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Standard English Varieties of English Standard English Varieties of English Babette Verhoeven University of Huddersfield Aquinas College, Stockport Outline 1 Exploring what standard English is a.Standard English Varieties of English Standard English Varieties of English Babette Verhoeven University of Huddersfield Aquinas College, Stockport Outline 1 Exploring what standard English is a.
Standard English & Varieties of English Babette Verhoeven University of Huddersfield & Aquinas College, Stockport Outline: Exploring what standard English is and the debates surrounding this notion A look at some examples of non-standard English Dialect variety in UK: a look at Northern dialects – lexis and grammar; Regional accents of Northern England; How are Northern English speakers perceived – sociolinguistic approach to variety Non-UK varieties of English: a taste of World Englishes’ lexis; Non-UK English: African American Vernacular – phonology & grammar Sociolect as a variety of English: the case of Polari Some final thoughts on standard English & varieties in English Activity 1: What is standard English? • Can you come up with a definition of standard English in your own words? • What about the definitions of standard English on the handout: is there one that you would choose as a preferred definition? Why? • Are there any of these definitions that you disagree with? Why? • Of the SE definitions on the handout, are any familiar to you? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Definition: Standard English can be recognised by the use of a very small range of forms such as those books, I did it and I wasn’t doing anything (rather than their non-standard equivalents); it is not limited to any particular accent It is the variety of English which is used with only minor variation, as a major world language Some people use Standard English all the time, in all situations from the most casual to the most formal, so it covers most registers The form of the English language widely accepted as the usual correct form The English that with respect to spelling, grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary is substantially uniform though not devoid of regional differences, that is well established by usage in the formal and informal speech and writing of the educated and that is widely recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken and understood English which is characterized by idiom, vocabulary etc., that is regarded as correct and acceptable by educated native speakers A standard language is a variety of language that is used by governments, in the media, in schools and for international communication There are different standard varieties of English in the world, such as North American English, Australian English and Indian English Although these standard varieties differ in terms of their pronunciation, there are few differences in grammar between them In contrast, there are non-standard forms of a language that are used, for example, in different regional dialects and these non-standard varieties are different from each other Examples of SE where teachers will be familiar with their common nonSE equivalents National Curriculum for English – Glossary: Standard English can be recognized by the use of a very small range of forms such as those books, I did it and I wasn’t doing anything (rather than their non-standard equivalents); it is not limited to any particular accent It is the variety of English which is used with only minor variation, as a major world language Some people use Standard English all the time, in all situations from the most casual to the most formal, so it covers most registers The aim of the national curriculum is that everyone should be able to use Standard English as needed in writing and in relatively formal speaking The only definition that includes pronunciation (accent as part of SE?) & informal register & spoken mode – very comprehensive! Oxford Dictionary: The form of the English language widely accepted as the usual correct form Merriam-Webster Dictionary: The English that with respect to spelling, grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary is substantially uniform though not devoid of regional differences, that is well established Passive voice hides authority behind the acceptance as “usual correct form” Adverb “widely” implies most of us know it when we see it… by usage in the formal and informal speech and writing of the educated and that is widely recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken and understood “Bob’s your uncle” as standard English in USA? Need to posit different national standards first! Cambridge Dictionary: A standard language is a variety of language that is Collins English Dictionary: used by governments, in the media, in schools and English which is characterized by for international communication There are different idiom, vocabulary etc., that is standard varieties of English in the world, such as regarded as correct and acceptable North American English, Australian English and by educated native speakers Indian English Although these standard varieties differ in terms of their pronunciation, there are few “Educated” features frequently – education drives standardisation? Why “native”, when more non-native speakers – who will have been taught SE - speak the language? differences in grammar between them In contrast, One of the few definitions to acknowledge varieties of standards and to imply standard is linked to dialects! there are non-standard forms of a language that are used, for example, in different regional dialects and these non-standard varieties are different from each