trends in 42–48, 58–60 Cyprus 132, 305–306 United Kingdom involvement in 305–306 Dahl, Robert A 9, 10, 34, 80, 176, 177, 349, 381, 382 de Gaulle, Charles 291, 282 democracy cosmopolitan 11 definition of development of 7–8 elections and 8, 10 representative 10 tenets of 6–7 431 democratic accountability analyses framework 28–31 collective security and 13–14, 379–380 collective use of military forces 379 consensus-based foreign policy considerations 155, 175 enforcement action, United States by 369 enforcement operations 362–364 enforcement operations with humanitarian aims, 368, see also humanitarian intervention evolving mixed system of 375–378 France international and domestic standards 280 parliamentary control 296 future prospects 34–35 Germany 237, 238–239, 253 armed forces of 233 individual citizen’s involvement 241 non-delegation doctrine 243 India 199–201, 203 interaction with international institutions 8, 9, 28 international institutions and, 8, 10, see also United Nations Security Council Japan 14, 208, 210, 214, 218, 219–221, 222, 229–230 military forces, use of 4, 12 Norway Enlarged Foreign Policy Committee 163 national consensus as to 155 political decision-making and 77 Russian Federation, parliament lacking ability to control executive 278–279 study methodology study outline 31–34 UN mandated peace operations 25–26 United Kingdom effectiveness of 319–322 use of force under UN mandate 310–319 War Cabinet, role of 302–304, 322 United Nations Security Council 185–186, 352–354, 378 use of force 61 auspices of international institutions under 351–352, 367–368 control of executive action 365–366 mixed system of 321, 375–378 United States and 344 432 Index democratic deficit 80 European Union and 11 democratic government, authorization for use of force 27 democratic polity, characteristics of 10 democratization 349, 350 Diefenbaker, John 131, 135 assertive internationalism 131 Dutchbat 117–121 East Timor 137, 184, 216, 306 elections 8, 10 Ethiopia 15, 86 European Convention on Human Rights, 7, see also human rights, humanitarian intervention European Security and Defense Identity, development of 296–297 European Union foreign policy, role of peacekeeping in 298 international military operations, role in 296–297 rapid reaction force 293, 297 regional collective security function 299 former colonial powers France 283, 285 interventionism 97 Former Yugoslavia French participation 284 German participation 56–58 NATO Implementation Force 159, 162, 307, 309–310 Nordic stand-by UN force, participation by 161 Norwegian participation, legality of 168–170 peacekeeping and enforcement, parliamentary authorization for 55, 133–134 UN embargo, Germany, participation in 236 United Nations Protection Force, role in 96, 117–121, 118–120, 133, 159 US participation 50, 133 use of force in 183 see also Bosnia, Kosovo France armed forces deployment parliamentary debate and control 294–296, 298–299 presidential powers 289, 294 cohabitation, effect on foreign policy 291–292 colonial legacy and 283, 285 constitution renunciation of war by 45 responsibility for military affairs under 51 crisis decision-making 292–293 democratic accountability, international and domestic standards 280 multipolarity, preference for 287–288 obtaining permanent Security Council membership 282 peacekeeping Africa 289 RECAMP initiative 289, 286 use of troops based in 285–286, 289 casualties, attitude towards 289 Congo, dissatisfaction with 283 constitutional framework 289 financial commitment to 284–285 involvement in 282 participation in 283, 285 reluctance to accept international supervision 283 Rwanda, operations in 290–291 Suez, dissatisfaction with 283, 305 public opinion 289, 290, 291 role in UN decision making process 284 self-defense 293 United Nations Security Council, active role in 285–287 “Uniting for Peace”, opposition towards 287, 354 use of force categories employed on international operations 280–281 flexibility as to 285 importance of mandate for 281 legitimacy and effectiveness considerations 281–282 Geneva Conventions 1949 110, 112, 113 Germany 55, 56–58, 63, 64, 67, 70, 78 armed forces “citizens in uniform” concept 251 civilian control of 248–250 deployment international authorization for 239 international law, conformity with 236, 240 parliamentary debate and control 237, 241–244, 247, 252–253 urgent, executive power to authorize 245, 247 Index post deployment change request by legislature 245–246 rules of engagement 250–251 collective security, constitutional consideration of 239, 240 constitutional approval for UN authorized operations 234–235 constitutional collective security provision 236, 240 contribution to western European defense 232–233 democratic accountability 233, 237, 238–239, 253 extent of citizen’s involvement 241 non-delegation doctrine 243 separation of powers 245 international operations, public opinion and 237 NATO, membership of 232, 234 pacifist movement, 1980s development of 235 parliamentary system 241 participation in UN embargo against Former Yugoslavia 236 peacekeeping casualties, attitude towards 250 post Cold War involvement in 234 post war rearmament 233 public opinion 71–72, 235, 247, 250, 252–253 use of force constitutional consideration of 232, 241, 243–244, 242 global parliament, prospects for 382 Gorbachev, Mikhail 19, 91, 259, 261 Gulf War Canadian participation 139–143, 139 constitutional authority to commit troops 54–55 financial contribution in lieu of troop commitment 56–58, 59, 209 Germany and 56–58, 64, 235 Japan and 56–58, 64, 209 UK participation 311–313 US participation 49, 54, 6465, 92 Haiti 138 Hammarskjold, Dag 160, 283 ă Held, David 11 cosmopolitan democracy and 11 Hobbes, Thomas 81 433 human rights 350 norms, acceptance of 350 humanitarian intervention 93, 95, 173, 174, 314, 315–316, 350, see also Somalia and Kosovo development of 378, 379 French dimension 282 Indian rejection of 185, 204 intra-state conflicts, authorization for 25, 355–356, 379 public awareness as to need for 368 humanitarian relief operations, Japanese involvement in 215, 216, 217 independent commissions of inquiry, UK use of 302 India armed forces 195–196, 199 deployment, parliamentary debate and control 189, 194, 199 personnel, legal liability on international operations 198 civil-military relations 194–195 colonialism, legacy of 177–178, 181–182 democratic accountability 199–201, 203 democratic credentials 177 foreign policy, UN support for 179–180, 204 humanitarian intervention doctrine, rejection of 185, 204 National Security Council, role and organization of 196–197 opposition to secession through terrorism 202 peacekeeping bureaucratic and executive control 189–190 casualties, attitude towards 197, 199 decision-making agencies 190 decision-making process 191–194 military operational decision-making 190–191 participation factors 188 motives 188 role in 63, 69, 176, 178–179, 180, 182–183 response to Sierra Leone crisis 186–188 response to Sri Lankan crisis 201–203 Suez, view on 181 UN standby brigade group United Nations Security Council fears over US domination 204 membership aspirations 188 434 Index Indochina 131–132 French involvement in 283 non UN peacekeeping in 131–132, 176, 178–179, 183 supervisory commission, Indian role in 181–182 International Committee of the Red Cross 109, 111–112 International Criminal Court, 123, see also international tribunals international humanitarian law applicability in context of UN peace support operations 109–114 role of Dutchbat in Srebrenica 117–121 international institutions 20th-century development of 378 cosmopolitan democracy and 11 democratic accountability and 10, 27, 28, 381 democratic deficit and 11 interaction with national democracies 8, 27, 28, 39–40 majority rule and participation, constitutional considerations 40–41 international law, individual, status of 379 international tribunals, jurisdiction 374 internationalization, effect on democracy 349 intra-state conflict 26–27 humanitarian intervention in 355–356, 379 probable 21st-century developments 381 Ireland 54, 58 neutrality of 58 peacekeeping, role in 54, 62 public opinion in 72 Japan 55, 56–58, 63, 64, 70, 78 Cambodian peace process, role in 210, 224–225 collective self-defense, constitutional prohibition on 212 democratic accountability 14, 208, 210, 214, 218, 219–221, 222, 229–230 enforcement measures, constitutional prohibition on participation in 214 humanitarian relief operations, involvement in 215, 216, 217 “moderate approach” of 228, 229 parliamentary cabinet system 218, 219, 223, 224 peace operations, constitutional restrictions 207–208, 210–211 peacekeeping bureaucratic and political controls 221 casualties, attitude towards 223, 224–225, 229 requirement for UN General Assembly or Security Council resolution 215, 217 public opinion 71, 209, 210–211, 222, 223, 224, 229 security policy, participation in international military operations 210, 229 Self-Defense Forces civilian control of 226–227 deployment, parliamentary debate and control 210, 213, 214, 218, 219–221, 222, 223, 225–226, 229 liability under international humanitarian law 227–228 peacekeeping and 70, 208–209 prohibition on dispatch abroad 211–212 rescue of civilians by 217 restriction on use of force by 211–212, 213, 217 United Nations Security Council, membership aspirations 210 use of force compliance with Peacekeeping Law 214 historical perspective 226–227 parliamentary consideration of 214 judicial review, United Nations Security Council decisions 288, 184 just war doctrine 26 Kant, Immanuel 44 Kellog-Briand Pact 13, 85 Keohane, Robert O 11 democratic deficit and 11 Korea 17, 24, 52–53, 160 UN mandated UK participation 310–311 UN mandated US participation 88 Kosovo 4, 19, 41–42, 73–74 Canadian participation 143, 149 German participation 56–58, 247 justification for intervention in 173, 174, 355–356 NATO airstrikes 97–99, 100, 143, 149, 247, 314, 344 Norwegian participation 168–170 participation in, parliamentary approval for 55–56, 141–143 Russian participation 276, 278 Index UN Security Council authority for NATO intervention 287–288, 356 unilateral action by NATO, Indian criticism of 183–184 United Kingdom participation 303, 304, 306 US participation, Congressional approval for 50, 364–365, 371 Kurds, humanitarian assistance to 92 Kuwait, 17, 24, 91, 209, see also Gulf War Lansing, Robert 15 law of war, military forces participating in UN and NATO missions and 28 League of Nations 13, 14–15, 46 collective security and 82–83 institutional legacy of 85–87 opposition to 82–83 US isolationism and 46–47 legal status, military personnel acting under UN and NATO auspices 104–107, 373–375 Leviathan 81 Lloyd George, David 14 Madison, James 44, 46 majority rule international institutions and 9, 25, 26 Maksoud, Clovis 65 Manchuria 15, 86 mass media, role of 70–71, 160 Melian Dialogue 81 Mexico 53 middle powers, peacekeeping role of 62, 63, 68 military forces authorization for use by international institutions 349 civilian control 370, 371, 375 civilian responsibility for 372, 375 collective use, democratic accountability of 379 democratic accountability and 4, 12, 27, 28, 152 study methodology 5, 12 deployment, Norwegian constitutional practice 162–163 domestic political factors 75 expanded role of 378–379 Germany, rules of engagement 250–251 international authorization for use 352 international operations, participation in 4–5 435 Japan civilian accountability and 226–227 constitutional prohibition 214, 216 legal responsibility during international operations 373–375 multilateral organizations and 84–85 national authorization for use 361, 371 parliamentary control 128–129 Russian Federation, legislative provisions for deployment 269, 270–272, 274–277 unilateral and unrestrained use of 349 unilateral use 3–4 United Nations’ missions, participation in 17–18, 19–25, 27, 28 use authorization by democratic governments 27 mission creep 319, 359, 364, 369 Mitterand, Fran¸ ois 290, 291, 292 c Mladic, Ratko 119 multinational military operations, constitutional issues 52–53 multipolarity 287–288 NATO 18–19 airstrikes authorization for 168–170 use by 96, 97–99, 100 attitude of Russian Federation towards 276 broad enforcement responsibility difficulties 382 Canadian commitment to 132, 131 compliance with law of war 28 consensual decision-making 79 democratically controlled robust military capability 382 evolving role of 40, 41 French intervention in case of attack 293 German membership of 232, 234, 239 Norwegian participation 154, 168–170 Operation Allied Force in Kosovo 4, 17, 19, 352, 380 basis for intervention 41–42 target selection 371 operations, UN Security Council approval for, 159 UK commitment to 305, 307–309 