other What is missing from these definitions? • An indication, explanation of the origin(s) of standard English; • An indication or acknowledgement that standard English is itself subject to diachronic change; • For most definitions, an indication that standard English itself comes in different varieties; • Some definitions draw on the notion of standard English as a form that is used / suitable for a range of different registers, while others ignore register completely; • Webster’s definition includes speech, whereas most definitions stick to written mode only – so an indication whether SE applies to a specific mode only or to all; • For most, there is little mention of the role of accent – only NC definition mentions SE as being possible in any accent, while Webster’s includes “pronunciation” (accent?) as part of SE; • Again, Webster’s is the exception here, but most definitions lack an awareness of English’ nature as the global Lingua Franca and fact there are more non-native speakers than native speakers of English; • For most, a descriptivist approach, HOWEVER, adjective “correct” appears twice implying a prescriptivist attitude; • Apart from the NC’s definition, none include examples of SE or non-SE – expected to know it when you see it What linguists have to say about standard English? This definition was drawn up after consultation with the LAGB “Standard English can be recognized by the use of a very small range of forms such as those books, I did it and I wasn’t doing anything (rather than their non-standard equivalents); it is not limited to any particular accent It is the variety of English which is used with only minor variation, as a major world language Some people use Standard English all the time, in all situations from the most casual to the most formal, so it covers most registers” So, what linguists have to say about Standard English? Standard English [is] a class dialect based on written norms … Unusually, in England, the standard language is strongly associated with a powerful class accent, Received Pronunciation (or BBC, Queen’s, Oxford etc English) Written Australian, Indian, British English are understood by all English speakers… we can describe this international kind of written English as standard English Paul Kerswill SE speakers have a full range of styles, including swearing and slang The social convention in most English-speaking societies is for SE to dominate relatively formal social situations BUT the NSE-SE parameter is theoretically independent of the formalinformal parameter Peter Trudgill David Crystal What are the perceptions (stereotypes) of Northern English speakers? A Northern English speaker: Angela Rayner MP • Born in Stockport, Greater Manchester • Left school aged 16, worked as Care Worker for Stockport Council, UNISON Rep, rose to position of highest UNISON official in North West before standing in 2015 election • MP for Ashton-under-Lyne in Greater Manchester • Shadow Education Secretary Angela Rayner received “half a dozen” emails attacking her for her northern accent, according to her office, following an appearance on Channel News • Rayner has pointed out that even in her own party she has been subject to comments & snide remarks because of how she speaks (or because of what her speech says about her class origins)? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cXp-qopqxrM (Angela Rayner interview clip) The comment on Rayner’s speech: Analysis NSE punctuation, spelling & capitalisation Implies this is a well-known stereotype I am appalled having watched you on question time If you wanted to represent Northerners as ‘thick individuals’, then well done you have succeeded I work in a school and I would not be able to appoint you as you cannot speak Standard English We have 26 letters in the alphabet and 44 phonemes in the English Language I suggest you learn them, particularly the letter ‘T’ Look at YOUR constituancy [sic] rather than the labor [sic] line I will happily give you my home address and would welcome a one to one discussion with you Please contact me directly on and I would love to discuss this further with you I look forward to hearing from you An embarrassed constituent Someone who lives in North…maybe a Northerner who’s experienced negative stereotyping? Chose to change dialects in order to be educational professional? Education = gatekeeper of SE – as Parliament should also be? Educational lexical choices – identification of “professional” class (as opposed to Rayner?) 44 phonemes… only if you are RP speaker! Non-UK Varieties of English Have a go at the World English lexis Quiz – Activity • Lexical and idiomatic variation across world Englishes • A closer look at the grammar and lexis of AAVE Activity 6: World English Lexis Quiz – the answers a sneakers = trainers b sidewalk = pavement c elevator = lift d hood (as in a car) = bonnet B A woollen hat, a beanie A traffic light A to become exhausted B “tire” in USA, but “tyre” in Canada B Canadian English C Overhead projector Dutch has taken the English noun / verb “beam” and added the suffix –er (this suffix has the same function in Dutch as it has in English) Dutch speakers of English frequently assume that “beamer” must also be the standard English word… African-American Vernacular English (previously BVE) William Labov’s research into what was then known as BVE (Language in the inner city, 1972) Established that AAVE has (like all NSE dialects) grammatical structure, it is not “broken” English: • Perceptions of AAVE speakers as “unintelligent” are because educators come from mostly white, middle-class backgrounds and are unfamiliar with AAVE’s phonology, lexicon & grammatical structure; • AAVE speakers (as all speakers of