unanimity and delegation under North Atlantic Treaty 343–344 unilateral action in Kosovo, criticism of 183–184 United Nations Charter, legitimacy under 18 Nehru, Jawaharlal 179, 180 436 Index new world order, United Nations role in 93, 92 non governmental organizations 11, 73, 80, 289 Non-Aligned Movement 178, 179, 379 Nordic stand-by UN force 160–161 Former Yugoslavia and 161 Norwegian parliamentary approval for 161 North Atlantic Council 3, 13 Norway armed forces, deployment, parliamentary debate and control 157, 158 personnel, legal liability on international operations 164–165 voluntary participation in international operations 164–165 constitutional law foreign control of armed forces 165–168 participation in international operations 162–163 constitutional practice, participation in international operations 162–163 enforcement operations, involvement in 160 foreign policy consensus basis 155, 175 development of 154, 155, 170–171 humanitarian intervention 172–174 sovereignty, security and UN involvement 171–172 monitoring and observation missions 156 NATO, membership of 154 Nordic stand-by UN force, parliamentary approval for 161 peacekeeping international mandate compliance operations 158–159 participation in UN missions 154 royal prerogative 163 UN mission to Somalia, role in 158 UNEF Gaza contingent, deployment of 156–157 UNIFIL contingent deployment of 157–158 factors leading to withdrawal 157, 158 Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm see Gulf War overflight rights 56, 59 peace operations ad hoc multilateral undertakings 93, 97, 101, 102, 103 Canadian involvement, political and cultural factors 130 Peace of Westphalia 13, 81 Pearson, Lester 131, 65 permanent neutrality 45–46 use of force and 76 political leadership, participation in peacekeeping and 65–66 prerogative power 163, 211, 300–301 public debate, use of force 382 public opinion 71–73, 209, 210–211 Rambouillet accord 183, 314 RECAMP, African regional peacekeeping initiative 289, 286 regional arrangements 99–101 Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Deployment of Canadian Forces in Somalia 143, 144–147, 152–153 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, social person concept of 154, 175 rule of law 6, 8–9, 25, 26 Russia 66, 67, 68, 76 Balkans, interest in 276 international operations, involvement during Soviet period 257, 258–263 see also Russian Federation Russian Federation armed forces deployment constitutionality of 277 Federal Council powers 265–266 parliamentary debate and control 274–277 presidential powers 263–264, 265, 271, 274, 277, 278 enforcement operations, legal basis for participation in 274 Federation Assembly, powers of 265 Kosovo, criticism of involvement by Tatarstan Republic 276 parliament lacking ability to control executive 278–279 peacekeeping casualties, attitude towards 275 official doctrine provision for 272–274 participation in CIS deployment to Abkhazia 277 statutory power to deploy armed forces 269, 270–272 relations with NATO 276 Index Rwanda 95 death of UN peacekeepers 373 French involvement 290–291 Scandinavia 53, 63, 66–67, 76 Nordic stand-by UN force 160–161 Former Yugoslavia and 161 secret treaties of alliance 46 separation of powers 43, 45, 245, 326–327 September 11 2001 German response to 252 North Atlantic Council, response by United Nations Security Council, response by Sharma, Kamalesh 185, 186 Slavic brotherhood 276 societal groups, opinion-forming role of 73 Somalia 93 Canadian participation 143–144 Indian participation 182–183 Norwegian participation 158 Unified Task Force operation in 94 Soviet Union 88–89, 90 state sovereignty, human rights, maintenance of 173, 383 Suez 130–131, 305, 307–309, 156–157 French view of 283, 305 Indian view of 181 superpowers 91, 335–338 Switzerland 58 Tatarstan 276 Thucydides 81 Treaty of Osnabruck 81 ă UN and NATO operations 1948 to 2000 17–18, 384–395, 396–398 participating states 399–414 UN peacekeepers death of 72, 74, 79, 373 hostages 133, 149, 186, 187 unitary actor approach 61 United Kingdom armed forces, deployment, parliamentary debate and control 300–302, 307, 309–310 royal prerogative and 300–301, 317–318, 322 international criminal tribunal jurisdiction over 302 Cyprus, involvement