minority NSE speakers) should be taught both how to use SE and when to use SE, make students bidialectal • AAVE is typical in hip-hop, a genre that arose out of political struggle of inner city communities (mostly African-American) in late 1970s and 1980s, especially New York AAVE has a political role, as well as social function • As result of hip-hop & rap’s popularity white (young) people also use AAVE – even in Britain! AAVE as a NSE form that has covert prestige What are the typical features of AAVE? Grammatical: Phonological: • /ð/ substation with /d/ e.g “them” becomes “dem” or in case of initial /ð/ may be deleted “’em”; ibid /Ɵ/ with /t/ • Final –ing instead of /ɪŋ/ becomes /ɪn/; • Words ending in two (or more) consonants often final consonant is dropped This happens especially if the next word also starts with a consonant e.g “West Side” becomes “Wes Side” • The dipthong /aɪ/ as in “my” is reduced to a vowel /a/ Some features are similar to (white) USA dialects – but others such as aspect suggest an influence of West African languages such as Maninka, Yoruba, and Bambare as spoken by original slaves in America • Omission of copula “to be” e.g “she fine”; omission of auxiliary “to be” e.g “you talkin’” • Negator “ain’t” and double or multiple negatives as emphatic e.g “ain’t nobody”; Negative inversion: “Can’t nobody beat them!” “Ain’t talking to nobody” • Habitual aspect (which doesn’t exist in SE): “He be working” = he has a regular job, but he’s not necessarily at work right now (present tense habitual) / “he working” = he is working right now (present tense progressive); • Regular 3rd person singular present tense verb: “he say”, “it rain” • Past tense –ed suffix can be omitted if context makes clear it is past: “Yesterday, I walk home” • Unmarked possessive forms when context is clear: “That Dwayne car” • Perfect aspect is indicated through the past participle “done”: “He done eat his dinner” • Future tense / prospective aspect marked with “gonna”; • Distinct 2nd person plural from singular e.g “y’all” Activity 7: AAVE usage in rap / hip-hop: Tupac Shakur lyrics Tell me baby are you lonely? Don't wanna rush ya I can help ya if ya only, let me touch ya If I'm wrong love tell me, cause I get caught up and the life I live is Hell see, I never thought I'd see the day when I would calm down, you ain't heard I've been known to clown and Get Around, that's my word See you walkin and you lookin good, yes indeed Got a body like a sex fiend, you're killin me witcha attitude to match right, don't be phony cause I hate when you act like, you don't know me I be stressin in the spotlight, I want the fame but the industry's a lot like, a crap game Ain't no time for commitment, I gotta go Can't be wit you every minute miss, another show And even though I'm known for my one night stand I wanna be an honest man, but temptations go Negator “ain’t” Omission of auxiliary Pronunciation of final /θ/ as /t/ Double negative Habitual aspect: “be + present participle” Sociolects as Varieties of English Omies and palones of the jury, vada well at the eek of the poor ome who stands before you, his lallies trembling… • Polari as an example of a distinct (extinct?) sociolect Men and women of the jury, look well at the face of the poor man who stands before you, his legs trembling… Activity 8: Polari – Gay men’s sociolect • Can you identify origins of this typical Polari lexis? E.g borrowing, other coining processes at work? • Why would gay men develop a distinct sociolect and not lesbians? Officially, lesbianism was never criminalised Attempts to criminalise lesbianism in late 19th C failed However, women suspected of lesbian behaviour could be arrested on other charges relating to witchcraft (sex with the devil), prostitution, etc Male homosexuality’s criminalisation meant a need for subterfuge, hence the rise of an argot only used by the in-group until the late 1970s… Activity 8: Polari Lexis • Polari lexis borrowed from Italian, Romany, sailors’ pidgin Lingua Franca, theatrical & circus-argot (gay men were tolerated, found safe spaces in these social settings), and also features backward English • Italian lexis (as result of Lingua Franca pidgin used by sailors originally?) gave rise to “omi” (cf Italian “uomo” for “man”), “bona nochy”, “bona to vada” (cf Italian “videre” for “to see”), as well as ordinal numbers “una”, “dooey” etc • Backward English: “riah” – “hair” and “esong” – “nose” and “eek” for “face”, which first became “ee-caf”, clipped later to “eek” • There’s even some rhyming slang: “Vera Lynn” for “gin” • Other languages were also borrowed from, e.g “gelt” is Yiddish for “money” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y8yEH8TZUsk: short film with Polari dialogue (comments feature English “translation”) Q: what is it that the two men fall out over at the end? A: the smoker (left) told police outside a public toilet that there was a gay man inside, allowing himself to escape the raid Polari: • Gay men’s sociolect from late 19th century; • Used until 1960s, since 1967 Sexual Offences Act ended the ban on homosexual acts slowly led to acceptance and change in culture; • Mostly lexical – little grammatical difference from SE; • Origins thought to be in the original Lingua Franca, the Mediterranean pidgin used by sailors since late Middle Ages; • The name “polari” is derived from “parlare” (to speak in Italian); • Example: “handbag” is Polari for “money” – could this be part of Oscar Wilde’s satire in The Importance of Being Earnest? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VHVxpLD EAo8 Can you name any “loanwords” in English today that have come from Polari? • acdc (adjective) = bisexual • bijou (adjective) = small • blag (verb) = to obtain sth by persuasion / deception • butch (adjective, noun) = non-feminine lesbian • camp (adjective) = theatrical, ostentatious • hoofer (noun) = dancer • mince (verb) = walk with affected daintiness • naff (adjective) = lacking in style, inept, vulgar • ogle (noun) = eye – gave English the verb “ogle” • scarper (verb) = to run off • slap (noun) = make-up Some final thoughts: ✓ SE is contested concept; ✓ No (native) English speaker speaks SE, although most will write SE most of the time; ✓ Standardisation is an ongoing process, part of diachronic language change across a language; ✓ British dialects are converging – from rural areas in early 20th there’s been a steady move towards the dialects of regional town / city: dialect levelling; ✓ Research suggests distinct dialect lexis (especially in the Midlands & North) is being replaced by Southern / SE equivalents – but some Northern grammar is spreading South (“was sat” etc.); ✓ Some researchers suggest as so many dialects have similar grammatical features (e.g double negatives, “was/were” regular preterite, “them” as determiner), it’s more accurate to talk about NSE sociolect with regard to these grammatical features; ✓ Dialects will not completely disappear, nor will British English become more like American English; ✓ English as language is bound up with issues of identity (AAVE’s spread & appropriation by non-African Americans is current example, while Polari is example from the past) – difference in group identity can lead to different sociolects References: • Andersson, L.G and Trudgill, P (1990) Bad Language Oxford: Blackwell • Baker, P (2008) Sexed texts Language, Gender, and Sexuality London: Equinox • Britain, D (Ed) (2007) Language in the British Isles Cambridge: CUP • Crystal, D (2010) “An English Family of Languages?” In Griffiths, P., Merrison, A.J., and Bloomer, A., (Eds.) Language in Use A Reader London: Routledge pp 200-210 • Cutler, C.A (1999) “Yorkville Crossing: White teens, hip hop and African American English” In Journal of Sociolinguistics (4), pp 428-442 • Cutler, C.A (2010) “Hip Hop, White Immigrant Youth, and African American Vernacular English: Accommodation as Identity Choice” In Journal of English Linguistics, 38 (3), pp.248-269 doi: 10.1177/0075424210374551 • Faderman, L (1985) Surpassing the Love of Men: Romantic Friendship and Love between Women from the Renaissance to the Present London: The Women’s Press • Hughes, A., Trudgill, P., and Watt, D (2010) “Regional Accent Variation” In Griffiths, P., Merrison, A.J., and Bloomer, A., (Eds.) Language in Use A Reader London: Routledge pp 115-127 • Kerswill, P (2011) “Mobility, Meritocracy and Dialect Levelling: The Fading [and Phasing] Out of Received Pronunciation” In Mooney, A et al (Eds.) The Language, Society & Power Reader London: Routledge pp 253 – 265 • Labov, W (1972) “Academic Ignorance and Black Intelligence” In The Atlantic Monthly June issue Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/95sep/ets/labo.htm (Accessed June 2017) • Lynch, J (2009) The Lexicographer’s Dilemma: The Evolution of ‘Proper’ English, from Shakespeare to South Park New York: Walker Publishing Co Inc • McBee Orzulak, M.J (2015) “Disinviting Deficit Ideologies: Beyond ‘That’s Standard’, ‘That’s Racist’, and ‘That’s Your Mother Tongue’” In Research in the Teaching of English 50 (2), pp 176 -198 • Milroy, J (2001) “Language ideologies and the consequences of standardisation” In Journal of Sociolinguistics, 5(4), pp 530-555 References – continued: • Milroy, J (2001) “Language ideologies and the consequences of standardisation” In Journal of Sociolinguistics, 5(4), pp 530-555 • Milroy, J and Milroy, L (1993) Real English: The Grammar of English Dialects in the British Isles London; Longman • Milroy ,J and Milroy, L (1999) Authority in Language: Investigating Standard English 3rd Edition London: Routledge • Rickford, J R (1999) African American Vernacular English Malden, MA & Oxford UK: Blackwell • Sergeant, P (2007) “Language ideology, language theory, and the regulation of linguistic behaviour” In Language Sciences 31, pp 345-359 doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2007.12.002 • Stubbs, M (1986) “What is standard English?” In Educational Linguistics Oxford: Blackwell pp 83-97 • The Matter of the North (2016) BBC Radio website [online] Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/1RpWFqs6CR94G8DqKNVKGrQ/a-guide-to-northern-english-accents (accessed 31 May 2017) • "tire, v.1" OED Online March 2017 Oxford University Press http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/202441?rskey=nC2Vum&result=8 (accessed June 02, 2017) • "tired, adj.1" OED Online March 2017 Oxford University Press http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/202447 (accessed June 02, 2017) • Trudgill, P (1994) Dialects London: Routledge • University of Manchester (2017) Our Dialects: Mapping variation in English in the UK [online] Available at: http://projects.alc.manchester.ac.uk/ukdialectmaps/ (Accessed June 2017) • Upton, C and Widdowson, J.D.A (2006) An Atlas of English Dialects 2nd Edition London: Routledge ... variety of English: the case of Polari Some final thoughts on standard English & varieties in English Activity 1: What is standard English? • Can you come up with a definition of standard English. .. are different standard varieties of English in the world, such as North American English, Australian English and Indian English Although these standard varieties differ in terms of their pronunciation,... 2: Standard or non -standard English? Which examples you consider non -standard English? Why? All examples are British English A closer look at some of these examples: • The use of “stood” and