in 305–306 democratic accountability, effectiveness of 319–320, 321–322 437 East Timor, parliamentary scrutiny of 317–319 Gulf War, role in 311–313 independent commissions of inquiry 302 Korea involvement in 310–311 parliamentary scrutiny and 320 Kosovo involvement in 303, 304, 308–309, 313–318 parliamentary scrutiny and 315–319, 321–322 ministerial responsibility, crimes against humanity 302 NATO, membership of 305, 307–309 peacekeeping casualties, attitude towards 310 executive decision-making and 300 public opinion 310–311, 321, 303, 358 Suez, role in 305 UN peacekeeping, rapid troop deployment commitment 306 “Uniting for Peace” resolution, attitude towards 305 use of force, government accountability for 321 War Cabinet, role of 302–304, 322 United Nations competition from regional alliances 79, 97–99 evolving role of 41 intra-state conflicts, involvement in 89 United Nations Charter 13, 14, 15–18, 87 Article 43 agreements 361 changing US attitude towards 341–342 collective security and 15–16, 17, 26–27, 47, 83, 380 collective security guarantees in 83 NATO, legitimation of 18 right of self defense 40, 84 United States ratification of 338–339 United Nations’ enforcement operations, democratic accountability and 362–364 United Nations’ mandates constitutional position of Norwegian armed forces 165–168 implementation by national authorities 371–372 legal responsibility under 107–108 need for 161, 168–170, 171 responsibility for 373 438 Index United Nations’ missions accountability for 372 command structure 370 compliance with norms of law of war 28 financial contributions to 369 military forces, participation in 17–18, 19–25, 28, 69, 70, 384–395, 396–398, 399–414 neutral states, participation in 76, 58 subsequent modifications to 359, 369 United Nations’ monitoring and observation missions 134, 306, 361–362, 156 United Nations’ peace support operations applicability of international humanitarian law, 109–114, 122, 112, see also humanitarian intervention “experts on mission,” legal status of 114–116, 122 regionalism and universalism, relationship between 304–305 status of military personnel 107–108 United Nations peacekeeping Canadian participation 62–63, 71, 130, 130–131, 132, 133, 134–135, 149 classical formulation of 94 Congo 134–135 constitutional inhibitions to participation 53 Cyprus 132 financial commitment to 68, 90, 188, 284–285, 369 France, use of troops stationed in Africa 285–286 French participation 283, 285 German participation 67, 64, 70, 71–72, 78, 234 host state consenting to 25, 215, Indian participation 63, 69, 176, 178–179, 180, 182–183, 188 international tribunals, jurisdiction and 374 Ireland, participation 54, 72, 69 Japanese participation 70, 208–209, 215, 217 key characteristics 89 legal status and responsibility of participants 104–107 legislative control over executive decision-making 362 Model Status-of-forces Agreement 108–109 multidimensional operations 138, 151 Norwegian participation 154, 155, 157–158 parliamentary inquiries into 59 participation considerations 188–189 role of societal groups 73 parties, consent to 89 rapid troop deployment commitment 306 regional arrangements and 99–101 Russian participation 66, 67, 76 financial considerations 68 Scandinavian practice 53, 63, 66–67 Suez 130–131 US participation in 64, 69–70, 77 financial considerations 68 US public opinion and 72–73, 79 voluntary participation, Norwegian armed forces 164–165 United Nations Security Council 3, 26–27 accountability of 130, 150–151, 358–359, 372 approval of NATO operations by 159 approval of use of force by US 339–341 arbitrary exercise of power by 184, 185 Chapter VII operation authorization by 306–307, 354 collective security role of 83–84 competency of 288 consultation with contributing states 152, 361 democratic accountability and 378 developing states, under-representation on 185 France active role played on 285–287, membership obtained by de Gaulle 282 humanitarian intervention, authorization for, 93, 357, see also humanitarian intervention intra-state conflicts and 26–27, 357 judicial review of 288, 184 Kuwait, response to 91–92 lack of democratic accountability 185–186 legitimacy of 287–288, 299 modification to missions by 359, 369 permanent membership 16, 47, 64, 65, 87, 181, 210, 288, 305 veto, use of 358 proceedings, transparency of 359–360, 361 Index Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations 365, 372 representation of diverse membership 288, 360 resolutions, unilateral interpretation by members 289 secretariat, shortcomings of 372 Soviet Union, boycott by 88–89 superpower cooperation with 91, 204 transfer of powers to General Assembly if deadlocked, 180, 354, see also “Uniting for Peace” resolution use of force, authorization by 92, 288, 289, 378 veto 358 alternative role of General Assembly 354 use of by United States 339 voting, basis for 358 United Nations Truce Supervision Organization 88 United States alliances, wariness of 334, 342 changing attitudes to UNC Article 43 agreements 341–342 Constitution, power to declare war 323, 324–327, 329 treaty authorizing use of force 325 use of force and 44, 323 democratic accountability, use of force and 344 enforcement actions democratic accountability for 369 global capacity for 369 military force structure 335–338 multilateral use of force and 344 peacekeeping casualties, attitude towards 79, 131, 332, 344 disproportionate contribution by 336–338 presidential power to declare war 324–325, 327 public opinion 332–334, 345 UN Charter, ratification by 338–339 use of force approval by UN Security Council 339–341 law governing 323–324 membership of international organizations and 334, 338 North Atlantic Treaty and 328, 329 party politics and 329–332 protection of national interests 365 439 separation of powers and 326–327 UN Charter and 328 War Powers Resolution and 327–329, 331 “Uniting for Peace” Resolution 88, 89, 90, 271, 354, 357–358 French opposition towards 287, 354, 303, 358 Indian abstention from vote on 354 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 6–7 use of force ad hoc coalitions 97, 101, 102, 103 authorization, reliance upon Chapter VII 354 UN Security Council by 92 Bosnia in 96 civilian control 370, 371, 375 consensus-building, protection of 383 constitutional renunciation 56 emerging democracies, decision to use by 78 enforcement action 74, 75 Former Yugoslavia 183 France categories for use in international setting 280–281 flexibility as to 285 importance of mission mandate for 281 legitimacy and effectiveness considerations 281–282 future trends 79–80 Germany armed forces operating under international auspices 237–238 constitutional position 232 parliamentary approval requirement 241–242 international pressure and 77–78 Japan, constitutional prohibition on 211–212, 213, 214, 216, 217 mass media, role in 70–71 means of ensuring compliance 179 multilateral 80 multilateral authorization, legitimacy and effectiveness of 350 multilateral consultation by states 382 multilateral organizations and 84–85 national authorization for 361 negative experience of 79 political considerations in 61–62, 65 public debate 382 public opinion and 71–73 UN peacekeepers by 107–108 440 Index use of force (cont.) UN Security Council approval of use by US 339–341 authorization of 92, 288, 289, 378 UN Security Council or General Assembly, authorization by 180 United Kingdom government accountability for 321 royal prerogative and 300–301 War Cabinet and 302–304 United States authorization, political reasons for 335 law governing use of 323–324 membership of international organization and 334 USSR, participation in UN Missions 257, 258–263 War renunciation of 39, 45 republican theory of 44 use of conscripts in 45 War Powers Resolution 1973, 48, 49, 50, 365, 372 West Timor, humanitarian relief operation 216 Wilson, Woodrow 13, 14, 47, 85, 379 ... intentionally left blank Democratic Accountability and the Use of Force in International Law The spread of democracy to a majority of the world’s states and the legitimization of the use of force. .. Limits of the Security Council’s Powers and its Functions in the International Legal System: Some Reflections” in The Role of Law in International Politics, Essays in International Relations and International. .. democratic accountability The gap in the literature is striking, because establishing and maintaining democratic accountability in the Charlotte Ku and Harold K Jacobson use of military forces has